Rivers Beyond Borders Book

M A P S . P H O T O G R A P H S . I N F O G R A P H I C S
Rivers Beyond Borders
I N D I A B A N G L A D E S H T R A N S - B O U N D A R Y R I V E R A T L A SI N D I A B A N G L A D E S H T R A N S - B O U N D A R Y R I V E R A T L A S
@IUCN
Satellite image of coal-carrying navigation traffic on the river Baulai-Patly, a distributary of the Jadukata
BANGLADESH AND INDIA share some of the most
intricate and complex river systems in the world.
Official records show that fifty four rivers cross the
borders between India and Bangladesh. Rivers
Beyond Borders: India Bangladesh
Trans-boundary River Atlas is a narrative of these
rivers, celebrating their journey as they flow
towards the Bay of Bengal. At the core of this Atlas
and fundamental to the understanding of the
rivers, are the maps for each of these rivers. The
maps have been prepared with GIS information and
advanced tools available in the public domain.
These maps combine with narratives, info-graphics,
facts, figures and numerous images of each of these
rivers, to capture and portray the stories of these
rivers in their entirety, unbroken by borders over
which they flow.
This publication serves to highlight that the names
of these rivers can be different in the various
countries or districts but each of the courses are
essentially the same river carrying the same water,
same sediments. The past, present and future
development of the region and its people is
inextricably linked with these rivers and their
floodplains. We hope that these rivers can create a
bond of unity, be the basis of cooperation and
harmony amongst countries through which they
flow on their journey towards the sea.
INTERNATIONAL UNION
FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Bangladesh Country Office
House 16, Road 2/3, Banani, Dhaka-1213
Bangladesh
India Country Office
B 88 Neetibagh, New Delhi - 110049,
India
www.iucn.org/E4L
DRIK
House 58, Road 15A (New)
Dhanmondi Residential Area, Dhaka - 1209
Bangladesh
RIVERSBEYONDBORDERSINDIABANGLADESHTRANS-BOUNDARYRIVERATLAS
About IUCN
IUCN, International Union for Conservation
of Nature, helps the world find pragmatic
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environment and development challenges.
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Members and almost 11,000 volunteer
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www.iucn.org
About Ecosystems for Life
Ecosystems for Life: A Bangladesh-India
Initiative is a multi-stakeholder research
and dialogue process led by IUCN. Funded
by the Embassy of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands (EKN) in Bangladesh, the
project seeks to promote a better
understanding of shared ecosystems
between Bangladesh and India by
providing a platform to discuss issues
common to the region. The overall goal is
improved integrated management of
trans-boundary water regimes in South
Asia.
Ecosystems for Life has involved eminent
researchers from India and Bangladesh in
conducting joint research on a number of
topics, and using the findings to develop
policy recommendations.
www.iucn.org/e4l

1
India Bangladesh
Trans-boundary River Atlas
Rivers Beyond Borders
Bushra Nishat
Sanat K. Chakraborty
Md. Emran Hasan
AJM Zobaidur Rahman

2
The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, administration, or concerning
the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication are authors’personal views and do not
necessarily reflect those of IUCN.
Produced by: IUCN Asia Regional Office, IUCN Bangladesh Country Office, IUCN India Country Office

This initiative is supported by the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Dhaka.
Copyright: © 2014 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is
authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the
source is fully acknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without
prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Citation: Nishat. B., Chakraborty, S. K., Hasan. M.E and Rahman. AJM. Z. 2014, Rivers Beyond Borders: India
Bangladesh Trans-boundary River Atlas. Ecosystems for Life: A Bangladesh-India Initiative, IUCN,
International Union for Conservation of Nature, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp XX + 152
Published by: Drik Publications
ISBN: 978-984-33-8361
Concept: Bushra Nishat, Sanat K Chakrabarty, AJM Zobaidur Rahman,
Rustam Vania, Ganesh Pangare
Coordination AJM Zobaidur Rahman, Sushmita Mandal, Kazimuddin Ahmed, Bushra Nishat
Creative &
Editorial Design: Rustam Vania
Maps: Md. Emran Hasan, Yasin Wahid Rabby
Copy Editing: Perveen Rasheed
Cover Photo: Sayam U Chowdhury
Project team: Brian J. Furze, Archana Chatterjee, Bushra Nishat, Sushmita Mandal,
AJM Zobaidur Rahman, Aditi Jha, Dipankar Aich
Available from: IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature
Bangladesh Country Office
House 16, Road 2/3, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh
www.iucn.org/Bangladesh
IUCN India Country Office
B 88, Neetibagh, New Delhi 110049, India
www.iucn.org/India
www.iucn.org/E4L

i
Acknowledgement
This Atlas has been conceptualised and produced by Ecosystems for Life: A Bangladesh-India Initiative, a
project facilitated by IUCN, with information and contributions from researchers and writers in Bangladesh
and India. IUCN acknowledges and thanks all of the contributors for sharing their experiences, thoughts and
ideas, without which this publication would not have been possible.
We would also like to express our thanks to all members of the Project Advisory Committee (PAC) for their
invaluable support to Ecosystems for Life, and their guidance and advice during conceptualization of this
River Atlas, especially, Dr. Q K Ahmad and Meena Gupta, Co-Chairs, PAC for their continuous encouragement,
and to Professor K. B. Sajjadur Rasheed for critiquing each of the maps and mentoring our team.
We are grateful to Aban Marker Kabraji, Regional Director, IUCN Asia Regional (ARO) and Co-Chair of the
Project Advisory Committee, for her dynamic leadership, constant support and encouragement to this
initiative and to Dr. T. P. Singh, Deputy Regional Director Programmes, IUCN, ARO for always guiding us.
Thanks to Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad and P. R. Sinha, Country Representatives of IUCN offices in Bangladesh and
India.
Special thanks go to Dr. Brian Furze, the Project Director of the Ecosystems for Life for his leadership and
invaluable guidance.
We would like to thank Sanat K. Chakraborty for his outstanding writing of all the 54 rivers, and for travelling
the length of the rivers of Meghalaya and Tripura, and to Rustam Vania for his brilliant creative design. The
inspiration, ideas and support of both have been instrumental in putting the atlas together under a very tight
deadline.
To Prof. Kalyan Rudra who was constantly around when support, help and advice were needed. We are
indebted to him for taking the time out of his busy schedule to inspire and guide us.
We feel deeply indebted to Prof. Mihir Deb, Chairman, Tripura Pollution Control Board, Tripura; IG, BSF, Tripura
Frontiers; IG, BSF, Meghalaya Frontiers; Prof. Hiambok Jones Syiemlieh, Prof. Bijay Mipun, Department of
Geography, NEHU, Meghalaya; Geographer, Dr. Dondor Giri Nongkhlaw, Meghalaya and R R Thabah, IBLD,
Meghalaya; Daniel Ingty, Director, Horticulture, Meghalaya, and Meghalaya Electricity Corporation Limited.
These individuals and organisations in Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura have helped identify rivers, important
locations on their courses, and provided logistics and information.
We are extremely grateful to the people living in the villages and communities on the banks of the river for
patiently answering our queries and sharing their valuable wisdom with us. They helped us lay the foundation
for this atlas.
We deeply appreciate the effort put in by Md. Emran Hasan and Yasin Wahid Rabby, for producing all the maps
displayed in the atlas. And special thanks to Kazimuddin Ahmed, Shahriar Rahman, Alison Darcy and M.M.
Abdullah-Al-Mamun, their support has been essential in bringing out this publication. We also thank Carel
de Groot, Eklavya Prasad, Ganesh Pangare, Jayanta Basu, ABM Sarowar Alam and Prof. Chandan Mahanta for
sharing their brilliant photographs with us.
Finally, we thank all our colleagues at the Asia Regional Office and country offices in Bangladesh and India,
especially to Archana Chatterjee, Sushmita Mandal and Dipankar Aich for helping with coordination of
contributors and writers.
Above all, we are grateful to the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Dhaka for their constant
encouragement and support, specifically to Carel de Groot, Michiel Slotema, A.T.M. Khaleduzzaman and
Ambassador Gerben de Jong. We sincerely thank our development partner for their support and trust to IUCN.

iii
Foreword
Fierce national competition over water resources has prompted fears that water issues contain the seeds of violent
conflicts. If all the world’s people work together, a secure and sustainable water future can be ours.
— Kofi Annan (2002), former Secretary General, United Nations.
It is my privilege and pleasure to write the foreword of this outstanding publication which is the outcome
of the untiring efforts of a team of dedicated researchers from Bangladesh and India. This is not only
an atlas containing some maps but includes narratives describing the trans-boundary rivers hydro-
geomorphologically as well as culturally.
The Ecosystems for Life is a project of IUCN dedicated inter alia towards better understanding of our river
system and this atlas provides a data base of rivers that both countries share. It is an effort to educate and
bring to light the inter-linked cultures and geography that Bangladesh and India share. Hence further
highlighting the need for cooperation on managing and governing these fascinating river systems.
At the time of partition of Bengal in 1947, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who as chairman of the Boundary Commissions,
had said in his Report,“I have done what I can in drawing the line to eliminate any avoidable cutting of railway
communications and of river systems, which are of importance to the life of the province; but it is quite
impossible to draw a boundary under our terms of reference without causing some interruption of this sort,
and I can only express the hope that arrangements can be made and maintained between two States that will
minimize the consequences of this interruption as far as possible”.
Radcliffe himself realized that the international boundary was drawn without any regard to holistic eco-
hydrology of the Bengal. In divided Bengla, the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system continues to flow
cutting across geography, cultures and borders. The extreme seasonal variability of flows in rivers is governed
by the geographical conditions of this subcontinent. Flood, changing geometry of meander, tendency of
avulsion, sedimentation and decay of channels are among the various inherent characteristics of rivers in this
region. The challenge for society is to cope with these hydro-geomorphic phenomena coupled with a better
understanding of the fluvial system.
Unfortunately rivers often become political entities, and there is a tendency to consider them as stock
which must be tamed, extracted and transported to meet the ever increasing demands of irrigation, power
generation, among other needs. However, maintaining ecological flow of rivers is critical to the sustenance of
biodiversity as along with the well being of millions of people who depend on the rivers. We need to explore a
rational meeting point between the volume of water that may be extracted from the rivers and the flow to be
maintained in the rivers to sustain the ecosystem, of which humans are only a part.
The knowledge about the dynamic hydrology of Bengal has to be made widely available in the public
domain. Changing river systems require an adaptive approach to their understanding, and updation of the
knowledge base from time to time. I am sure this publication will fulfil the long felt need of the society at
large. I hope that this atlas will attract the attention of students, scholars, policy makers and a wide section of
the general public.
I wholeheartedly endorse this publication and congratulate the team of researchers for the meticulous work
that has led to the production of this atlas. They deserve the gratitude of all of us who love rivers.
(Kalyan Rudra)
October 31, 2014

