Rock Oyster Feasibilty Study-2

0
KIMBERLEY MARINE RESEARCH STATION
Edible Rock Oyster
Feasibility Study
Assessing the viability of Saccostrea echinata & Saccostrea cucullata for commercial
cultivation at Cygnet Bay Pearl Farm.
MADISON MUELLER & HAYLEY WOODLAND
October-December 2015

1Edible Rock Oyster Feasibility Study
Contents
1.0 VISION STATEMENT....................................................................................................................................... 4
2.0 SITE DESCRIPTION.......................................................................................................................................... 4
3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS .................................................................................................................... 5
4.0 BIOLOGY OF OYSTER SPECIES........................................................................................................................ 6
4.1 Physiology morphology ............................................................................................................................. 6
4.2 Habitat....................................................................................................................................................... 6
4.3 Diet ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
4.4 Growth....................................................................................................................................................... 7
4.5 Reproduction & Life History ...................................................................................................................... 7
4.6 Saccostrea cucullata ................................................................................................................................ 10
4.7 Saccostrea echinata................................................................................................................................. 13
5.0 DISEASE........................................................................................................................................................ 14
5.1 Disease impacting oysters in the Kimberley…………………………………………………………………………………………14
5.2 Disease impacting the Sydney Rock Oyster Industry .............................................................................. 16
6.0 CULTIVATION METHODS ............................................................................................................................. 17
6.1 Seed Supply ............................................................................................................................................. 17
6.2 Hatchery Production of SROs .................................................................................................................. 17
6.2.1 Broodstock……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..…………...17
6.2.2 Before Spawning............................................................................................................................... 18
6.2.3 Spawning .......................................................................................................................................... 18
6.2.4. Larvae .............................................................................................................................................. 19
6.2.5 Settlement........................................................................................................................................ 19
6.3 Grow-out Systems ................................................................................................................................... 20
6.3.1 Bottom Culture................................................................................................................................. 20
6.3.2 Intertidal Rack Culture...................................................................................................................... 20
6.3.3 Raft Culture....................................................................................................................................... 21
6.3.4 Adjustable Longline Culture ............................................................................................................. 21
6.3.5 Floating Systems............................................................................................................................... 22
6.3.6 Stick Culture...................................................................................................................................... 23
6.3.7 Tray Cultivation................................................................................................................................. 23

6.4 Production Method of Sydney Rock Oyster (Saccostrea commercialis) ................................................. 24
7.0 CURRENT INDUSTRY .................................................................................................................................... 25
7.1 Distribution of edible oyster aquaculture in Australia ............................................................................ 25
7.2 Sydney Rock Oyster Industry- Economic Performance ........................................................................... 25
7.3 Pacific Oyster Industry Economic Performance ...................................................................................... 26
7.4 Market Value of Rock Oysters................................................................................................................. 27
7.5 Supply Chain............................................................................................................................................ 29
8.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................. 31
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................... 33
Figures
Figure 1: Map of Western Australia with position of Cygnet Bay Pearl Farm………………………………………………....4
Figure 2: Aerial view of Cygnet Bay Pearl Farm, yellow boxes indicating areas of rock oyster populations…...5
Figure 3: Diagram demonstrating life cycle of Rock Oyster (FAO, 2015)…………………………………………….….……...9
Figure 4: Percentage distribution of developing, maturing and spawning stages of S. cucullata during the
period of study (April 1983- April 1984 from the rocky shore at Someshwar, near Mangalore (Sukumar and
Joseph 1988)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
Figure 5: Early development stages of S. cucullata (X 600). A- Sperm, B- Unfertilized eggs, D- 1st
Polar Body, E-
2 cell stage, F-4 cell stage, G-Multiple cell stage, H- Early trochophore. (Kalyanasndaram and Ramamorthi,
1987)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
Figure 6: Larval development of S. Cucullata. A-Straight-hinge state (X 120), B-E-Umbo stage (X 120), F-
Pedivelger stage (X 70) (Kalyanasndaram and Ramamorthi, 1987)……………………………………………………………11
Figure 7: Broodstock conditioning system…………………………………………………………………………………………………18
Figure 8: Intertidal rack culture…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………21
Figure 9: Adjustable Longline Culture System……………………………………………………………………………………………22
Figure 10: Left: subtidal floating system show parallel attachment of floats, Right: Intertidal system with float
attached to bottom of basket……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………22
Figure 11: Stick culture structure………………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
Figure 12: Baskets attached to metal frames in traditional intertidal system……………………………………………23
Figure 13: Production cycle of Saccostrea commercialis…………………………………………………………………………..24
Figure 14: Annual production volume of SROs over time (Schrobback and Volkswirtin, 2015)………………..27

Figure 15: SRO and Pacific oyster production in Australia, 1989-2012
(Schrobback and Volkswirtin, 2015)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………27
Figure 16: Evolution of farm gate prices for edible oysters in Australia, 1989-2013
(Schrobback et al. 2014)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..28
Tables
Table 1: Mollusc species recorded from sites visited at Cygnet Bay………………………………………………………………4
Table 2: Life cycle stages………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..8
Table 3: Percentage development of S. cucullata embryos to straight hinge larval stage, at different
combinations of temperature and salinity……………………………………………………………………………………………………10
Table 4: The chronological order of early development of S. cucullata………………………………………………………...12
Table 5: Prevalence of parasites in Saccostrea species within the Kimberley region…………………………………….15
Table 6: Known diseases affecting Rock Oysters and Industry measures adopted………………………………………..16
Table 7: Average reported farm gate price 2013/2014 by species and grade……………………………………………….28
Table 8: Flow sheet describing a supply chain from aquaculture 1 (Smoky Bay, Tasmania) to South Australia,
through to the Sunshine Coast…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…30
Table 9: Recommendations and Conclusions: Pros, Challenges & Further Research Required………………….….32

1.0 VISION STATEMENT
Produce high quality, fresh rock oysters to supply the Kimberley region and Western Australian
market using sustainable and profitable methods. Historically tropical rock oysters have been
culturally significant to local Aboriginal communities for its use in trade and as a food source. This
study will be in joint partnership with the Bardi Jawi community; who have given their permission for
this venture, and aims to provide business opportunities and facilitate ongoing resources to benefit
the communities.
2.0 SITE DESCRIPTION
Cygnet Bay is an operational Pearl Farm situated 210km by
road north of Broome on the tip of the Dampier Peninsular
(see figure 1). As Cygnet Bay is a coastal town, many local
industries are based around: tourism, fishing, aquaculture,
arts and culture.
A biological survey of the coastal waters of Cygnet Bay and
the surrounding Dampier Peninsula region conducted by
Fromont et al. (2014) found that two species of edible rock
oysters occur naturally in the region; Saccostrea echinata
(Milky Oyster) and Saccostrea cucullata (Rock Oyster) (Table
1). They occur in dense populations, inhabiting rocky
substrates of the intertidal zones in the areas surrounding
Cygnet Bay (see figure 2).
Table 1: Mollusc species recorded from sites visited at Cygnet Bay (Fromont et al. 2014) (Y=species found)
Family Species
name
Shenton
Bluff Reef
Shenton
Bluff
Lagoon
Riddell
Point
White
Rocks
Front
Beach/White
Rocks
Ostreidae S. cucullata Y Y - - Y
S. echinata - Y - - Y
Figure 1: Map of Western Australia with
position of Cygnet Bay Pearl Farm.