iv
Contributors
• Alison Darcy
• Jeta Sankrityayan
• Jayanta Basu
• Kaushik Ghosh
• Khadijatul Kobra Eva
• Masud Al Mamun
• M. M. Abdullah-Al-Mamun
• Md. Maksudur Rahman
• Nuruzzaman Tunna
• S A Olive
• Shahriar Rahman
• Sheikh Rokon
• Yasin Wahid Rabby
• Zunaid Ali Saqee
• Shamim Ara Khondaker
• Sayam U Chowdhury
And
• Carel de Groot
• Sushmita Mandal
• Eklavya Prasad
• Ganesh Pangare
• ABM Sarowar Alam
• Kazimuddin Ahmed
• Prabahan Puzari
• Sayam U Chowdhury
• Chandan Mahanta
SanatKChakraborty

v
Preface
WHEN IUCN’s Ecosystems for Life: A Bangladesh-India Initiative started its journey in 2010, the first task it set
out to do was to answer the questions regarding which are the trans-boundary rivers between Bangladesh
and India; where do they originate, and how are these rivers entwined with the lives, livelihood and culture of
people in this region. In trying to explore these questions, the idea of the River Atlas was born.
Bangladesh and India share fifty four large and small rivers. These rivers drain thousands of square kilometres
and most importantly, represent complex ecological, socio-economic and cultural interdependencies. The
Ecosystems for Life: A Bangladesh-India Initiative is an IUCN-led dialogue process which brings together
diverse stakeholders from both countries to map complex connections, to formulate joint research and
knowledge and to help strengthen the understanding of issues and contribute to the better management
of these shared riverine ecosystems. This process has allowed representatives of civil society, academia,
private sector and government organizations from both the countries to engage in extensive dialogue
and information sharing and to produce a number of recommendations which will ultimately be fed into
advocacy and policy approaches.
Rivers Beyond Borders: India-Bangladesh Trans-boundary River Atlas combines maps, photographs, infographics
and narratives to chart out these fifty four rivers. The Atlas not only features the most revered river, the Ganga/
Ganges, or the most iconic river, the Brahmaputra, but also lesser known rivers such as the Bijni or the Sonai
Bardal or the Talma. Be it a river as long as the Brahmaputra (2900 km) or a small river such as the Haora (55
km), each of these rivers is the lifeline of people and communities living on its banks and at times has also
been at the root of their sufferings. Many of them have not made it into printed books, but each of the rivers
has a story to tell and has been the fountainhead of folklores of the local communities.
The River Atlas strictly adheres to the official list of the rivers that was developed in the mid 80s by Indo-
Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission. However, it is important to note that since then many of the rivers have
shifted course, many small streams have grown into larger water courses while many have trickled down in
size, and as such the list of common rivers of the two countries needs to be revisited.
A sad fact that needs to be noted is, our society has not always been kind to our rivers. The entire riverine
system in this region stands affected not only by pollution, but also from encroachment, and steady decline of
water volume. The smaller rivers have hardly got the attention and importance that they deserve, leading to
their further decline.
The spirit of the River Atlas is a message, a plea and a pledge to save and protect our rivers, big or small, from
degradation which would render them as mere names in the rivers of the bygone days _ let our rivers flow
majestically, while we assure to tell their stories. Thus while this River Atlas is a pioneering chronicle of
the courses of these rivers, there are more stories to be told, more information needs to be collected and
compiled, the necessity of understanding and narrating the state of our rivers cannot be overemphasised.

vii
River Atlas 1
How the atlas is organised 4
Introduction to the GBM region 6
Physiography of the GBM region 12

Ganga/GANGES Basin 14
1 Raimangal 18
2 Ichamati/Ichamati-Kalindi 20
3 Betna-Kodalia 22
4 Bhairab 24
5 Mathabhanga 26
6 Ganga/Ganges 28
7 Pagla 32
9 Punarbhaba 34
10 Tulai/Tentulia 36
11 Tangon 38
12 Kulik 40
13 Nagar 42
14 Mahananda 44
15 Dahuk 40
Brahmaputra Basin 48
8 Atreyee /Atrai 54
16 Karatoya 56
17 Talma 58
18 Ghoramara 60
19 Deonai-Jamuneswari 62
20 Buri Teesta/Buri Tista 64
21 Tista/Teesta 66
22 Jaldhakha/Dharla 70
23 Torsa/Raidak/Dudhkumar 72
24 Yarlung-Tsangpo/Brahmaputra/Jamuna 74
25 Jinjiram 78
Barak-Meghna Basin 80
26 Bandra/Chillakhali 86
27 Bugi/Bhogai 88
28 Dareng/Nitai 90
29 Simsang/Someswari 92
30 Kynshi/Jadukata 94
31 Umngi /Jalokhali-Dhamalia 96
32 Khasimara/Nawagang 98
33 Umiew/Umiam 100
34 Umsohryngkew/Dhala 102
35 Umngot/Piyan 104
36 Myntdu/Sari-Gowain 106
37 Barak/Surma 108
38 Barak/Kushiyara 110
39 Sonai-Bardal 112
40 Juri 114
41 Manu 116
42 Dhalai 118
43 Longla/Lungla 120
44 Khowai 122
45 Sutang 124
46 Sonai 126
47 Haora 128
48 Sinai/Bijni 130
49 Bijoya/Salda 132
50 Gumti 134
51 Kakri-Dakatia 136
52 Selonia 138
53 Muhuri 140
54 Fenni/Feni 142
Hill Stories of Meghna Basin 144
Abbreviations and Acronyms 146
Glossary of Terms 147
References 151
Contents

viii
This atlas is a narrative of the 54 rivers crossing the borders
between India and Bangladesh, celebrating their journey as they
flow towards the Bay of Bengal
©JayantaBasu

1
River Atlas:
Sketching the rivers flowing between
India and Bangladesh
Bangladesh and India share some
of the most intricate and complex river
systems in the world. Steep mountain
streams, winding seasonal creeks, and
magnificent, meandering rivers that flow
into each other, join, separate and join
again to form a remarkable network of
waterways. These rivers dominate over
the landscape by shaping not only the
terrains through which they flow, they
also impact the lives and livelihoods
of the people who inhabit the thriving
cities and countless villages that dot the
prosperous tracts of extremely fertile
lands made by these rivers. Thus, these
rivers are inseparable from the history
and legends of their respective region.
Today, over 620 million people, that is
almost one tenth of the population of
the world, live on the banks of these
rivers which have been the lifeline for
generations gone and will remain so for
generations to come.
According to official records, there are
fifty four crossborder rivers between India
and Bangladesh. Rivers Beyond Borders:
India-Bangladesh Trans-boundary
River Atlas is a narrative of these rivers,
celebrating their journey as they flow
towards the Bay of Bengal. In an attempt
to understand the rivers, this atlas
charts out the origins of the waterways,
the local names of the tributaries, the
length, the width, the flow, and the
stories and legends that have unfolded
over the years. Over a three year period,
researchers from Bangladesh and
India together, collected and collated
information on these rivers from publicly
available scientific literature, reports, and
maps. In the course of this exercise, it
was observed that while the pathways,
courses and even the understanding of
flows of the three major rivers were well
documented, the lesser known rivers or
tributaries have often been overlooked.
Again, most descriptions are often found
to be incomplete and limited within the
borders of the respective countries. But,
in truth, each stretch of the river has its
own character, its ambience, and its story
unique in its territory. Their details and
nuances needed to be understood to
complete the stories of the River Atlas.
Therefore, efforts were undertaken to go
beyond the limits of the print documents
to capture the stories and images of these
rivers from first hand narratives of the
communities who live on the banks of the
rivers in the remote corners of India and
Bangladesh, across the mountains and
flood plains, and the sea.
At the core of this Atlas and fundamental
to the understanding of the rivers, are the
maps for each of these rivers. The maps
have been prepared with GIS-RS tools
and techniques using the information
and resources available in the public
domain. Information from sources such
as the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission
(SRTM), Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer
Shifting Sands of Time
Rennel’s 1776 map shows the rivers of northern
Bengal. Since he recorded the flow of the
Brahmaputra, Teesta and Ganges these rivers
have changed course by many hundreds of
kilometres.

2
India Bangladesh Trans-boundary River Atlas
One river, many names
The mighty Brahmaputra is called
Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, Siang in Arunachal
Pradesh, Dihang in Assam and Jamuna in
Bangladesh
(ASTER) has been used for Elevation
Modelling to analyse and understand
hill shading, catchment area within the
trans-boundary region. The fine-tuning,
matching and drawing of these rivers at
a small scale have been done through
integrating Satellite Imageries with
secondary GIS information. Furthermore,
information collected from the United
States Geological Survey (USGS),
Consultative Group for International
Agriculture Research (CGIAR-CSI),
Water Resources Information System
of India (WRIS-India), Survey of
Bangladesh (SOB), Water Resources
Planning Organisation (WARPO),
Joint Rivers Commission (JRC), Centre
for Environmental and Geographic
Information Services (CEGIS), DIVA-GIS
and Google Earth have been used for
preparation of Spatial Database of these
trans-boundary rivers. For verification,
publicly available documents have been
used and wherever possible technical
experts and local communities have
been consulted. Inspiration and of
course important information were
drawn from the 1776 Rennels map of
Bengal and Bihar, one of the first detailed
maps of the Bengal Delta, and remain to
this day a vital chronicle of history of the
rivers in this region.
As maps alone could not complete the
description of the rivers, physical details
of each river were added to understand
them in their entirety. Infographics drawn
to scale give idea of the length, offtake,
outfall and important areas along the
way. Thus, maps, narratives, info-graphics,
facts, figures and most importantly,
images, come together, capture and
portray the stories of these rivers in their
entirety, unbroken by borders over which
they flow.
This publication serves to highlight that
the names of these rivers can be different
in the various countries or districts but
each of the courses are essentially the
same river carrying the same water,
same sediments. These rivers have
moulded the lands they flow through
and provided refuge for the plants and
animals that thrive along their banks
and floodplains, but, most importantly
are the lifeline and often the thread that
connects the communities and people
living on its bank. The past, present and
future development of the region and its
people are inextricably linked with these
rivers and their floodplains. We hope that
these rivers can bolster a bond of unity,
be the basis of cooperation and harmony
amongst countries through which they
flow on their journey towards the sea.
©PrabahanPuzari
A few more channels, rivers
and tributaries which cross
the border and flow into
Bangladesh from India were
noted. Therefore, this list
of common rivers needs
to be revisited with further
research using modern tools
and technology and survey
methods.

3
Identifying the rivers
The very first detail that needed to be
established was the list of rivers that flow
across the border between Bangladesh
and India, and the correct names of each
of the rivers. The Joint Rivers Commission
of both the countries have enlisted 54
rivers as crossborder rivers. The River Atlas
has utilized this official documentation. A
few more channels, rivers and tributaries
which cross the border and flow into
Bangladesh from India were noted.
For example, Nawagang originating in
Khasi Hills of Meghalaya and entering
Bangladesh in Netrokona is included in
the official list. But there is another river
by the same name, Nayagang, which
flows from Jaintia hills of Meghalaya and
enters Bangladesh, east of the first river,
also at Netrokona. Yet again, looking
towards the south, the Karnaphuli, rising
from the Lusai (or Mizo) Hills in Mizoram,
India as the Khawthlangtuipui flows
westward around 90 km in India before
entering Bangladesh and travelling
another 295 km before falling into the
Bay of Bengal from the east. Population
in the Lusai hills is very sparse, consisting
mainly of Lusai and Mizo tribes, no major
cities are situated along the river in India.
In Bangladesh, the river basin is home
to the only hydro-electric power plant
of the country and Chittagong sea-port,
the main port of Bangladesh, making
it the most important river not only of
Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts,
but for the country itself.
To finalise the names of the rivers,
wherever possible, official sources
have been used. For depicting Indian
or Bangladeshi names of the rivers in
English, the following methods and
sources were utilized. For rivers with two
names in the official documents of the
two countries, both the names and their
current spellings have been used: for
example, GangaGanges or TistaTeesta.
For the iconic places, it was important
to remain true to the authentic names
– thus the Himalaya and Sundarban are
written as they are called by the people of
the GBM region.
WHY THIS RIVER ATLAS
Tales of names
Thenamesoftheriverstellusstories,
show the diversity of the languages,
the cultures, and even the terrains.
As they cross territories and pass
through different tracts, most rivers
do not bear a single name. New
names are given when they break
up into channels or form junctions
with other rivers. For example, while
the name Brahmaputra seems to be
the most well known, the river has
many names as it crosses different
geographical territories: Yarlung
Tsangpo in Tibetan language at the
river’s origin; in India as Siang in
Arunachal Pradesh, Dihang in the
plains of Assam, Dibang and Lohit
join the Dihang in the Assam Valley,
and Jamuna as it enters Bangladesh.
Similarly, the Bandra originating
in the Indian state of western
Meghalaya becomes Chillakhali as
it enters Bangladesh, or Simsang
emerging from the southern slope
of the East Garo Hills in the district
of Meghalaya, India takes the name
Someswari in Sylhet, Bangladesh.
The river, known as Atrai in the
western side of Bangladesh, on the
Indian side, it is called –Atreyee,
same as in the Hindu sacred
books –Mahabharata and Debi
Purana. Sometimes the names are
transformed by the local dialect.
The Bugi which rises from below
the Tura range in the South Garo
Hills district of Meghalaya becomes
Bhogai in Sherpur, Bangladesh. The
names used in this atlas reflect this
change- starting from the origin of
a respective river as it makes its way
towards the sea, the names are used
in the same geographical order.
Yet, the names are not unique and
often different rivers have the same
name. The most known example,
would be Yamuna, a tributary of the
Ganges in India, and Jamuna, the
name of Brahmaputra as he enters
Bangladesh. Interestingly, such is
the sacredness of this name, there
arearound94riversnamedYamuna/
Jamuna in India.The example of two
transboundary rivers by the name
of Nawagang, originating from two
different points in Meghalaya and
entering into Bangladesh through
Netrokona has been cited earlier
in this chapter. Sometimes, a river
has multiple names, Kulik, which
originates in and flows through
Thakurgaon in the north west
region of Bangladesh is locally
known as Kulik or Kuluk or Kokil.The
official name used by Bangladesh
Water Development Board is Kulik,
but in Banglapedia the names
used are Kulik or Kokil. A closer
look at the names has been taken
by searching through literature,
associated stories, histories or
myths, or consulting local people.
And this is what was found...
More than often, these names
have a story to tell, as if rivers
are not just a physical entity but
rather carry cultural threads and
interact with the people and
communities they flow past.
Sometimes they represent complex
multi layered legends or myths
rooted in history; sometimes,
simple stories centred around a
unique incident. Sometimes the
names describe the temperament
of the river or where they come
from. These are the tales that have
been compiled in the River Atlas.
Rivers have been the lifeline for generations gone
and will remain so for generations to come
© AJM Zobaidur Rahman

4
titleS
of the maps show the names of
the rivers in each country or
region, starting from the origin
as it makes its way towards the
sea, the names are used in the
same order.
MAPS
of each river show the terrain
of the area and delineates
the catchments.
Geo-political boundaries have
not been shown in the maps.
Red points in each of the maps
represent the point of crossing
of the border by the river.
In many cases the river crosses
the border many times or
represents the border, in these
cases two red points, marking
the first and last point of entry,
have been used.
How the Atlas is organised
The three mighty rivers
delineate the sections in the
River Atlas. Keeping the
same order by which
Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers
Commission (JRC) has
catalogued the rivers, the rivers
have been divided according to
the basin they represent.
Thus starting from the south west corner of Bangladesh the
rivers in the Ganga/ Ganges basin come first, followed by the
rivers joining the Brahmaputra and last of all rivers falling
directly into the Meghna. Each of the sections starts with a
description of the basin before moving onto the rivers themselves.
THE STORY
of each of the 54 rivers is
told via maps, narratives,
infographics, facts, figures
and most importantly images
of the life, livelihoods, cultures,
issues and challenges, of people
and communities living on the
banks and of the rivers.
The map and narrative sketch
the journey of the river, where
does the river originate, which
localities they flow and where
they end.

5
RIVER NUMBERS
Each river has been issued
a number to help readers
navigate through the atlas.
These numbers correspond to
the river numbers used by the
Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers
Commission and which has
become the defacto list used
by most.
PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographers captured the
sights and sounds of the rivers
and life around them from both
sides of the border, specifically
for this atlas. We have
also collected photographs
from our colleagues working
in this region. These images
enhance the content and
visual appeal of the atlas.
INFOGRAPHICS
explain the origin, outfall (end)
and length of river in each
country.
Measurement of length of a
river is quite complicated and
different literature often quote
varying numbers. This is because
the source of the river is difficult
to locate due to inaccessibility of
the terrain. Different researchers
often accept the sources of
different tributaries as the origin.
Furthermore, rivers of the GBM
region repeatedly change their
courses and alter the geometry
of meandering, often leading to
changes in length. Many rivers
form the boundary of the two
countries. In these cases, the
length along the boundary has
been equally distributed.
India Bangladesh Transboundary River Atlas

6
The Ganga/Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) region
The combined outflow of these rivers is truly one of the most
intriguing, vigorous and imposing fluvial systems of the world
Virtually all of the 54 rivers flow into
or are linked to the three major rivers - the
Ganga/Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the
Meghna (GBM), and ultimately, all of them
flow into the Bay of Bengal. The combined
outflow of these rivers is truly one of the
most intriguing, vigorous and imposing
fluvial systems in the world; it is only
exceeded by the Congo and the Amazon
and is greater than the combined flows
of the 20 largest rivers in Europe. Yet, area
wise, the GBM region represents a smaller
but very complex watershed compared to
the Amazon and the Congo. The Ganga/
Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna region
is spread across China, Nepal, India,
Bhutan and Bangladesh, and sustains lives
of over 620 million people of the region.
The Ganga and Brahmaputra are born
as neighbours, out of the glaciers and
snowmelt from the Great Himalayan
range – the water towers of Asia.
From the Himalaya, the Ganga travels
eastwards through the plains of India
and Bangladesh, and the Brahmaputra
also flows east as the Yarlung Tsangpo
but makes a sharp turn around Mount
Namcha Barwa and travels in a westerly
direction through India to unite as the
Padma in the floodplains of Bangladesh.
The Meghna rises as the Barak from the
rain-drenched mountains of Manipur,
India and divide into the Surma and the
Kushiyara just before entering Bangladesh
through Sylhet. Later they combine to
become the Meghna, which goes on to
join the Padma near Chandpur and flow
into the Bay of Bengal. The smaller rivers
join these mighty rivers at various stages
of their journey before falling into the
Bay of Bengal. The entire fluvial system
Home to over 620 million
people, the basin contains the
largest number of the world’s
poor in any one region.
NuruzzamanTunna

7
Volume of discharge
in billion cubic metres
(bcm)
(Averaged from
different reports)
Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna REGION
Ganges Brahmaputra Meghna
Length1
(km) 2510 2900 210
Catchment2
(km2
) 10,87,300 5,52,000 82000
Ganges Basin
500 bcm
Brahmaputra Basin
700 bcm
Meghna Basin
150 bcm
Source: 1- average based on various reports; 2 - Joint Rivers Commission figures.
©EklavyaPrasadJetaSankrityayanaMd.MaksudurRahman

8
GANGA/GANGES-BRAHMAPUTRA-MEGHNA REGION

9

10
constitutes an interactive mountain-plain-
sea system and plays a significant role in
modulating the hydro-climatic conditions,
biological processes and agro-economic
activities in the region. Scientists have
shown how the position of the mountains
and the flow of the rivers bring about
monsoon rainfall in the South Asia region
in the summer, making it one of the
wettest regions in the world.
The flows of these rivers are a complex
interplay of rainfall, glacier, snowmelt and
groundwater aquifers, and are defined
by the pronounced seasonality of the
monsoon rainfall and climate variability
of the regions within the basins. Each
year, around June during the summer as
the temperature across the region rises,
the land, rivers, flora, fauna and people
prepare in anticipation of the monsoon
as it carries rainclouds and much awaited
rainfall from the Bay of Bengal. Snow and
glacier melt from the greater Himalaya and
monsoon rain feeds into the waterways
and even the smallest of brooks swell up,
becoming turbulent; and as it reaches
the meandering watercourses becoming
wider and slower often over spilling,
blurring the line between river banks
and flood plains. Rivers also represent
a continuum of change, from upstream
to downstream, from season to season.
During the dry season when the skies are
blue and cloudless, the flows trickle down,
many of the rivulets disappear, the force,
volume of water and velocities of the
streams and rivers decrease.
These rivers do not carry just water to the
sea. The Ganga/Ganges-Brahmaputra-
Meghna system carries a phenomenal
load of 980 billion tonnes per year into
the Bay of Bengal, eroding the Himalayan
region, to carve out valleys as they flow
towards the flood plains. The GBM river
system is considered to be one of the
most heavily sediment-laden rivers of
the world, exceeded only by the Hwang
Ho of China. Sediment transport in these
rivers is of great concern in regards to
maintaining the morphology of the rivers
and development of the floodplains
and delta. With 95% of its sediment load
being delivered during only monsoon,
the system is extremely sensitive to any
changes in flows and sediment loads
especially near the Himalayan part
of the basin. These variations would
subsequently alter the present erosion/
deposition scenarios especially at the
existing bridge areas, river training
works and also the intake points for
irrigation schemes; affect navigation and
drainage through bed-level changes; and
decrease flows to distributaries due to
sedimentation at off-takes.
Yet, millions of tons of sediment carried
by these magnificent rivers created the
land in the Indo-Gangetic floodplain and
the Bengal delta for centuries making
it fit for human habitation. Sediment
deposits still provide the alluvium to the
floodplains and the delta. The Bengal delta
is the largest and most fertile deltas of
The position of the mountains
and the flow of the rivers
bring about monsoon rainfall
in the South Asia region in
the summer, making it the
wettest regions in the world.
Flow/Month
Typical Hydrograph for the rivers in this region
©ChandanMahanta
Monsoon carries rainclouds and rainfall
from the Bay of Bengal