3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
The coastal environment of the remote Kimberley in north Western Australia is part of the vast
marine biogeographical region of the Indo-West Pacific (Wells, McDonald and Huisman, 2009 and
Huisman et al., 1998). This domain is characterized by warm ocean temperatures ranging between
22°C and 33°C (and localised higher temperatures in coastal waters) (WAFIC, 2015), low salinities
between 34.5 to 35.7ppm (Collins, 2011), high evaporation rates (3m per year), and a macro tidal
environment (Collins, 2011). The tidal range is extreme with spring tides reaching up to 11m,
causing strong tidal currents and turbid coastal waters (WAFIC, 2015).
The Kimberley has a vastly indented shoreline creating a variety of north, south and west-facing
embayment’s and inlets providing a range of habitats; broad tidal mudflats, soft sediments and
fringing mangroves. Cygnet Bay is located within the King Sound region; an ecologically complex
system with the lower part of the sound receiving seasonal discharge from the nearby rivers; Fitzroy,
Meda and May (Wilson et al. 2009). Within King Sound there are relatively wide bands of mangroves
occupying many of its bays (UWA, 2010). It is this particulate matter derived from the Fitzroy
catchment area, along with large amounts of detritus from the surrounding mangals that provide
Cygnet Bay with a high nutrient load that assists in supporting oysters and other marine organisms
(Semeniuk and Brocx, 2011).
The nearshore substrates of the bays are dominated by relatively firm sands and mud which grade
laterally into supratidal flats, whilst the headlands are occupied by rocky outcrops which provide the
substrate in which the natural oyster populations are attached (see Figure 2) (Pearson et al. 1998).
Figure 2: Aerial view of Cygnet Bay Pearl Farm, yellow boxes indicating areas of rock oyster populations

4.0 BIOLOGY OF OYSTER SPECIES
4.1 Physiology morphology
Oysters belong to the Mollusc family Ostreidae and are bivalve (two shells) animals. The two valves
are irregular in shape, one having a more flat side (right valve) with the other protruding out (left
valve). The oyster attaches to substrate such as rocks using the left valve and modifies its growth.
4.2 Habitat
Oysters inhabit the area that encompasses the intertidal zone extending to three meters below the
low water mark. The intertidal zone is a highly dynamic environment as it is subject to periods of
dessication and inundation due to tidal movement. In order to endure these harsh conditions
oysters have the ability to tolerate a range of salinities and temperatures due to their hard outer
shells.
4.3 Diet
Their diet consists of microscopic plankton, bacteria and organic matter from the surrounding water
which they filter feed as the water passes over their gills. This is controlled by the prevailing currents
and tidal conditions which carries these essential nutrients and removes waste products, once
expelled from the oyster.
Food selection is based on particle size and nutritional value. Most bivalve larvae prefer microalgal
species of golden-brown genera that are less than 10um in size (Daintith and O’Meley, 1993). By
feeding larvae alage with higher amounts of essential fatty acids, their growth and survival rates are
increased (Daintith and O’Meley, 1993).

4.4 Growth
The growth rates of all oysters are significantly affected by numerous physico-chemical variables,
including; salinity, nutrient availability and phytoplankton density (Bhattacharyya et al 2011). There
is a strong correlation between salinity and growth in oysters, with growth rates generally increasing
with increasing salinities. This has been attributed to higher saline waters supporting a more diverse
and abundant phytoplankton community, providing a rich food source for the oyster. Both estuarine
and mangrove vegetation provide aquatic systems with substantial nutrients, through leaf litter and
detritus, which maintains a maximum phytoplankton density (Bhattacharyya et al 2011). The
surrounding areas around Cygnet Bay have considerably rich mangrove vegetation which could
prove highly beneficial for increasing the growth rates of local oyster populations.
However, highly turbid environments, rich in silt and suspended particulate matter have been found
to inhibit growth of oysters. Therefore, the selection of sites for oyster culture within Cygnet Bay
requires significant attention.
4.5 Reproduction & Life History
As with most oyster species, the rock oysters are protandric hermaphrodites; meaning they change
sex during their lifetime, firstly spawning as male, then changing to female once matured. Rock
oysters are mass intensive spawners, producing millions of eggs and sperm which they release into
the water column, denoting them as broadcast spawners (MDCA, 2015).
Traditionally spawning is in summer; however certain environmental cues can trigger spawning,
therefore can occur at any time of the year. The environmental conditions that are inducive for
spawning are increased sea water temperature and optimal tides and currents for large distribution
of gametes. Once spawning is complete, free-swimming larvae live in the water column were they
develop transparent shells and a retractable foot. The foot is used to settle onto hard substrates for
the next stage of their life cycle (Table 2). Once firmly attached to a substrate, the foot is then
reabsorbed into the body; the oyster is now in the juvenile/spat stage (Figure 3) (MDCA, 2015).
Maturity is reached around three years of age depending on the environmental conditions, where
the shell hardens and the colour becomes more apparent.

Table 2: Life cycle stages
Life Cycle Stages
Embryo Once the oyster egg is fertilised and cells begin to divide.
Trocophore Cilia develop allowing the oyster to move freely through the water column.
D-hinge
veliger
Two-shells (bi-valves) and the velum (organ for eating and movement) develop.
Veliger A hinge between the two shells (umbo) develops. During this stage the oyster still uses
the velum to swim.
Pediveliger After roughly two and a half weeks as free swimming larvae, the oyster develops a
foot or 'ped'. The foot is used to prepare itself for permanent attachment to a hard
substrate.
Spat Once the pediveliger is attached to chosen substrate it becomes spat. Here it can now
filter food from the water column and begin growth.
Juvenile Taking 1-2 months to reach juvenile stage, oyster continues to grow.
Adult Ability to reproduce and start lifecycle from beginning once again.

Figure 3: Diagram demonstrating life cycle of Rock Oyster (FAO, 2015)

4.6 Saccostrea cucullata
The spawning period of S. cucullata occurs from June to mid-October. This species can tolerate a
wide range of temperatures and salinities, ranging from 16°C to 30°C and 10–35 ppt. respectively
(CIESM, 2003, and Kalyanasundaram and Ramamoorthi 1986). Gametogenesis is associated with
higher salinity values (33.37-34.65‰) and full maturation is attained when the salinity is maximum
(35‰) (CIESM, 2003).
A study by Kalyanasundaram and Ramamoorthi (1986) suggest that both temperature and salinity
exerted significant influence on early development of S. cucullata. The results indicated that the
optimal temperature range occurs between 25 to 30 °C and salinities between 25 to 35 ‰ (see
Table 3). It is suggested that for most efficient culturing of this species that embryos are reared in
these optimal conditions.
Table 3: Percentage development of S. cucullata embryos to straight hinge larval stage, at different
combinations of temperature and salinity (Kalyanasundaram and Ramamoorthi, 1987).
Salinity ‰
Temperature °C
20 25 30 35
10 0 0 0 0
15 0 63.75 55.55 0
20 0 75.24 73.15 0
25 0 97.22 90.24 0
30 0 100.00 61.90 0
35 0 97.22 0 0
Sukumar and Joseph (1988) conducted a study to investigate the annual reproductive cycle
of S. cucullata in Mangalore, India. The key findings can be summarised as follows:
 The gametogenic activity commences during January – February
 Gonad development and maturation occurred during March – May
 Spawning is continuous from June to December with two peaks during late June to
early September and November to December (see Figure 4).
 The change of sex in this oyster is from a functional female to a functional male.
 Exogenous and endogenous factors affect S. cucullata’s spawning cycle, if there is
minimal seasonal change spawning can occur throughout the year

Figure 5: Early development stages of S.
cucullata (X 600). A- Sperm, B- Unfertilized
eggs, D- 1st
Polar Body, E-2 cell stage, F-4 cell
stage, G-Multiple cell stage, H- Early
trochophore. (Kalyanasndaram and
Ramamorthi, 1987).
Figure 6: Larval development of S. Cucullata. A-
Straight-hinge state (X 120), B-E-Umbo stage (X
120), F-Pedivelger stage (X 70) (Kalyanasndaram
and Ramamorthi, 1987).
Figure 4: Percentage distribution of developing, maturing and spawning stages of S. cucullata during the
period of study (April 1983- April 1984 from the rocky shore at Someshwar, near Mangalore (Sukumar
and Joseph 1988).

Table 4: The chronological order of early development of S. cucullata (FAO, 2015 and Kalyanasndaram and
Ramamorthi, 1987).
Course of Development Time after Fertilisation Measurements
Formation of fertilization
membrane
5 minutes -
Release of 1st
polar body 40 minutes -
Release of 2nd
polar body 45minutes -
1st
cleavage 1 hour 40 minutes -
2nd
cleavage 1 hour and 50 minutes -
Gastrula 5 hours -
Trochophore 10 to 12 hours -
Straight-hinge stage 20 to 25 hours Height increases from 60-
80um, length is 10-15um
less than height
Umbo stage 7 – 11 days Height maximum 130um,
length maximum 220um
Pediveliger stage 26 days Height reaches 340um,
length reaches 300um
Spat 28 days -

4.7 Saccostrea echinata
Little has been researched on this species; however two growth trials were conducted by Southgate
and Lee (1998) on the larva of the tropical black-lip oyster. The larvae were reared to settlement,
then to early spat growth to 2 weeks post-settlement. The broodstock were induced via water
temperature increase to 33°C, followed by reducing salinity and water temperature rapidly.
The same study also found that when comparing the development of embryos and larvae to other
oyster species; S. echinata has the fastest development to the trochophore and veliger stages so far
recorded for Ostreidae larvae. Trochophore larvae develop 5.5 hours after fertilisation while D-stage
veligers first appear 12.5 hours after fertilisation. However the study also revealed that although S.
echinata seed can successfully be reared in the hatchery, poor larval survival may limit the potential
of this species to support a hatchery-based aquaculture industry.
The study found:
 The maximum number of eggs spawned per individual was 18 X 106.
 Mean egg diameter was 52.9±3.2 μm (+s.d. n=30) and 55.2±2.8 μm (n=50) in the first and
second spawning, respectively.
 Larvae reared at 28-31.2°C and fed an algal diet consisting of Isochrysis sp. (clone T-ISO),
Pavlova salina and Chaetoceros muelleri reached settlement 20 days after-fertilisation.
 Larvae reared at 27-30°C and fed only T-ISO and P. salina developed more slowly and did
not reach settlement until 25 days after fertilisation.
 Survival from D-stage to competent pediveliger stage was low and ranged from 4.2-5.2%.
 %. At 2 weeks post-settlement, spat had a mean shell length of 2.3±0.4 mm and a mean dry
weight of 1.7±0.2 mg.
 Trochophore larvae develop 5.5 hours after fertilisation while D-stage veligers first appear
12.5 hours after fertilisation.

5.0 DISEASE
5.1 Disease impacting oysters in the Kimberley
A study by Hine and Thorne (2000) on disease occurrence on Northern Western Australian tropical
oyster species showed favourable results. The tropical bivalves studied often had low prevalence and
intensities of infection, in comparison to temperate bivalves. It is suggested that this is due to the
harshness of the environment. The regions large tidal movements and gently sloping coastline
means that the intertidal zone inhabited by oysters regularly becomes exposed to the intense
tropical sun. Sea temperatures are high, especially in coastal areas, and at very high tides the sea
over-runs coastal salt pans, resulting in a hypersaline surface layer of warm (~40°C) water when the
tide drops (Hine and Thorne, 2000). These environmental parameters may not only limit the diversity
of the coastal fauna, but also the parasites and diseases that are associated with them. Furthermore,
the results can also be attributed to the pristine nature of the region; with very little urban
development, the associated organic run-off is negligible; allowing for increased resilience of
molluscs against disease (Hine and Thorne, 2000).
The prevalence of parasites found in both S. cucullata and S. echinata is summarized in Table 5
below. The results indicate that both species showed no signs of parasitic infection within the King
Sound region. However, it is apparent that some parasites do infect both Saccostrea species in the
broader Dampier Peninsula region. These results are supported by the study conducted by Bearham
et al. (2009), which describes an infection of Haplosporidian in S. cucullata in the North-West gas
shelf of Western Australia. It was firstly proposed by Hine and Thorne (2002) that this parasitic
infestation was associated with extensive mortalities (up to 80%) of rock oysters in the region.
Subsequent research conducted by Bearham et al. (2009) on this same event suggest it is unlikely
the mortalities correlated to the parasite, and were generally found only at low levels of infection. It
is apparent that further research is required on the health effects of Haplosporidians and other
parasites on both tropical rock oyster species, and an investigation into the likelihood of the parasite
spreading into King Sound is required.