11
the world and stretches from the Hooghly
on the west to the Meghna on the east.
The delta is also home to the Sundarban
mangrove forest, a unique ecosystem
spread across areas of West Bengal, India
and Bangladesh.
The upstream areas of the basins are
mostly forested and home to tigers and
leopards, gaurs (wild ox), occasional
elephants and buffalo, and many deer
species; sambar and swamp deer and the
great Indian rhinoceros. The rivers are
home to a wide variety of fish and as many
as five species of freshwater cetaceans,
including the Ganges river Dolphin.
Unfortunately, although this species still
has a fairly extensive range, its distribution
has contracted, and its numbers have
declined dramatically in some areas.
History shows that the fertile lands of
these rivers have nourished generations
of people and shaped settlement
patterns, agricultural practices and even
culinary styles of the people living on
its banks. The region is one of the most
densely populated areas in the world
and also predicted to have the highest
population growth rate in South Asia.
The communities living in the banks of
the rivers are mostly rural and depend
on agriculture but rapid urbanisation is
already taking place, speeding up the pace
of life in the region.
1. The Sundarban - largest mangrove forest in the
world is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger
2. Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha) is the ambassador fish
of the Bengali culture
3. The communities living in the banks of the
rivers are mostly rural and depend on agriculture
©CareldeGroot©AJMZobaidurRahmanSanatKChakraborty
1
2

12
Physiography of the GBM region

13

14
The Ganga/Ganges Basin
Spread across China, Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, the Ganga/Ganges
basin is not just a hydrological system but represents one of the most
socio-culturally important and ecologically complex regions.
14 India Bangladesh
14 Transboundary Rivers
1 Raimangal
2 Ichamati/Ichamati-Kalindi
3 Betna-Kodalia
4 Bhairab
5 Mathabhanga
6 Ganga/Ganges
7 Pagla
9 Punarbhaba
10 Tulai/Tentulia
11 Tangon
12 Kulik
13 Nagar
14 Mahananda
15 Dahuk
Spread across China, Nepal, India,
and Bangladesh, the Ganga/Ganges
basin is not just a hydrological system
but represents one of the most socio-
culturally important and ecologically
complex regions of the sub continent.
The basin is bounded on the north by the
Himalaya, on the west by the Aravalli as
well as the ridge separating it from the
Indus Basin, on the south by the Vindhyas
and Chota Nagpur Plateau and on the
east by the Brahmaputra ridge, Tista/
Teesta fan and the Barind tract. The basin
covers an area of around 1,087,300 sq.km
stretching between 73° 23É to 89° 47É
longitudes and 23° 14Ń to 31° 16Ń
On its epic journey to the estuary,
the Ganga/Ganges traverses three
physiographic regions - the Himalaya
and associated ranges, a geologically
young mountain belt, folded, faulted,

16
and uplifted; the Peninsula, a huge
stable massif of ancient crystalline rock,
and the Ganga/Ganges alluvial lowland.
Throughout its upper basin, it is a fast-
moving stream that gradually captures
the waters of the companion streams
that had left the mountains alongside
it, braiding them all into one great
river at its confluence with the Yamuna
at Allahabad. In its middle region, it
absorbs the discharge from several
other trans-boundary river-systems that
drain the Central Himalaya to its north,
and the edge of the sub-continental
peninsula to its south, gradually
becoming broader and more silt-laden
at every point of advance. In the lower
region, which it enters in a series of
tortuous eddies and whirls once past the
constriction imposed by Manihari rock
and the Rajmahal hills, the river breaks
free, straining in every direction to carry
the water through a massive alluvial
flood plain criss-crossed by a network of
several rivers, their numerous tributaries
and canals. The lower portion of the
basin is flat and low lying displaying
a dynamic front between the saline
waters of the Bay of Bengal and the
freshwater from the basin. The flows
in this portion follow the diurnal and
fortnightly pattern of the tides, taking up
to 12 hours to penetrate inland. During
monsoon, the freshwater boundary
lies close to the coast, but as the rains
die down after the monsoon and the
flows decline, the saline front advances,
penetrating further and further into the
region during dry season.
Apart from the Ganga/Ganges itself,
the rivers described in this section
are essentially tributaries as well as
distributaries of the main channel. The
rivers, Mathabhanga, Bhairab-Kobadak,
Ichamati-Kalindi, Betna-Kodalia and
Raimangal originate from the south bank
of the Ganges and drain the mighty river
through an intricate network of tidal
rivers, feeding into the Sundarban before
flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The rivers
Punarvaba, Pagla, Tulai/ Tentulia, Tangon,
In Hinduism , the river Ganges is considered
sacred and is personified as Goddess Ganga
©EklavyaPrasad

17
Kulik, Nagar, Mahananda and Dauki
rivers rise at the foothills of the Himalaya
and flow southward into the Ganga/
Ganges.
The river flow of the Ganga/Ganges and
its tributaries vary on spatial scales and
are very much dependant on climate
variability of the region. Annual average
rainfall in the basin is approximately
950 mm with variations from 240 mm
to 2060 mm. The north-eastern part of
the basin, especially Nepal, Indian states
of Bihar and West Bengal and Kushtia,
Jessore, Khulna districts of Bangladesh
experience the most rainfall while the
western part, especially Rajasthan and
parts of Madhya Pradesh of India are the
driest, with monsoon often limited to
two months. The Himalayan regions also
experience heavy snowfall.
The Ganga/Ganges basin is home
to a rich biodiversity of fish and bird
species. Reports show, there are over
140 fish species, the richest freshwater
fauna in India, 90 amphibian species
and five avian regions with birds found
nowhere else in the world. Fish species
in the Bengal area include feather backs
(Notopteridae family), walking catfish
(Clarias batrachus) and milk fish (Chanos
chanos). The upstream forested areas
of the basin are home to tigers and
leopards, gaurs (wild ox), occasional
elephants and buffalo, and many deer
species, like the sambar (a large Asiatic
deer with coarse hair on the throat and
strong antlers), and swamp deer. The
great Indian rhinoceros is also found in
south-central Nepal. The Bengal Tiger,
listed by IUCN as an endangered species,
now only survives in the Sundarban
area of the Ganges Delta. The unique
Sundarban delta mangroves also
supports over 334 species of plants, 448
types of wildlife including 58 reptiles,
339 birds and 41 mammals, 315 bird, 176
types of fish and 31 crustacean species.
The Gangetic dolphin, and in various
pockets in Nepal, India and Bangladesh
the gharial, a rare fish eating crocodile
can be seen in the waters of the Ganga/
Ganges.
The fertile terrain has nurtured the
rise and expansion of many empires
and kingdoms throughout centuries.
Some of the greatest empires of this
sub continent, the Gupta, Kanauj,
Magadha, Maurya, Mughal and British
empires were spread across the modern
international borders but had their
centers in the Gangetic plains. Over the
ages, the river and its tributaries have
been celebrated through numerous
legends, stories, music, drama, folklore
and tradition. The capitals of India
(New Delhi) and Nepal (Kathmandu),
besides numerous major cities such as
Agra, Allahabad, Benaras, Patna, Kolkata
and Rajshahi, Kushtia, Jessore and
Khulna sit on the banks of the Ganga/
Ganges and its tributaries. Although it
has lost much of its former glory, with
approximately 344 million people it is
still one of the most densely populated
areas of the world. Despite the religious
significance and cultural importance of
the Ganga/Ganges, it is one of the most
polluted rivers in the world. Pollution
of the Ganga/Ganges is caused by
human, agricultural and industrial waste
due to rapid growth and unplanned
urbanisation. The region, however, has
considerable development potential
which can only be achieved through
harnessing of the Ganga/Ganges to
foster sustainable regional progress and
improve the quality of life of the people
of the basin.
Boats moored along the ghats on the banks of the Ganga
Some of the greatest
empires of this
subcontinent, the Gupta,
Kanauj, Magadha,
Maurya, Mughal and British
empires were spread across
modern international borders
and had their centers in the
Gangetic plains.
THE GANGA/GANGES BASIN
©EklavyaPrasad

18
1 RAIMANGAL

19
Raimangal is a unique trans-boundary river that flows into the tidal estuary of the
Sundarban mangrove forest spread across India and Bangladesh. The brackish waters
of the Raimangal with pronounced levels of salinity during the dry season, is vital to
this complex mangrove ecosystem. The river rises from the south of Hasnabad in the
North 24 Parganas district of West Bengal where the Ichhamati joins the Raimangal,
running along the India-Bangladesh riverine boundary. In a way, the Raimangal begins
where the Ichamati ends.
The Ichhamati branches out into several distributaries below the Hingalganj town
which later, fan out into the wide estuaries in the Sundarban. The chief among these
distributries are: the Raimangal, Bidya, Jhilla and Kalindi. For some distance, the
Raimangal forms the international boundary between the two countries, before it
enters Bangaldesh, flowing towards southeast, and then drains into the Bay of Bengal.
One distributary of the Raimangal, the Horinbhanga, also runs parallel to its west and
also outfalls into the Bay of Bengal.
The Raimangal derives its name from folklore and subaltern culture of the Sundarban,
the largest mangrove forest in the world and one of the last surviving habitats of the
Royal BengalTiger, where people revere the spirits of tigers and snakes as their guardian
deities. The saying goes that there is a Tiger spirit in the name of ‘Dokkin Rai’, which
rules over the deep mangrove forest, while the Snake Goddess,‘Manasha’lords over the
swamps, the abode of venomous snakes and reptiles. Thus the river that flows through
the domain of the snake and tiger spirits across the Sundarban, gets its combined name
as Raimangal. However, another story claims that the river may have been named after
a great literary text, ‘Ray Mangal (1686)’, composed by a famous seventeenth century
Bengali poet Krishnaram Das.
Till 1700, the Sundarban was a pristine forest and populated by rich wildlife. Human
settlement began since the early nineteenth century when the East India Company
allotted lands in the Sundarban to the Indian zaminders, and who on their part
brought the Santhals, mostly from the Chhotanagpur region as bonded labourers
to clear the jungles for logging. Many died in the inhospitable conditions or killed
by tigers, reptiles and poisonous snake bites. Over the centuries, their population
increased by manifolds on both sides of the border. Today many of them live on the
same lands of the swamps and mangrove – as wood cutters, fishers, crab and shell
collectors.
Of late, cargo services between India and Bangladesh have been launched on the
Raimangal river, being the shortest route that connects sea ports of the two countries.
Raimangal experiences tidal wave twice a day and strong currents during the
monsoon.
RAIMANGAL 1
The banks of the Raimangal are very prone
to natural hazards and disasters. People who
live along the river have a strong belief in the
guardian deities. ‘Bonbibi’ is the Goddess of
the Sundarban forest. They believe Bonbibi
provides protection from tiger attacks. Legend
says, Dakkhin Rai, an arch enemy of Bonbibi,
appears in the guise of a tiger and attacks
humans. The Gangetic dolphins or shushuk
which roam the waters of the Raimangal and
the many rivers that feed into the Sundarban,
are revered to be the messengers of Bonbibi,
protecting the people, especially during
natural disasters.
Offtake
Ichamati-Kalindi
Mangrove forests
Sundarban
Estuary
Forms the
international border
in some stretches
Outfall
Bay of Bengal
15 km
62 km
Tidal effect
Total length
77 km
Shrimp fri collection in the Sundaban.
Md.MaksudurRahman
©AJMZobaidurRahman