Table 5: Prevelance of parasites in Saccostrea species within the Kimberley region (Hine and Thorne, 2000)
Species
Oyster
Creek
Exmouth
Islands
Dampier
Archipelago
King Sound Darwin-
Bynoe
All areas
Saccostrea cucullata N=22 769 430 33 0 1254
IVI 0 1 0 0 - 0.1
RLO’s 0 1 0 0 - 0.1
Haplosporidium sp. 0 121 4 0 - 10.0
Marteilia sp. 0 1 0 0 - 0.1
Perkinsus sp. 0 0 1 0 - 0.1
Ancistrocomid ciliates 0 3 4 0 - 0.6
Nematopsis sp. 0 1 0 0 - 0.1
Tylocephalum sp. 0 0 9 0 - 0.7
Nematode larvae 0 4 0 0 - 0.3
Saccostrea echinata N=0 0 0 12 94 106
Marteihoides sp. - - - 0 9 8.5
Ancistrocomid ciliates - - - 0 5 4.7
Tylocephalum sp. - - - 0 13 12.3
Sporocysts - - - 0 2 1.9

5.2 Disease impacting the Sydney Rock Oyster Industry
There is a long list of diseases of concern, both exotic and endemic, for the bivalve mollusc industry.
Since the 1970’s the industry has been challenged continuously with diseases that have significantly
decreased the oyster production capacity. These are outlined in Table 6 below.
Table 6. Known diseases affecting Rock Oysters and industry measures adopted (FAO, 2015)
DISEASE AGENT TYPE SYNDROME MEASURES
Mudworm Polydora
websteri
Spionid
polychaete
Mudworm blisters on the
inside of the shell, which
may become black and foul
smelling; oysters become
unsaleable and susceptible
to other stresses, such as
high temperatures and low
salinities and may suffer
high mortality
Intertidal culture; taking
oysters out of water in the
shade for 7-10 days
Winter
mortality
Bonamia
roughleyi
Protistan
parasite
Yellow to brown spots on
palps, gills, mantle and
surface of gonad and
ulceration of palps and
adductor muscle; survivors
appear unaffected by the
disease
Intertidal culture; raising
growing height by 150 -
300 mm over autumn and
winter; moving oysters to
growing areas further
upstream in estuaries and
rivers in early autumn,
before oysters get infested
QX
disease
Marteilia
sydneyi
Haplosporidian
parasite
Starved and emaciated
oysters, with pale brown
coloured digestive tract;
survivors remain stunted
and weak for a long time
Avoid having oysters in
water in autumn when
oysters get infested
Flatworm Imogine
mcgrathi
Stylochid
flatworm
Clean empty shells and
flatworm hiding from light
in dark places
Restrict use of fine plastic
mesh to small spat; take
small spat out to dry in
the shade for a few days

6.0 CULTIVATION METHODS
6.1 Seed Supply
Prior to 2003, the Sydney rock oyster industry (SRO) in both NSW and Queensland have been reliant
on natural spatfall, which has proved reliable and abundant (FAO, 2015). Using this natural method
of spat collection, it takes the oysters an average of 3½ years to reach the desirable plate size (50g
whole weight). However, new practices in breeding programmes developed by the Department of
Primary Industries found that mass selection techniques reduced time for oysters to reach market
size by 11 months. An additional technique that is becoming more readily adopted by the industry is
that of triploidy. Triploid oysters are modified to have 3 sets of chromosomes as compared with the
‘normal’ 2 sets (DPI, 2015). This means that the oyster becomes sterile, and does not use its energy
for reproduction; rather it goes towards increased growth of the meat. This method of artificial
rearing of oyster spat reduces time to market by a further 6 months and reduces kill from winter
mortality by half (FAO, 2015). Further breeding programmes have been adopted to produce oysters
with dual resistance to QX disease and winter mortality. These selective breeding and artificial
rearing techniques provide security against loss of wild stocks to disease and predictability of
natural spawning events, however associated costs are largely increased due to requirement of
hatchery infrastructures.
Unlike the SRO industry, the Tasmanian industry found that natural spat fall recruitment proved
unreliable and instead were forced to adopt hatchery derived spat supply techniques (Maguire and
Nell, 2005). This entails rearing in indoor larval tanks, then transferring into land based upwellers
before being moved into intertidal nursery trays.
6.2 Hatchery Production of SROs
6.2.1 Broodstock
The initial phase of hatchery production is selecting and collecting the highest quality mature
broodstock. This is done by assessing oysters for good reproductive condition; gonads ripe and full
of gametes. It is common quarantine practice that these broodstock are transferred to a
conditioning system in the hatchery for approximately 2-8 weeks before spawning induction (see
Figure 7)(O’Connor et al. 2008).

These conditioning tanks operate by the use of a closed recirculating system which drives
the circulation of the water inward; allowing accumulated faeces and other particulate
matter to be effortlessly siphoned daily from the centre of the tank (see Figure 8).
6.2.2 Before Spawning
Cleaning and sterilization of the hatchery occurs 1-2 weeks before designated spawning
date. In this period inoculation of algae cultures to be used for larval feed should also
commence. However, the time designated for this step will fluctuate between algal species
due to growth rate variances (O’Connor et al. 2008)
The day before spawning; tanks are filled with fresh seawater, aerated and heated to a
temperature of 26⁰C. Broodstock are removed from the conditioning system, cleaned using
antiseptic solution, chipped and left to dry overnight.
6.2.3 Spawning
Broodstock are placed on the spawning table with the flat valve positioned upright and
thermal spawning induction techniques are applied. This involves steadily increasing the
temperature by 4-5⁰C over a 30 minute time period. This temperature is maintained for 15
Figure 7: Broodstock conditioning system

minutes before adding freshwater to reduce the salinity from 35‰ to 22‰. This process is
repeated until spawning occurs (O’Connor et al. 2008). Once spawning is achieved, the eggs
from selected females are gathered and washed through a screen, whilst the sperm is
placed in a refrigerator and chilled to 4⁰C to stop deterioration.
6.2.4. Larvae
The larvae are reared in 20,000L fiberglass tanks filled with filtered seawater. The seawater in
the tanks are exchanged every second day. When this occurs larvae are collected in varying
size mesh screens (screen sizes should be chosen in accordance with size of larval
development stage) and graded; the largest larvae are retained as they have developed
rapidly, displaying signs of health (O’Connor et al. 2008)
The larvae are supplied with algae feed, cultured in the labs; for SROs this consists of the
species; T. isochrysis, P. lutheri, C. calcitrans and C. muelleri. This diet may vary between
oyster species and needs to be researched appropriately (O’Connor et al. 2008)
The above cycle regarding water changes, daily larval screening and sampling, and feeding
is continued throughout the larval cycle until settlement occurs.
6.2.5 Settlement
Two distinct methods have been employed in the SRO industry to settle the larvae.
Originally larvae were placed on screens with ground scallop shell and allowed to settle and
metamorphose. More recently this method has been abandoned in favour of epinephrine
(adrenaline hormone) treatment techniques. This new method involves the treatment of
larvae with epinephrine in a downweller settlement system. This system allows spat to grow
to a size of approximately 1000um before they can be transported to field nurseries
(O’Connor et al. 2008)