20
2 ICHAMATI/ICHAMATI-KALINDI

21
Ichamati flows out of the Mathabhanga in Nadia district of West Bengal and
immediately crosses the border into Bangladesh at Damurhuda upazila of Chuadhanga
district. It again enters India through the tri-junction of Chuadanga district of
Bangaldesh, and the districts of Nadia and North 24-Paraganas in India. From there, the
Ichhamati traverses the areas of Bongaon, Swarupnagar, Baduria and Hasnabad in a
meandering course towards the southeast across the North 24-Paraganas district.
On its course, the Ichhamati makes several entries and re-entries into Indian and
Bangladeshi territories, and at some stretches, forms the international boundary between
the two countries, especially on its downstream section from Hasnabad in the North
24-Paraganas district of India to Shyamnagar in Satkhira district of Bangladesh.
Though the Ichhamati touches several districts of Bangladesh, such as Chuadanga,
Jhenaidah, Jessore and Satkhira, most part of its journey runs through the Indian
territories. While in Bangladesh, the Ichhamati is joined by a number of rivers like
Neodanga, Hanarsonai, Saratkhal and Dantbhanga. In Kaliganj upazila of Satkhira
district, the Ichhamati is joined by a small tributary, Kalindi, and, thus, is known as
Ichhamati-Kalindi. The river finally, outfalls into the Raimangal, heading towards the Bay
of Bengal. Being close to the estuary, Ichhamati experiences tidal currents.
The Ichhamati is deeply embedded in the socio-cultural history and literature of Bengal.
The estate of Raja Pratapaditya, one of the famous‘Baro Bhuyians’(12 local kings)
during the Mughal rule, was located beside the river. In literature too, Ichhamati has
been immortalized by two of Bengal’s most iconic litterateurs, Rabindranath Tagore and
Bibhutibhusan Bandhyopadyay, in their writings. Bibhutibhusan, who had a house on
the bank of Ichhamati at Bongaon, profusely used its name in his famous novel,‘Pather
Panchali’, while Rabindranath Tagore had more intimate experience with the river.
Tagore, who had frequently availed the waterways of Ichhamati on his way to Silaidaha
in connection with his zamindari supervision works, composed numerous letters,
poems and songs during the journey. In one of his poems, he even wished to be like
the river Ichhamati!
Certain stretches of Ichhamati-Kalindi, especially, at its confluence with the Jamuna at
Jogini Ghat, which is considered sacred, thousands of people take holy dips during the
auspicious full moon months of October and November. Not to be confused with its
famous and much larger namesake, this Jamuna is a small tributary which flows into the
Ichhamati-Kalindi in West Bengal. The western and eastern banks of this river are home
to the communities of the two countries, India and Bangladesh. The fisher folks from
both the countries navigate the waters together, flying their respective national flags
[mandatory in shared rivers] on their boats, making it a spectacular show.
Ichamati was immortalized by Rabindranath Tagore and Bibhutibhusan Bandhyopadyay
Offtake
DINAJPUR
Forms the
in some stretches
NORTH 24-PARAGANAS
Outfall
Raimangal River
Mathabhanga River
CHAUADANGA
135 km
JESSORE
210 km
SATKHIRA
Tidal Currents
Total length
345 km
ICHAMATI / ICHAMATI-KALINDI 2
Md.MaksudurRahman

22
3 BETNA-Kodalia

23
Betna is one of the distributaries of the Bhairab, and emerges from the Jheinaidah
district in southwest Bangladesh. It enters India through Bagdah of the North
24-Paraganas district, and after a short distance crosses over again to Bangladesh
through Sharsha upazila of Jessore district.
Once in Bangladesh, the Betna meanders in a south-western direction across the
districts of Jessore and Satkhira, touching in between, the towns of Kolaroa, Tala and
Ashashuni till it reaches Uttarpara, where the Betna assumes the name of Moricchap
and outfalls into the Khalpetua river in Satkhira district. Its only distributary, the
Kodalia, flows out of Betna and heads towards south-western direction. It then
slips into India through Haridaspur village of the Nadia district and meets with the
Ichhamati.
Earlier, the name of Betna was Begaboti (the fast-moving one). The flow of the river
was so strong and overflowing that it used to destroy crops and properties of the local
people and bear upon them untold sufferings. This is why it was known as Betraboti
(one who inflicts pain) and later Betna, which is short for Betraboti.
In recent times, water flows of the Betna have been severely affected by mindless
human intervention. Large ponds have been created on several stretches of the river
by erecting earthen dams, leased out to private individuals for fish farming. Many
such‘water-logged sites’on the river near Bagdah in the North 24-Parganas district
have been claimed as private property.
Several multi-purpose water management plans, such as, Arol Beel Project, Kolaroa
Drainage Project and Uloshi irrigation project, have been implemented along the
catchment areas in Bangaldesh. A historic mausoleum, Maichampar Dorgah is located
on the bank of the river at Labsa village in Satkhira town. The river is perennial and
experiences seasonal flooding. Betna is a tidal-influenced coastal river, though the
tidal flooding situation varies from upstream to downstream as tidal influence is hardly
observed in the upstream of the river in India.
Offtake
Bhairab River
NORTH 24 PARGANAS
Outfall
Morichhap River
Bhairab River
Jhenaidah
19 km
114 km
Total length
133 km
The water flows of the Betna have been severely affected due to mindless human intervention.
BETNA-KODALIA 3
Md.MaksudurRahman

24
4 BHAIRAB

25
There is a misconception about the Bhairab, a distributary of the Ganga, originating at
Akheriganj of Murshidabad district in West Bengal and ultimately discharging into Jalangi,
is known as Bhairab. But this is not the trans-boundary river identified by the Indo-
Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission.
The Bhairab, the branch of the Mathabhanga originating at Meherpur, is the trans-
boundary river that needs to be focused on. We need to emphasise that the Jalangi-
Bhairab and the Bhairab flowing from the Mathabhanga are not connected in any way.
Because of lateral oscillation this river has often migrated beyond the border making it a
trans-boundary river. Right after originating, the river acts as the boundary between the
two countries at Nadia district of West Bengal and Meherpur district of Bangladesh for
almost 2 km and, thereafter, it meanders southeast through Bangladesh in Jhenidah and
Jessore districts and at Khulna branches out into two flows, Rupsha and Bhairab. Bhairab
continues its south-easterly journey and falls into Daratana river. The Rupsha travels
southwards through Khulna city and further downstream, changes its name to Pashur
near the Mongla port, and finally drains into the Bay of Bengal.
The existence of Bhairab – meaning,‘the ominous one’– goes back to antiquity, and
it is featured in the sacred Hindu texts of Kalikapurana and Bampuran. Bhairab also
means‘terrible’or‘frightful’. The names give testimony that the river once was huge and
dynamic when it was directly connected to the Ganga. Bhairab also means‘Grievous
God’with the name originating from the grievous appearance of Hindu deity‘Shiv’.
According to a Hindu tale, the river originated with Shiv’s blood when Ondhokasur, a
demon, trampled his head during a fight.
During the Muslim rule in Bengal, an army general with deep religious outlook, Hazrat
Khan Jahan Ali, often used to travel by this river. He mobilized his army and carried all
construction materials from Rajmahal in Bihar on boats to build Khalifatbad town and
60-dome mosque in Bagerhat. The Mughals also followed the same river on various
expeditions to east Bengal. In the course of time, many cities and ports were established
on its banks. Archaeological materials contemporary to the emperor Ashoka were found
at Barobazar archaeological sites in Jessore. Famous Chinese pilgrim and traveller Hiuen
Tsang came at Murali in Jessore at seventh century, presumably through the waterways
of the Bhairab. Way back in 1794, the British indigo planters had set up their first indigo
factory at Rupdia of Sadar upazila in Jessore.
Once lively, the Bhairab has now lost all its vitality. Many points of the river between
Sholmari in Meherpur and the confluence with Mathabhanga, has been turned into
paddy fields. The Bhairab is perennial and has tidal influence. Noapara is one of its major
river ports, while Mongla is a major sea port in Bangladesh.
JALANGI / BHAIRAB 4
Offtake
Nadia
Outfall
Dartana River
Mathabhanga
River
2 km
MEHERPUR
JHENIDAH
293 km
Total length
295 km
The dying Bhairab of today was once used by the Mughals for various expeditions to east Bengal.
©Md.MaksudurRahman
© Md. Maksudur Rahman

26
5 MATHABHANGA

27
Mathabhanga, literally means,‘the broken head or the head that is broken’. There are
several stories among various communities which share this river. One story holds that
the river at its source (the head as the starting point) always erodes. So, they named the
river Mathabhanga (the eroded head). Another story narrates that the river ruined lives
of many people by swallowing their homestead, wealth and everything, as if it smashed
their heads, and thus, the name, Mathabhanga. There is another story of the naming of
the river which says that the river is named Mathabhanga when it lost its connection
with its headwater, the Padma.
The Mathabhanga is one of the distributaries of the Ganga that originates in the
southeast of Jalangi, a town in the Murshidabad district of West Bengal. Due to
lateral oscillation of the Ganga and its recent northwards shift of the main flow, the
Mathabhanga is virtually disconnected from its feeder, except during the peak of
monsoon. On its meandering journey in a southern direction, the Mathabhanga forms
the international boundary between India and Bangladesh, and then crosses over to
Bangladesh through Daulatpur upazila of Kushtia district. Keeping its southern run, the
river branches out in two opposite directions: its one arm flows towards the east in the
name of Kumar or Pangasi, while the other branch turns towards the west retaining its
original name and takes a circuitous journey across Chuadanga district till it crosses over
to India.
The Mathabhanga re-enters India through Gede in the Nadia district of West Bengal,
where it gets bifurcated with two different identities. One branch runs towards the west
and assumes the name of Churni, connecting important towns of Hanskhali, Ranaghat
and Chakdaha, and finally discharges into Hugli. The other arm runs towards the south
in the name of Ichamati and crosses over to Bangladesh via the North 24-Paraganas
district. Major distributaries of the Mathabhanga include the Kumar, the Chitra, the
Nabaganga, the Kapotaksho and the Bhairab rivers.
People living along the banks of the river call the river Houlia or Hauli. There is a saying
that the river becomes familiar as Habeli or Hauli as many Habeli (local pronunciation
of Haweli or‘big house/kuthi bari’ of indigo planter) markets or indigo haats were
established on the river banks.
Mathabhanga literally means ‘the broken head’
Upstream of the river is navigable for country
boats for most parts of the year, the down-
stream has become unfit for inland transport.
Of course, people at the lower region use its
water for irrigation, fishing and other house-
hold purposes. In recent years, complaints
have been reported of massive siltation and
growing pollution due to toxic discharge
from sugarcane industries in Bangladesh, as
the river re-enters India through the Nadia
district of West Bengal.
MATHABHANGA 5
Offtake
Murshidabad
Outfall
Ichamati-Kalindi and
Churni
Ganga River
40 km
Kushtia
144 km
Total length
184 km
©Md.MaksudurRahman©Md.MaksudurRahman