6.3 Grow-out Systems
There is a wide range of grow-out methods employed in the rock oyster aquaculture industry to
produce marketable oysters. Each individual industry has a suite of requirements and conditions that
dictate which culture system is most applicable for most efficient oyster growth. These factors
include; specific oyster specie biology, environmental conditions, material costs and varying labour
intensity (FAO, 2015). The most common methods currently in use are; bottom culture, stick culture,
racks, rafts, trays, longlines, baskets and tumblers.
6.3.1 Bottom Culture
Bottom culture methods are limited to areas with relatively low turbidity and substantially firm
sediments to support the variable forms of cultch (the grit of which an oyster bed is formed). Cultch
can be formed from rocks, concrete pipe, cement slabs or in some cases even old oyster shell. The
cultch is placed on the benthos in the upper intertidal zone to provide substrate for spat
recruitment. After the spatting season, the cultch is then transported to the deeper intertidal zone.
Periodic replanting of the spat covered cultch is required to avoid smothering by silt. The spat
remain in this position for the entity of the grow-out period, until market size is reached.
6.3.2 Intertidal Rack Culture
This method is unique to the systems described above; in that it positions the cultch off the bottom
and instead suspends it in the lower 35-40cm of the intertidal zone. The recognised advantages of
this system are reduction in fouling, decreased predation, low costs relative to raft culture and
associated increased production. It is constructed by suspending the tips of mangrove branches
from horizontal supports termed ‘stockades’. The stockades are deployed below low water and the
depth of the collected can be adjusted seasonally so they remain in the lower 35-40cm of the
intertidal zone (Figure 8). The collectors are aligned 35-40cm apart and last approximately 9 months.
One collector can produce 5.2kg or about 374 marketable oysters.

Figure 8: Intertidal rack culture
6.3.3 Raft Culture
These techniques were developed and employed by the Japanese rock oyster industry; where they
proved highly successful for improving growth and productivity of the oysters. In the tropics
however, high costs and heavy fouling have hindered the development of raft culture beyond a few
experimental installations. Due to the tropical climate of the Cygnet Bay region, it is unlikely that raft
culture techniques would prove an effective culture option.
6.3.4 Adjustable Longline Culture
This method comprises of a line tensioned between two anchoring posts with intermediate posts to
maintain its suspended position in the water column (DAF, 2015). Baskets or bags are fastened to
the line with stainless steel or plastic clips (see Figure 9) (SEAPA, 2015). The major advantage of this
system is the ability to adjust the position of the lines in the intertidal water column; achieved
through adjusting the heights of the intermediate posts. Lowering the line promotes increased
growth of oysters, whilst lifting the line places the oysters in a high wave action zone creating a
‘tumbling’ effect; which cleans and stunts shell growth; a process which improves meat quality
(SEAPA, 2015). This system is most suited to areas with soft sediments and a tidal range of 0.5-1.5m.

Figure 9: Adjustable Longline Culture System
6.3.5 Floating Systems
There are a large range of floating systems available for use in the oyster farming industry. The
variations of the system generally involve different positioning of the attached floats, to make them
suitable for either subtidal or intertidal environments. The subtidal system consists of two floats
attached parallel to either side of a basket (see Figure 10). This floating method allows the baskets
to be constantly inundated by water whilst maintaining a position on top of the water column. The
advantage of this is that it allows the oysters to feed uninterrupted (DAF, 2015). However, as they
are not pre-stressed to being out of the water, their shells tend to be thinner and weaker and care
must be taken post-harvest to prevent damage.
The intertidal version attaches the floats underneath the basket rather than the sides (see Figure 10).
This positioning of the floats allows for 180⁰ rotation of the basket with the incoming and outgoing
tides; promoting rumbling of the oysters and producing consistently well shaped oysters. This
system generally requires calm waters that experience very little wave action and marginal tides.
A third variation in the floating system is the ‘float and flip system’, it is similar to the subtidal
system where baskets float from a line supported by buoys, however one basket will be submerged
at any one time, while another is flipped and exposed out of the water. This process increases
exposure time; which increases the strength of the oyster’s shells by promoting ‘hardening’. The
flipping process also causes the oyster to work a little harder as it grows; resulting in firmer meat
and enhancing the texture of the oyster.
Figure 10: Left: subtidal floating system show parallel attachment of floats, Right: Intertidal system with float
attached to bottom of basket

6.3.6 Stick Culture
Sticks are used for spat collection and then arranged 15-20cm apart and fixed onto racks for further
development and growth (Figure 11) (DAF, 2015). This method requires the removal and thinning of
excessive spat to ensure oysters do not grow in clumps, and growth restriction does not occur. To
avoid over spatting the sticks should be placed in the water column above or below optimum levels
for spat recruitment. Alternatively, moving the oysters from the sticks to a second culture method
can prove effective to ensure oysters reach a larger more regular size (DAF, 2015).
6.3.7 Tray Cultivation
Oyster Trays are typically constructed from timber, wire or plastic and are approximately 1.8-
2.7meters in length (Figure 12) (DPI, 2015). The advantage of tray cultivation over stick cultivation is
that they are more portable, easier to manage and allow precise stocking densities to encourage
oysters to grow in a more uniform and marketable shape (DPI, 2015). However, over spatting is still
a concern, and like the stick method, can be avoided by placing the trays in the water column above
or below the optimum settlement zone.
Figure 12: Baskets attached to metal frames in traditional intertidal system
Figure 11: Stick culture structure

6.4 Production Method of Sydney Rock Oyster (Saccostrea commercialis)
As described above, each cultivation method has both advantages and disadvantages depending on
environmental condition and life history stage of the oysters. The use of a combination of methods
is an effective tool in overcoming individual method constraints. The Sydney rock oyster industry
shows an example of the use of such combined production methods (Figure 13). Spat initially settles
onto tarred hardwood sticks, at 0.5-3 years of age the oysters are chipped off and placed into timber
frame trays (1.8x0.9m), which are then placed on timber racks. Alternatively, basket and tumblers,
rafts or floating culture could be used for ongrowing.
Figure 13: Production cycle of Saccostrea commercialis

7.0 CURRENT INDUSTRY
7.1 Distribution of edible oyster aquaculture in Australia
Edible rock oyster farming is Australia’s oldest aquaculture industry; dating back to the late 1800’s
(DPI, 2001). Initially farming involved the exploitation of dredge beds. However, such beds soon
became overexploited and natural stocks were depleted by the 1860’s (DPI, 2001). With the natural
populations of rock oysters unable to recover, the implementation of early cultivation practices
allowed the industry to continue and expand (DPI, 2001).
Today the major industries for edible oysters in Australia are mainly based on the production of
native Sydney rock oysters (Saccostrea glomerata) and the introduced Pacific oysters (Crassostrea
gigas) (Maguir and Nell). On a smaller production scale; native flat oysters (Ostrea angasi) and native
tropical oyster species, chiefly black lip oysters (Striostrea mytiloides) and milky oysters (Saccostrea
cucullata) has also occurred.
The Sydney rock oyster (SRO) is a naturally occurring species that is distributed in estuaries along
the New South Wales and South-East Queensland coasts; these are now the areas of production.
The Pacific oyster aquaculture was introduced to Tasmania in the 1950’s and to South Australia in
the 1960’s and it is now also farmed in Port Stephens, NSW. There are currently only small-scale
production of flat oysters, Western rock oysters and tropical oysters farmed in NSW, Albany WA and
Queensland respectively.
7.2 Sydney Rock Oyster Industry- Economic Performance
Since the implementation of early cultivation practices, the SRO industry experienced
unprecedented growth and expansion up until the late 1970’s, where it reached a peak in
production volume (shown in Figure 14). Until the early 1990’s SRO farming was the leading
aquaculture industry in Australia (Schrobback et al. 2014). Since then, production rates have
significantly declined from approximately 9,973 metric tons annually in the mid-1970’s to about
4,500 metric tons in 2012 (Schrobback et al. 2014). Market research suggests that the decrease in
production volume is unlikely to be a primary result of economic and market dynamics; instead it
has largely been attributed to environmental factors (Schrobback et al. 2014). Since the late 1970s
the industry has been challenged continuously with the occurrence of high mortality diseases such

as the devastating QX disease and winter mortality. Additional impacting environmental issues
occurring in the past decade include; decline in estuary water quality due to extended catchment
and coastal development, increased run-off from acid sulphate soils, prolonged freshwater events
from intense rain periods and the introduced threat of the Pacific oyster. All of these factors have
contributed significantly to the reduction in oyster production capacity (O'Connor & Dove, 2009).
The invasion and spread of Pacific oysters into SRO production areas, not only poses an
environmental threat through competing for space and resources, but also creates additional
economic pressure through increased competition in the seafood and oyster markets.
7.3 Pacific Oyster Industry Economic Performance
The deliberate introduction of Pacific oysters to Australia in the 1950s was an attempt to establish a
new aquaculture industry in the much cooler, temperate waters of Tasmania and South Australia;
where the cultivation of SROs had previously failed. Since then, the industry has significantly
expanded its distribution to new and more productive sites, supplementing an increase in
Figure 14: Annual production volume of SROs over time (Schrobback and Volkswirtin, 2015).
Notes: Data for 1940, 1943 and 1944 not available for NSW production. Time series data for the period 1940-
1989 was not available for Queensland.

production volumes (Schrobback et al. 2014). Since 2004, the supply of Pacific oysters exceeds the
market supply of SROs and now accounts for approximately 72% of total edible oyster production
volume (Figure 15).
7.4 Market Value of Rock Oysters
Australia’s edible rock oyster industry contributes approximately 100million Australian Dollars to the
national row domestic product annually and is the fourth largest aquaculture (Schrobback and
Volkswirtin, 2015). The total production of edible oysters has increased from about 8,100 metric tons
in 1988-89 to 13,911 metric tons in 2011, of which 98% is consumed in the domestic market.
Economic analysis of the SRO and Pacific rock oyster industries confirmed that both aquaculture
species are part of the same market and therefore production rates of one will ultimately affect the
market value of the other. The evolution of farm gate prices (net value of the oysters on leaving the
farm, after marketing costs have been subtracted) in the Australian edible oyster industry shows that
SROs have attracted a higher price/kg over time (Figure 16). The increased prices of SROs is
reflective of a reduced supply (due to the environmental and economic factors described in section
7.2) in relation to a relatively stable demand over the same period of time.
Figure 15: SRO and Pacific oyster production in Australia, 1989-2012 (Schrobback and
Volkswirtin, 2015).

The marketability attributes of rock oysters include oyster health and quality, freshness, shell size,
shape and cleanliness, and meat weight. It is the shell size and weight of the oyster that dictates its
‘grade’. The most commonly produced grades are bottle (whole weight: 35 gram, shell length: 66
mm), bistro (whole weight: 45 gram, shell length: 73 mm) and plate (whole weight: 77 gram, shell
length: 73 mm) (DPI, 2005). The farm gate price in 2013/2014 by species and grade is shown in Table
7.
Table 7: Average reported farm gate price 2013/2014 by species and grade (DPI, 2013/2014)
Grade
Sydney Rock
Oyster
Average price per
dozen ($)
Pacific Oyster
Average price per
dozen ($)
Triploid Pacific
Oyster
Average price per
dozen ($)
Native Oyster
Average price per
dozen ($)
Plate 9.10 8.23 11.13 13.75
Bistro 6.97 6.48 8.83 15.67
Bottle 5.01 5.30 7.24 -
The proportion of SROs sold as the largest size (plate size) has reduced in the past decade in favour
of the smaller bistro and bottle grade oysters. This change in product is not solely driven by
consumer demand. It is the result of strategic farming practices as an approach to sell the oysters
Figure 16: Evolution of farm gate prices for edible oysters in Australia (1989-2013) (Schrobback et
al. 2014).