28
6 GANGA / GANGES

29
GANGA / GANGES 6
Offtake
Himalaya
UTTARAKHAND
UTTAR PRADESH
Indo-Gangetic
Floodplains
BIHAR
WEST BENGAL
Outfall
Padma River
Gangotri Glacier
New Delhi
2150 km
Meandering
Chapai Nawabganj
360 km
Rajshahi
Total length
2510 km
India’s most revered river, the Ganga, is essentially composed of two major
tributaries – the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, both of which rise from the Garhwal
Himalaya close to the India-Tibet border. While the Bhagirathi emerges from the
Gangotri glacier, the Alakananda appears to its east and both meet at Devprayag from
where it is known as the Ganga for the entire course of its journey.
Another major tributary, the Yamuna, arising from the Yumanotri glaciers also flows
parallel to each other for over a thousand kilometres, connecting the national capital of
New Delhi, Mathura and Agra until it joins the Ganga and the mythical river Saraswati
at Allahabad – the great sangam (confluence), the site of one of world’s largest human
congregations during Kumbh Mela that is observed once in every 12 years. The Hindus

30
©AJMZobaidurRahman
The Legend of the Ganges
In Hinduism, the Ganga is considered the
most sacred of rivers, loved as mother and
worshipped as Goddess Ganga.
King Sagara of Ayyoddha was performing
the ritual Ashwamedha Yagya to make
him the ruler of the world. But the horse
dedicated for this ritual got stolen. As
ordered, his 60 sons set off to find the
horse. During their quest, they disturbed
the meditating great sage Kapila Muni,
who in a fit of anger turned them into
ashes. Grief stricken Sagara prayed to Lord
Shiva for restoring the departed souls to
heaven, or else their spirits, without final
rites, will remain in a restless state on
earth. That could happen if the ashes were
purified by the waters of Ganga.
Meanwhile, Sagara died and his
descendent became the the king.
He performed extreme austerity
rites for a thousand years to appease
Ganga. Impressed by the ascetic king’s
dedication, Ganga agreed to come
down to earth and purify the ashes. Lord
Shiva was concerned about the havoc
Ganga’s mighty force might cause while
descending on earth. When Mother
Ganga fell on earth, Lord Shiva’s head
received her torrential flow, from where
she made her way through the tangled
locks in seven distinct streams. The
streams followed the chariot of King
Bhagirata to reach the place where the
ashes of the king’s great grandfathers
awaited their journey to heavens.
Up to this day, sinners and worthy people
alike, pay homage to Ganga’s waters,
and many come from far and wide, to
immerse the ashes of their loved ones in
the holy waters of Ganga.
Sacred locations of Kumb Mela
Once, while the gods and the demons
were having an altercation on sharing
of‘amrit’- the elixir for life- Garuda, Lord
Vishnu’s celestial mount, swooped down
and before anybody could see or say,
made off with the vessel containing the
elixir. A few drops of the amrit fell on four
places along the river Ganga, and Kumb
Mela is held at any one of the four places
considered astrologically, auspicious.
Photo taken from Kantajew Temple, Dinajpur, Bangladesh

31
Rivers play a significant role in cultural, spiritual
and recreational aspects of people’s lives
Historically, the Ganga has
been the most harnessed
river in India, especially for
irrigation that has drastically
affected its natural water flow
believe that a dip at the Sangam during the auspicious moment of Kumbh mela
cleanses generations of sins. These confluences (prayags in Sanskrit) are the major
sites of Hindu pilgrimage that attracts millions of devotees as well as tourists from
across the world.
Most of the course of the Ganga runs across the Gangetic plain, a flat and fertile
land lying between the snow-clad Himalaya and the plateaus and hills of central
India. The Ganga leaves its mountain journey after the holy towns Rishikesh and
Haridwar, and it enters the Gangetic plain and passes by the densely populated
cities of Aligarh, Kanpur, Allahabad and Vanaras or Varanasi in Uttar pradesh.
Varanasi, regarded as holy city by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, is one of the oldest
continuously inhabited cities in the world and in India.
As it runs further east on its mid-course, the Ganga accumulates waters both from its
northern and southern tributaries. Except for Ramganga, Deoka and Gomati, which
rise in the Himalayan mountains in Uttaranchal, most of the northern tributaries
originate in Nepal such as, Karnali (which meets with Mahakali/Sarada and becomes
Ghagra in India), the Gandaki (which together with the eastern river Rapti becomes
Gandak in India) and Kosi – all converge in Bihar. Through these tributaries the
Ganga receives most of its flows from the slopes of the Himalaya.
The most important southern tributary is the Yamuna, which gathers waters of
rain-fed, non-Himalayan tributaries Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son emerging from the
Vindhyas range in Madhyapradesh. The Ganga moves further southeast till it meets
up with the Mahananda, before entering West Bengal, and, thereafter, crosses over
the international border with Bangladesh.
A few kilometres before entering Bangladesh, the Bhagirati, a distributary of the
Ganga heads south towards Kolkata, the state capital of West Bengal, where it
assumes the name of Hugli after being joined by the Damodar and the Rupnarayan.
The main channel continues to flow southeast and enters Bangladesh through
Sibganj upazila of the Chapainawabganj district, while continuing its course as
the Ganges, till it joins the Jamuna at Goalando. From this confluence the Ganges
changes its name to Padma and travels further down to join the Upper Meghna
near Chandpur, where all waters of the three big river systems surge into a colossal
waterways, known as the Lower Meghna and eventually discharges into the Bay
of Bengal. In Bangladesh, several distributaries of the Ganges such as, the Gorai,
the Kumar, the Mathabanga among others feed the Sundarban, one of the largest
mangrove forests in the world.
Historically, the Ganga has been the most harnessed river in India, especially for
irrigation that has drastically affected its natural water flow, volume as well as the
accompanying sediment dispersal process, as large irrigation channels and flood
control structures were built. Reference to canals has been described in scriptures
and mythological books written more than 2,000 years ago. The use of irrigation
in India was recorded by Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, in the 4th century BC.
During the Muslim rule from the 12th century, irrigation network multiplied with
the Mughal Kings constructing several large canals across the alluvial plains. Several
dams have been built, including Hardwar dam that was built in 1854, which, many
believe drastically changed the course and character of the Ganga. It is also one of
the most polluted rivers in the world.
Despite all that, the Ganga, apart from providing livelihoods for millions of farmers
and fisher folks in the Gangetic plains, both in India and Bangladesh, plays a
significant role in cultural, spiritual and recreational aspects of people’s lives. The
mystical Ganga has always attracted people to its banks – not only just farmers and
fisher folks, but also saints, poets, painters; musicians and adventure sports people
such as rafters and anglers.
GANGA/GANGES 6
EklavyaPrasad

32
7 PAGLA

33
Pagla emerges from south west of Malda district as one of the channels of the Ganga
near a place called, Panchanandapur, 22 km upstream of Farakka, runs southeastwards
and is joined by another branch of the Ganga, named Chotto Bhagirathi near Mehedipur
border. The combined river then crosses over to Bangladesh through Sibganj Upazila
of Chapainawabganj district. On its southern course, Pagla passes by the historic
Sonamasjid at Sibganj, connecting important towns of Shahbazpur, Mobarakpur and
Kanshatbazar, and then eventually, outfalls into the Ganges.
Pagla is a perennial river but highly restive, with its changing features, and is probably
why the river acquired a sobriquet‘Pagla’– meaning‘a crazy one’in Bangla. For years,
local people claim that they have observed its frequently changing behaviour especially
during the monsoon months: at times, one observes its very fast-flowing waters, spilling
over the banks, but a while later, the river appears calm with its water falling down
abruptly much below its bank lines.
In summer, paddy is cultivated on both sides of the river, while fisher folks remain
engaged in fishing throughout the year, despite the declining freshwater fish population
and its diversity due to increasing pollution and changing water regime of the river. For
example, earlier the stream of the Moraganga used to reinforce the water flow of the
Pagla, which got disrupted after construction of an irrigation structure at the confluence
of the two rivers.
Chapainawabganj is also famous for its mango production. Large tracts of mango
groves are seen along the river banks of Pagla, and people always use its waters to
irrigate their mango plantations. Earlier, village elders say, Chapainawabganj used be a
thriving commercial center, where traders came up along the Ganga for mango cargo. It
still continues to be an important commercial town, even as production of mango has
declined over the years.
The Ganges, which serves as the southeastern boundary of the district of
Chapainawabganj in Bangladesh, nourished its agrarian population and provided
infrastructure support to help develop the regional economy.
PAGLA 7
Bhashail - a traditional fishing gear, has become a rare sight in Bangladesh
Offtake
Ganga
MALDA
Paddy
Outfall
Ganges
47 km
Chapainawabganj
Mango Orchards
36 km
Total length
83 km
©Md.MaksudurRahman

34
9 PUNARBHABA

35
Punarbhaba, said to be an ancient river that features in the Puranas (Hindu sacred
texts), is now shared by Bangladesh and India. Originating from the marshylands in Birganj
upazila of the Dinajpur district in Bangladesh, Punarbhaba – meaning in Sanskrit is‘born
again’or simply,‘appear again’– trickles out as a tiny stream through places like Dalua,
Kaharole and Birol, before it crosses the international border.
Kaharole Bazaar, the biggest wholesale trading centre of Dinajpur district, has grown
over the years along the river. The market is famous for wholesale trading in rice and jute
that draws traders from within the country, and even across the border. River vessels
including big sailing boats and engine boats used to ply in the river, as it had abundant
water for navigation throughout the year. Now, with decline in water flow during of the
year, the river communication network has deteriorated over the years. Inland water
ways are used locally only during the monsoon months.
Excessive extraction of underground water by powered deep tube well for enhancement
of irrigation facilities has also contributed to the fall of water level in the river as well
as the ground water table. Elderly people living around the immediate stretches of the
river say the area used to be covered in deep forest and served as the natural habitats
for wildlife. The river then used to be named as Pumva.
From Dinajpur, as the Punarbhaba heads south towards India, it is joined by its two
tributaries- Dhepa and Narto. People talk of some unexplained phenomenon in the
connection between the Punarbhaba and its tributary the Dhepa, which meets the
former at Bangi Bechar Ghat, close to the border with India. They claim when water rises
in the Punarbhaba, the flow in its tributary, Dhepa, drastically comes down, and the
via-a-versa, that is, when the Dhepa gains water, its level in the main river, Punarbhaba,
falls below its normal flow. This phenomenon, claimed by the local people, needs to be
verified through a scientific study.
The Punarbhaba enters through Gangarampur town of Dakshin Dinajpur district in India
and flows south across the district to reach the adjoining Indian town of Malda, where
it forms the international border at a few stretches while veering for a small distance
into the territories of both the countries. The Punarbhaba finally enters Bangladesh and
outfalls into the Mahananda river in Chapainawabganj district.
PUNARBHABA 9
Fishing at river Punarbhaba
Offtake
Marshy Lowland
Forms the
in some stretches
Gangarampur
Dakshin dinajpur
Outfall
Mahananda
DINAJPUR
61 km
Kaharole Bazaar
Wholesale Trading
in Rice and Jute
Excessive
groundwater
extraction
156 km
55 km
Total length
217 km
©Md.MaksudurRahman