before risking loss of stock to winter mortality (O’Conner and Dove, 2009). The short supply of plate
size oysters from the SRO industry could provide Cygnet Bay with access into the market. With no
risk of QX or winter mortality diseases, which occur in temperate waters; Cygnet Bay could have the
ability to grow their oysters to plate size grade and supply the gap in the market.
7.5 Supply Chain
The process of transferring fresh oysters from farms to the Australian consumers is complex; with
between two and seven intermediaries (CDI Pinnacle Management). The multifaceted nature of the
supply chain is reflective of the large range of end users, comprising of; fish markets, specialised
oyster wholesalers, seafood wholesalers, on-farm oyster bars, restaurants, food service companies,
supermarkets and a small supply to overseas markets (Schrobback and Volkswirtin, 2015). A study
completed by CDI Pinnacle Management (2009) found that food service outlets sold 56% of the
produced rock oysters in Australia, fishmongers 32%, chain retailers 7%, exported 3% and direct to
consumers from growers 2%. Due to the preference of oysters to be consumed raw, there is a strong
need for ambient temperature control to maintain high quality and safe to consume stock. The
Australian Shellfish Quality Assurance Manual indicated that shell stock must be optimally stored at
8-10°C or less within 24 hours of harvest and depuration (Jackson, 2009). Also stated in the shellfish
quality assurance manual is that SROs can be stored at no warmer than 25°C for the first 72 hours
post-harvest and no warmer than 15°C thereafter. All producers of Pacific Oysters in NSW must
comply with the ASQAP regulation of 10°C or less within 24 hours of harvest. It is apparent that
there are different cool chain requirements for individual oyster species; therefore there is a
necessity for further research into the quality assurance requirements of S. echinata and S. cucullata.
The table below provides a detailed profile of an oyster shipment from Smoky Bay, South Australia
to the Sunshine Coast. The key factor to note is that the total transit time from supplier to end
location is 91 hours (5 days). If Cygnet Bay were to produce and supply oysters, a likely solution for
transport would be through Toll; who could provide a refrigerated truck weekly from Cygnet Bay to
Perth (total of 26hrs direct; 2 days maximum transport time).

Operation Time Day
Time per
Operation (h)
Total Elapsed
Time (h)
Harvest completed 13:00 1 0 0
Transferred for processing 13:00 1 1 1
Graded and prepared for sale 14:00 1 3 4
Stored at ambient 17:00 1 3 7
Transferred to communal
chiller
20:00 1 0.25 7.25
Stored in chiller 20:15 1-2 19.75 27
Removed from chiller and
loaded for transport to a taut
liner
16:00 2 0.75 27.75
Transit (Smoky Bay- Whyalla
via Streaky Bay)
16:45 2 5.75 33.5
Stored at Whyalla depot 22:30 2 1 34.5
Loaded for transport to a
small refrigerated truck
22:30 2 0.25 34.75
Transit (Whyalla-Adelaide) 23:45 2-3 4.25 39
Transferred to depot chiller 04:00 3 0.25 39.25
Stored in chiller 04:15 3 3.75 43
Pallets re-stacked for
transport
0:800 3 1 44
Stored in chiller 09:00 3 5.75 49.75
Loaded for transport to
Pantech
14:45 3 0.25 50
In transit (depot-Brisbane
depot)
15:00 3-4 28.5 78.5
Stored in Pantech 19:30 4-5 5 83.5
Transferred to depot chiller 00:30 5 0.25 83.75
Stored in chiller 00:45 5 2.5 86.25
Loaded for transport to a
refrigerated truck
03:15 5 0.25 86.5
Transit (depot- Sunshine
Coast)
03:30 5 2 88.5
Transferred to chiller 05:30 5 0.25 88.75
Stored in chiller 05:45 5 2.25 91
Logger retrieved 08:00 5 0 91
Table 8: Flow Sheet describing a Supply chain from aquaculture1 (Smoky Bay) to South Australia through to the
Sunshine Coast (Madigan, 2008).

8.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This desktop study indicates there is significant potential for an edible rock oyster industry at Cygnet
Bay Pearl Farm, Dampier Peninsula. The literature that has been reviewed indicates that S. cucullata
shows a higher prosepective potenital for effective rearing and cultivation in a hatchery as it already
is an important commercial edible oyster specie in Indian aquacultures (Sukumar and Joseph, 1988).
Research and trials for the cultivation of S. echinata appear limited or unsuccessful; with the findings
of the study conducted by Southgate and Lee (1988) suggesting that poor larval survival would limit
the potential of this species to support hatchery-based aquaculture. However, this study also
acknowledges the limitations in research available to determine which species would prove most
effective to cultivate in this particular region. A practical recruitment and development study at the
proposed sites is recommended to better assess the viability of each species.
Furthermore, this study reveals a range of environmental conditions that would dictate Cygnet Bay a
suitable site for a rock oyster aquaculture. These conditions include: high nutrient availability for
oyster feed from surrounding mangal bays and seasonal discharge from nearby rivers, firm sediment
substrates for easy installation of infrastructre and accessibility in operational phase, good water
quality due to minimal urban development and the existence of already thriving, dense populations
of rock oysters at the site.
There are also considerable benefits associated with the hatchery and algal lab infrastrucutre that is
already in place and fully operational at Cygnet Bay; this would lead to signifcantly minimising initial
start-up costs.
The table below outlines the pros, the challenges and the areas that require further research to
properly assess the viability of this rock oyster aquaculture venture.

Pros Challenges Requires Research
Environmental Conditions & Site Location
-Already dense populations of both
species found at site.
-Mangrove bays & river deltas provide
nutrients
-High water quality due to remote
location; no urban run-off/agriculture
run-off
-Habitat heterogeneity-varying water
velocities, nutrients, biodiversity, water
quality of different bays.
-firm sediments for infrastructure
installation and easy operation
-Remoteness of region makes
difficult for fresh oyster transport
-Possible turbid waters
-Possible high velocity waters
from large tidal movement;
scouring around infrastructure
-Need trial run to determine most
suitable sites for infrastructure/most
efficient oyster growth and development
- Oceanographic conditions- currents
and tidal velocities
-water quality parameters such as
turbidity & nutrients
Oyster Biology
-S. cucullata proven able to be
cultivated in a hatchery
-Relatively fast life cycles
-Spawning occurs at different time of
year to pearl oysters: can coordinate
use of hatchery
-Diet of Muelleri and pavolova algae
species is same as Pearl oysters,
already successfully cultivate these
-Diets consist of two additional
species of algae different to the
Pearl oyster diet: require the
ability to cultivate new species of
algae
-Little known on S. echinata life history
or ability to cultivate in hatchery
-Require knowledge of most suitable
algae for feed for both species
Disease
-Study found mollusc parasites do not
occur in King Sound
-The high mortality diseases occuring
over east do not occur in the
Kimberley
-1 type of parasite has been
recorded in the Dampier
Peninsula region
-Possibly lives in pearl oysters
also: risk contamination of both
oysters
- Determine the exact distributional
range of the Haplosporidian that can
parasitise S. cucullata
- Identify possible methods and
approaches that can combat this parasite
Cultivation Methods
-Large range of available growout
systems that suit varying
environments.
-Hatchery and algae lab already
constructed & operational; significantly
minimise initial startup costs
-May require additional
infrastructure in hatchery;
conditioning system,upwellers
and downwellers
-Very little research available for
best practice in tidal areas
-Test trial required to determine best
cultch material
-Test trial to determine most suitable site
for cultivation
- Which method is most appropriate for
tropical species/does it differ to
temperate
Current Industry and Market
-Industry inhibited by disease that isn’t
found in the Kimberley
-Water quailty issues in SRO and
Pacific oyster markets- minimal urban
development here
-Market for plate size grade oysters
-SRO and Pacific oyster market
competition
- consumer choice: would they
prefer Kimberley sourced oysters
Table 9: Recommendations and Conclusions: Pros, challenges and further research required