36
10 TULAI / TENTULIA

37
Is it Tentulia or Tulai? Opinion differs about its name and its appearance. One view
describes the river as‘Rakshshini (the fierce one) Tentulia’, while the other finds it as rather
a small quiet-flowing river the Tulai. However, there seems to be no doubt about its source
and location, that is, the swampy lands of Bochaogaon-Atgaon areas of Dinajpur district in
Bangladesh.
It appears as a trickle and flows through Atgaon-Mollapara upazila of the district, and
takes the shape of a small river when it reaches the Biral upazila close to the international
border. Soon after that the Tulai slips into the Indian territory through Uttar Dinajpur
district of West Bengal. It later joins the Tangon, which runs to its west and outfalls into
the Mahananda.
Like many other rivers in the alluvial plains, the Tulai is vital for the farming and fishing
communities, which solely depend on its waters and its uninterrupted supply. However,
the water level of theTulai is decreasing by years.This is now worsened due to diversion of
river water as well as indiscriminate extraction of ground water for irrigation of farmlands
on both sides of the river banks.
Tulai /Tentulia is the northernmost river in Bangladesh. It is a seasonal river, and has a
meandering course. Earlier, it was prone to floods several times in a year, but now the
intensity of floods has reduced to a large extent. During the dry season, rice is cultivated
in the bed of the river by local people living along its banks.
Historically, the river has been a mute witness to rise and fall
of many ancient towns and human settlements on its banks.
Several archaeological sites and artefacts have been discovered
along the river – believed to be of the Pal dynasty.
TULAI / TENTULIA 10
During dry season, the Tentulia becomes almost beheaded, rice is cultivated at its river bed by local people
living along the banks.
A village boy trying to climb up a
coconut tree
Offtake
Swampy Lowland
Uttar Dinajpur
Outfall
Tangon River
Dinajpur
45 km
Seasonal
20 km
Total length
65 km
©Md.MaksudurRahman

38
11 TANGON

39
Tangon rises around the Hatiaganj-Bahati areas of the Uttar Dinajpur district in India,
close to the international border. Soon after its initial run in India, it slips into the territories
of Bangladesh as a tiny stream through the Garinabari union of Panchagarh Sadar upazila.
While in Bangladesh where it spends most part of its journey, taking a southwestern
direction, Tangon emerges as one of the prominent rivers, which contributed to the well
being and local economy of the northwestern region. At least three major district towns
of Panchagarh, Thakurgaon and Dinajpur have grown along the banks of the Tangon.
It travels through important towns and trading centers – Panchagarh, Thakurgaon,
Autowari, Pirganj, Ruhia, Bochaganj and Biral – before Tangon re-enters India through
Uttar Dinajpur district of West Bengal.
After re-entering India, the Tangon continues its southern journey through the districts of
Dakshin Dinajpur and Malda, and later, outfalls into the Mahananda, which subsequently
joins Punarbhaba that runs to its east along the India-Bangladesh border, after crossing
over again to Bangladesh through Naogaon district.
There are folk narratives about the changing name and history of Tangon. People living
in the upstream of Tangon basin claim that originally, the river was known as Tangali. This
can be corroborated by the ‘Tangali Bridge’ built the Panchagarh district many years ago.
However, after the bridge was reconstructed with raised height, the name of the bridge
was changed from‘Tangali’to‘Tangon’.
Interestingly, the Tangon is called ‘Senua’ and ‘Shukh’ by the people residing around
the Tangon barrage, located at the inter-district boundary of the Panchagarh and
Thakurgaon districts. The Tangon appears wider, and even said to be deeper, in its stretch
in Thakurgaon district.
At several stretches on the Tangon, certain areas such as, Ataiyer ghat-Mochlondapur in
Thakurgaon, and Burabondor-Dhuhusho areas of Moranodi (dead river) in Panchagarh,
have been declared as fish sanctuaries.. These sanctuaries are run by fishermen co-
operatives in the respective districts for restoring the fish stocks and to support the
livelihood of the riverine communities as well as help conservation of freshwater fish
diversity.
The original Tangon is now known as ‘Moranodi’ as the course has changed its direction,
following the construction of an irrigation barrage.
TANGON 11
After retting of jute for one week or more jute fibres are taken out by people from the retted plant body and
washed thoroughly in the river systems.
Offtake
UTTAR DINAJPUR
Lowland
Fish Sanctuaries
Dakshin DINAJPUR
WEST BENGAL
MALDA
Outfall
Mahananda River
PANCHAGARH
Tangon Barrage
THAKURGAON
123 km
DINAJPUR
130 km
Total length
253 km
©Md.MaksudurRahman

40
12 KULIK

41
KULIK / KOKIL 12
A rather small and narrow stream, Kulik emerges from a wetland, locally known as
Morar Beel, meaning,‘a water body of the dead’in Raipur area of Baliadangi upazila
in the Thakurgaon district of Bangladesh. From its source, the Kulik, also called, Kuluk
or even Kulik-Kokil by local elders, meanders south through the towns and urban
settlements of Sadar, Ranishangkoil and Haripur in the same district.
From Haripur upazila, the Kulik serves as the India-Bangladesh border for a short
distance before its crosses over to India. The river retains the same name as it
enters through the southern part of Uttar Dinajpur district of West Bengal and
winds its way down southwest across the bustling city of Raiganj to join the Nagar
flowing to its west. After travelling around 2 km, the united stream outfalls into the
Mahananda, south of Raiganj at the tri-junction of the Katihar district of Bihar, and
the North Dinajpur and Malda districts of West Bengal.
Local people say, Kulik was once a perennial river; it was a part of a well-developed
inland water transport network. Country boats of various sizes and types used to
operate on the river all round the year, providing the necessary infrastructure for
movement of goods and people. The remains of famous Tankanath zamindar bari on
the banks of the Kulik suggests its past importance in the life and economy of the
region.
Now, like many other rivers, the Kulik has lost its original water flow and depth, and
remains dry for the most part of the year, only to be energized during the monsoon
months. This changes the hydrological character of the river- especially the loss of
navigability due to sedimentation and rise of the river bed. Local farmers, living
along the river, are now using the river bed for paddy cultivation, and raising mud
structures to protect their crops. In a way, this is also accelerating the process of
degradation of the river.
The shift of focus from rivers - as a secure mode of travel and transport, due to its
uncertainty, lack of safety and fast mobility – to land transport network, has further
contributed to its neglect.
However, despite all this, thousands of farming families and fisher people sustain
their lives on a daily basis from the resources of the river. Local people say there is
plenty of fish of native varieties, and with community-based conservation initiative
along the river, fishing can be a sustainable source of livelihood and income.
The Kulik is locally known as ‘Morar Beel’ meaning ‘a water body of the dead’.
Offtake
Wetland
WEST BENGAL
Outfall
Tangon River
BIHAR
Moral Beel
THAKURGAON
62 km
Loss of
original flow
66 km
Total length
128 km
Remains of the famous Tankanath
Zamindar bari (landlords home)
on the bank of the Kulik
©Md.MaksudurRahman

42
13 NAGAR

43
When British geographer Major Rennel drew his river atlas of Bengal in 1776, he
identified Nagar as one of the tributaries of Karatoya, flowing to its east. However, the
Nagar seems to have abandoned its original course following the devastating floods of
1787 that changed courses of all the major rivers emerging from the Himalaya.
Now the Nagar is seen as a new born river which rises from the north-eastern region
of the North Dinajpur district of West Bengal, close to the international border with
Bangladesh. From its source, it straight way crosses over to Bangladesh through its
north-eastern district of Panchagarh, and after a few kilometres, it re-enters India
and takes a south-western journey, forming the international boundary between the
entire eastern stretch of North Dinajpur district of India and Thakurgaon and Dinajpur
districts of Bangladesh.
While flowing through Panchagarh district of Bangladesh, the Nagar is joined by
another small stream‘Nagori, which also emerges from the Indian side, near the
vicinity of the border. There are enduring folk stories woven around the two‘charming
lovers’– Nagar and Nagori – as the united river Nagar, (‘the enchanted lover’) traverses
the alluvial plains between Panchagarh and Thakurgaon districts of north-western
Bangladesh, before it crosses over again into India through Moshaga-Baganbari areas
of North Dinajpur.
Thereafter, the Nagar continues to flow maintaining its southern course and serving as
the interstate boundary between Bihar and West Bengal, and later, joins another river,
the Kulik, which runs parallel to the east of the Nagar through the district. Both the
rivers subsequently fall into the Mahananda.
In the past decades, locals say the water flow and the riverine landscape in both
countries along the Nagar has undergone a drastic change, with problems of siltation
and rise of river bed causing seasonal floods and bank erosion. Nonetheless, farmers
and fisher folks along the river still hugely depend on its waters.
Structural interventions regulating its watercourse in both the countries have also
affected the livelihoods of the neighbouring people.
NAGAR 13
Offtake
UTTAR DINAJPUR
Siltation
Erosion
Outfall
Mahananda River
75 km
25 km
DINAJPUR
85 km
Total length
185 km
Fishing with this kind of traditional gear is a common sight in riverine Bangladesh
©Md.MaksudurRahman

44
14 MAHANANDA

45
Mahananda or‘Mahaladi’ - which means the‘sacred flow’in the language of the
Lepcha community - rises from the Himalayan region near Chimli, east of Kurseong, in
the Darjeeling district at an elevation of nearly 7000 ft asl.
On its descending southwestern course from the source, the Mahananda traverses
broadly three fast-urbanising areas between West Bengal and Bihar - first it flows
through Siliguri, a burgeoning commercial hub in the Darjeeling district, skirts along the
North Dinajpur district, then runs across the thriving towns of Kishanganj and Katihar
districts of Bihar, and then re-enters West Bengal through the famous former British
town, aptly named, Englishbazar (Ingrez Bazar) in the Malda district.
In between, another river, Balason rising from the west of the source of the Mahananda,
joins the latter a few kilometres below Siliguri, and soon after, for some distance,
serves as the international border from Phensidewa (India) to Tentulia (Panchagarh,
Bangladesh) through which it crosses over to Bangladesh.
As such, the Mahananda river system has been the principal historical and cultural link
in northern Bengal region and their human settlements. The Mahananda re-enters India
through the Chopra Block of North Dinajpur and flows southwest across the Kishanganj,
Purnei and Katihar districts of Bihar, and then again, further downstream, it runs across
the Malda district. At Beni Bari - Baghdob area in the Kishanganj district of Bihar, the
river is divided into two streams: one branch turns to western direction in the name of
Fulohar, flowing through west Malda and then falls into the Ganga near Manikchak. The
eastern arm retains its original name, Mahananda, and runs through the heart of Malda’s
famous town English Bazar. In the meantime, it is joined by the Kalindri and further
downstream by the Nagar on its left bank, before it crosses over to Chapainawabganj
district in Bangladesh and eventually outfalls into the Ganges at Godaghari ghat.
On its downstream in Bangladesh, another tributary - Punarbhaba joins the Mahananda.
At Gomastapur upazila and makes the current of the river more strong and fast flowing.
Plenty of water remains all year round at the confluence of the Punarbhaba with the
Mahananda. It is the deepest part of the river and called Doha, locally. The confluence of
Mahananda and Ganges is also a critical habitat for river dolphins.
Better communication system and fertile plain lands across the Malda and Rajshahi
districts in undivided Bangladesh attracted several British companies to the region for
indigo cultivation. Many small markets (haats) sprang up around indigo business in the
region. English bazaar is one of them. Some evidences of indigo cultivation including
indigo factory ground, chimney, and obsolete spare parts of indigo factories, are still
seen in the region. The region is also famous for its mango production.
MAHANANDA 14
Offtake
Hilly Area, 7000 ft asl
DARJEELING
WEST BENGAL
UTTAR DINAJPUR
BIHAR
MALDA
‘English Bazaar’
Indigo cultivation
in colonial times
Outfall
Ganges River
Forms the
in some stretches
299 km
90 km
ChapaiNawabganj
River Dolphins
Total length
389 km
Fishing
Md.MaksudurRahman

46
15 DAHUK

47
The river Dahuk originates from two heads located in the marshlands southwest
of Jugibhita within Rajganj Block in the Jalpaiguri district, near the borders with
Bangladesh. Of these, the more easterly stream called the Chakor (a bird who loves the
moon secretly) loses that name once it combines with the more westerly stream called
the Dahuk (a bird). Thereafter, the united river is identified by the latter name. Although
the combined length of the Dahuk in its starting segment in India is short, the spread of
gachhdari (forest tenancy) settlements on either side of the border attest to the formerly
forested nature of the sub-Himalayan Terai, and also to its notoriety as an endemic
malarial area which for long kept it relatively unsettled.
Soon after the Bengal Dewani had been bestowed upon the British, Major James Rennell
visited the Dahuk source area in early 1766 on his cartographic survey of regional rivers,
reporting it as being mostly uncultivated and barely inhabited plains. A fair proportion
of this area today has been converted into small grower tea plantations, although the
population in the area is still relatively thin.
Heading due south from its place of origin, the Dahuk crosses the international border
and traverses the breadth of Tentulia Upazila in the Panchagarh district in Bangladesh.
It then re-enters India through Uttar Dinajpur district, uniting below Khochabari
and Atharikhai villages with another minor trans-border stream that drains out the
Bhajanpur area of Tentulia Upazila. It feeds into the Mahananda, shortly after the latter
has traversed the interstate border and has entered Bihar.
The main Dahuk stream, itself a major right-bank tributary of the Mahananda, is met
from its own right and left banks by several minor streams in Uttar Dinajpur district.
The Berang and Bhola rivers are important right-bank tributaries of the Dahuk in
Chopra Block, originating close to the border tri-junction between Darjeeling and
North Dinajpur districts in India and Tentulia Upazila in Panchagarh, Bangladesh. All
these tributaries greatly augment the river flow of the Mahananda in northeast Bihar,
particularly during the monsoon months.
DAHUK 15
A river is always a source of pleasure, particularly to the young people
Offtake
JALPAIGURI
Marsh land
UTTAR DINAJPUR
KISHANGARH
Outfall
Mahananda River
Malarial area
12 km
PANCHAGARH
103 km
Total length
115 km
Md.MaksudurRahman

48
The Brahmaputra/Jamuna Basin
11 India Bangladesh
14 Transboundary Rivers
8 Atrai/Atreyee*
16 Karatoya
17 Talma
18 Ghoramara
19 Deonai-Jamuneswari
20 Buri Teesta/Buri Tista
21 Tista/Teesta
22 Jaldhakha/Dharla
23 Torsa/Raidak/Dudhkumar
24 Yarlung-Tsangpo/Brahmaputra/Jamuna
25 Jinjiram
The Brahmaputra basin, which covers
a catchment area of about 5,52,000
square kilometres, is almost half the
size of the Ganga/Ganges yet produces
flow almost double of its neighbouring
basin. Situated between 82° 1É to 97°
46É longitudes and 22° 27Ń to 31°
27Ń latitudes, the drainage area of the
Brahmaputra covers four countries,
China, India, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
It still remains largely unharnessed and
with many areas still unchartered, it is
one of the most intriguing regions of
the world. The diversity and complexity
in the geology, physiography, climate,
ecology and even ethnology, makes
the basin unique and to an extent,
enchanting.
On its journey to the sea, the river
Brahmaputra moves across different
physiographic zones: the cold dry
plateau of Tibet, the rain-drenched
Himalayan slopes, landlocked alluvial
plains and the vast deltaic lowlands.
The drainage area of the Brahmaputra covers four countries, China,
India, Bhutan and Bangladesh. It still remains a largely unharnessed
and unchartered regions of the world.
* We have maintained the numbers of the rivers given
by Indo-Bangla JRC. However, the Atrai/Atreyee falls into
the Jamuna (Brahmaputra). Hence this river is placed in
Brahmaputra basin.

50
The Brahmaputra rises at a high
altitude, in a geologically complex area
and this part of the basin rests on top
of the Tibetan Plateau, which includes
the Himalayan and Kailash ranges and
many of the highest mountain peaks
in the world. The Yarlung Tsangpo
curves from the west towards the
north and ultimately towards the
east as it travels through the Tsangpo
canyon or gorge. Steeped in mystery
and legends, the canyon remained
unexplored until the 19th century and
captured the imagination of travellers
and storytellers for many decades.
Even today it remains one of the most
inaccessible and remote areas of the
world. With deepest reaches at around
6,009m, the canyon is regarded as
the deepest in the world. Entrenched
between the Namcha Barwa and Gyala
Peri mountains, the canyon makes a
sharp decent towards India creating
giant waterfalls. Hidden in this rugged
wilderness, the falls and the canyon
were held sacred to Tibetan Buddhism
and only accessed by Tibetan hunters
and Buddhist monks. Thus, only in
1886 the Yarlung Tsangpo was first
established as the upper reaches of
the Brahmaputra beyond reasonable
doubt. The area suffers from geological
stresses - seismic activities and
landslides are common and studies
suggest that the gorge is still evolving.
The river cascades into the flat plains
of the Brahmaputra valley which is
bounded by two parallel hill ranges –
the eastern Himalayan ranges and the
north eastern hill ranges of Meghalaya.
The gradient of the Brahmaputra
channel is as steep as 4.3 m/km to
16.8 m/km in the gorge section
upstream of Pasighat in Arunachal
Pradesh but in the flood plains it is as
flat as 0.1m/km.
Even in average conditions, the
Brahmaputra is one of the widest
rivers in the world. In the plains of
Assam the average width is almost
Even in average conditions,
the Brahmaputra is one of
the widest rivers in the world
whose average width is upto
12 km in some places in
Bangladesh
©AJMZobaidurRahman
The return-1

51
10 km, although at Saraighat, a place
near Guwahati, Assam the bank-to-
bank width narrows down to 1 km. In
Bangladesh the average width increases
to almost 8 km and in some places
average width can be up to 12 km.
The basin enjoys a varied climate;
harsh, cold and dry conditions in
the upstream and a hot and humid
climate in its downstream section with
the Himalaya having a dominating
influence on the climate of the areas
in the basin. Average temperature
is about 0 °C in the Tibetan winter
season whereas summer is mild and
sunny. In the downstream (India
and Bangladesh), the average annual
temperature varies from 26-29°C.
The Tsangpo river valley lies in the
rain shadow of the Himalaya, and
precipitation there is relatively light:
Lhasa receives about 400 mm annually,
in contrast, the plains of Assam and
Bangladesh experience high rainfall,
around 3,800 mm, but the wettest
part of the basin is clearly, the north
eastern foothills in Bhutan and India
where rainfall is in the range of 3500
mm to 4000 mm. Monsoon rain starts
from June to September and accounts
for 60-70% of the annual rainfall in
the basin. Snowfall is experienced in
the Brahmaputra basin in areas with
elevations of 1,500 m and above.
Numerous glaciers also contribute
snowmelt all along the river into
its upper reaches, especially during
April through August. The flow of the
Brahmaputra responds to the seasonal
pattern of this monsoon and snowmelt
cycle of the basin and the large
variation in the river’s discharge over
different seasons is a unique feature of
its flow regime.
The basin is a storehouse of genetic
diversity. The ice-covered mountain-
tops and valleys in the upper reaches,
with low rainfall and thin soil cover,
exhibit prominently sparse vegetation.
At the plateau of Tibet, the catchment
of Yarlung Tsangpo mainly consists of
drought-resistant shrubs and grasses.
With changing climatic conditions,
grasslands, meadows, marshes, scrub
forests, mixed deciduous forests and
humid evergreen forests are commonly
seen in and around the river valley in
Assam and Bangladesh. On the other
hand, the fertile soil and favorable
climatic conditions of the heavily
populated floodplains in Assam and
Bangladesh have supported cultivation
of paddy, wheat and staples for
hundreds of years. The basin is home
to rare mammals such as one-horned
rhinoceros, mishmi takin, red goral,
musk deer, red panda, Asiatic black
bear, tiger and Gongshan muntjac
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Distance in hundred km
Longitudinal profile of the Brahmaputra
Elevationinmetres
CHINA INDIA BANGLADESH
SHIGATSE
TSELAD’ZONG
PE
EntersIndia
PASIGHAT
KOBO
BESSAMORA
PANDU
EntersBangladesh
BAYOFBENGAL
1.63 m/km
4.3-16.8m/km
0.62m/km
0.27m/km
0.17m/km
0.15m/km
0.14m/km
0.11m/km
0.094m/km
0.079m/km
THE BRAHMAPUTRA/JAMUNA BASIN
Steeped in mystery and
legends the Tsangpo gorge
remained unexplored until
the 19th century and
captured the imagination
of travellers and storytellers.
Source:Sarma,2005

52
and threatened birds such as Sclater’s
Monal and Blyth’s Tragopan spotted in
the Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve
and UNESCO-declared World Heritage
site, the Kaziranga National Park in
central Assam.
The cultural diversity of the basin is
also astounding. On the banks of the
Yarlung Tsangpo live the Tibetans who
mostly practice Buddhism and ancient
Tibetian language. The people of the
Brahmaputra valley are an intermixture
of various ethnic groups consisting
of Mongoloid, Indo-Burmese, Indo-
Iranian and Aryan. The traditional
language is Assamese, but many
tribes such as, Bodo, Kachari, Karbi,
Miri, Mishimi, Rabha have their own
languages. Further downstream, on
the banks of the Jamuna, the language
of the people of the flood plains
is Bengalee. No matter what their
ethnicity or language, for hundreds
of years, people have lived along its
banks, dependent on the mighty river’s
pulse for the rhythms of their lives. The
Brahmaputra has inspired many poets,
painters and musicians who created
enduring works of arts woven with
people’s life and culture.
The wettest part of the basin
is clearly, the north eastern
foothills in Bhutan and India
where rainfall is in the range
of 3500 mm to 4000 mm.
Activities at the Aricha Ferry Ghat, Bangladesh
©GaneshPangare

53
1. A small island on the Brahmaputra, Assam
2. The longest bridge in Bangladesh on the Jamuna
3. Wild life in Kaziranga National Park, Assam
ShamimAraKhondaker©AJMZobaidurRahman
©KazimUddinAhmed
1
2
3

54
8 ATRAI/ATREYEE

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