REFERENCES
Bearham, D., Raidal, S.R., Creeper, J., Stephens, F., Jones, B., McCallum, B., and Nicholls, P.K. 2009.
Aquatic Animal Health Subprogram: Development of diagnostic tests to assess the impact of
Haplosporidian infections in pearl oysters, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation
Centre of Excellence in Natural Resource Management, The University of Western Australia. 2010.
Fitzroy River Catchment Management Plan.
Collins, L.B. 2011. Geological Setting, Marine Geomorphology, Sediments and Oceanic Shoals
Growth History of the Kimberley Region, Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 94: 89–
105
Daintith, M., and O’Meley C. 1993. Algal cultures for marine hatcheries, University of Tasmania ;
Turtle Press
Fisheries and Aquaculture Department (FAO), 2015. Cultured Aquatic Species Information
Programme. Saccostrea commercialis.
http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Saccostrea_commercialis/en. [accessed 08/11/2015]
Fromont, J., Bryce, C., and Moore, G. 2014. Western Australian Museum (WAM), Kimberley Marine
Research Station, Cygnet Bay: Notes on the marine fauna.
http://museum.wa.gov.au/research/research-areas/aquatic-zoology/cygnet-bay [accessed
2/11/2015]
Hine. P. M., and Thorne, T. 2000. A survey of some parasites and diseases of several species of
bivalve mollusc in northern Western Australia Fish Health Section, Department of Agriculture, South
Perth, Western Australia. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, Vol 40:67-78
Hine, P.M., and Thorne, T. 2002. Haplosporidium sp. (Alveolata: Haplosporidia) associated with
mortalities among rock oysters Saccostrea cucullata in north Western Australia. Dis Aquat Org, 51,
123-133.

Jackson, K.L., 2009. Review of Depuration and its Role in Shellfish Quality Assurance, Shellfish Quality
Assurance Program
Kalyanasundaram, M., and Ramamorthi, K. 1987. Larval Development of the oyster Saccostrea
cucullata (Born), Mahasagar, Bulletin of the National Institute of Oceanography, 20(1), 53-58.
Kalyanasundaram, M and Ramamoorthi, K. 1986. Temperature and salinity requirement for
embryonic development of Saccostrea cucullata (Born), Mahasagar-Bulletin of the National Institute
of Oceanography, 19(1): 53-55.
Madigan, L. 2008. A Critical Evaluation of Supply-Chain Temperature Profiles to Optimise Food
Safety and Quality of Australian Oysters, Australian Seafood CRC and the South Australian Research
and Development
Maguire, G.B., and Nell, J.A. 2005. History, Status and Future of Oyster Culture in Australia. The 1st
Internation Oyster Symposium Proceedings, Research Division, Department of Fisheries, Western
Australia
Marine Discovery Centre Australia (MDCA), 2015. Oyster Biology Fact Sheet.
http://www.mdca.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/OysterBiology_FactSheets.pdf [date accessed
15/11/2015]
NSW, Department of Primary Industries (DPI), 2001. Primary Industries, Science and Research; the
history of oyster farming.
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/research/areas/aquaculture/outputs/2001/output-168
NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI), 2015. Primary Industries, Fishing and Aquaculture.
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/aquaculture/publications/oysters/industry/oyster-industry-in-
nsw. [accessed 12/11/2015]

O'Connor W.A., Dove M.C., 2009. The changing face of oyster culture in New South Wales, Australia.
Shellfish Resources: 28, 803-81
O’Connor, W., Dove, M., Finn, B., and O’Connor, S. 2008. Manual for hatchery production of Sydney
rock oysters (Saccostrea glomerata), NSW Department of Primary Industries; Fisheries Research
Report Series 20.
Pearson, G., Lavaleye, M., Oldmeadow, E., and Pepping, M. 1998. Preliminary Report on the Benthic
Invertebrate/Sediment Survey of King Sound, http://www.onlinegeographer.com/king/derbim.html
[accessed 20/11/2015]
Queensland Government, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (DAF), 2015. Farming Methods for
Rock Oysters. https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industry/fisheries/aquaculture/aquaculture-
species/rock-oyster-aquaculture/farming-methods-rock-oysters [accessed 5/11/2015]
Schrobback, P., and Volkswirtin, D. 2015. Economic Analyses of Australia’s Sydney Rock Oyster
Industry. School of Economics and Finance Faculty of Business Queensland University of Technology.
Schrobback, Pascoe, S., and Coglan, L. 2014. History, status and future of Australia’s native Sydney
rock oyster industry. Review Aquatic living Resource, 27, 153-165.
Semeniuk, V., and Brocx, M. 2011. King Sound and the tide-dominated delta of the Fitzroy River:
their geoheritage values, Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 94: 151-160.
Southgate, P.C., and Lee, P.S. 1998. Hatchery rearing of the tropical blacklip oyster Saccostrea
echinata, Aquaculture, 169(3-4): 275-281.
Sukumar, P., and Joseph, M.M. 1988. Annual reproductive cycle 01 the rock oyster Saccostrea
cucullata (von Born), The First Indian Fisheries Forum, Proceedings. Asian Fisheries Society: Indian
Branch. Mangalore, 20 - 210.

Superior Oysters Superior Farming Solutions (SEAPA), 2015. SEAPA Aquacultural Products.
http://www.seapa.com.au/seapa-600-baskets/ [accessed 25/11/2015]
The Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM), 2003. Osteridea, Saccostrea cucullata.
http://www.ciesm.org/atlas/Saccostreacucullata.html [accessed 19/11/2015]
Western Australian Fishing Industry Council (WAFIC), 2015. North Coast Bioregion.
http://www.wafic.org.au/region/north-coast/ [accessed 3/11/2015]
Wilson. B., Jones. D., Bryce. C., Fromont. J., and Moore, G. 2009. Kimberley Marine Biota. History and
Environment, Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement, 1-18.

Rock Oyster Feasibilty Study-2

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Rock Oyster Feasibilty Study-2

Similar to Rock Oyster Feasibilty Study-2 (20)

Rock Oyster Feasibilty Study-2