This document summarizes a study that analyzed model petroleum compounds using high-resolution mass spectrometry with atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI), atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), and electrospray ionization (ESI) in order to better understand the ionization efficiency of different compound classes. The study found that APPI was able to ionize the widest range of compounds, including two-ring PAHs, oxygenated PAHs, and anhydrides. APCI and ESI were more limited in the compounds they could ionize. Factors like size, structure, functional groups, heteroatom content, and methylation level affected ionization efficiency across the sources. Alkanes could not be ion
Photo-oxygenation of trans anethole (1), the main constituent of anise essential oil, using tetraphenylporphyrine (TPP) as a singlet oxygen sensitizer in chloroform gave 4-methoxybenzaldehyde (p-anisaldhyde) (2), 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)propan-2-ol (3) as well as erythro and threo 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,2-diol (4a, 4b). The structures of the photo-oxygenation products were elucidated by spectral means.
Evaluating Utility of APCI MS for Analyzing Organic PeroxidesAmanda Jameer
This study evaluated the ability of an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometer (APCI-MS) to detect various organic peroxides. Five organic peroxide standards were analyzed using the APCI-MS with both protonated water and methanol clusters as ionization reagents. Ionization with protonated water clusters primarily produced fragment ions, while protonated methanol clusters generated stable adduct ions for most peroxides. Specifically, tert-butyl hydroperoxide and peracetic acid showed a characteristic neutral loss of 34 amu, corresponding to H2O2, when ionized with protonated methanol. Overall, protonated methanol clusters were found to be a more effective ionization reagent for APCI-MS analysis
Structural and Spectroscopical Studies for a Complex Macromolecule (hGH)IOSR Journals
This document describes a study examining the effects of various environmental factors on the tertiary structure of human growth hormone (hGH) using UV spectroscopy. The factors investigated include pH, ionic strength using halides and divalent cations, temperature, and denaturants like urea. The results show that tryptophan residues are buried inside the hGH structure while tyrosine residues are on the surface. Changes in pH, salts, and other conditions cause shifts in the UV absorption peaks, indicating alterations in hGH structure. The study provides insights into how hGH conformation responds to biochemical changes in the body.
GC-MS is a technique that combines gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy to analyze mixtures of chemicals. Gas chromatography separates the components of a mixture, while mass spectroscopy characterizes each individual component. By combining the two techniques, analytical chemists can qualitatively and quantitatively evaluate solutions containing a few chemicals. GC-MS has a broad range of applications, including use in environmental science to quantify organic contaminants, forensic toxicology, criminal investigations, and law enforcement for drug detection.
The document describes a proposed study to develop a novel class of photoswitchable carboxylic acids whose acidity can be reversibly controlled by light. Dithienylethene compounds will be synthesized that can switch between open and closed states with different light wavelengths. The closed state is expected to be more conjugated, allowing electron donating/withdrawing substituents to influence acidity. Quantum calculations and acidity comparisons will predict acidity changes between states. Target compounds will be synthesized and characterized, with acidity measurements used to validate light-controlled changes. If successful, these photoswitchable acids could enable new applications in catalysis, biochemistry, and more.
1) Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a hyphenated technique that combines gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different molecules within a sample.
2) GC separates the components in a mixture through partitioning between a mobile and stationary phase, while MS identifies molecules by detecting their mass.
3) Common ionization techniques used in GC-MS include electron impact and chemical ionization. Mass analyzers like quadrupole, ion trap, and time-of-flight are used to detect ions.
4) GC-MS has applications in pharmaceutical analysis, forensics, anti-doping testing, and newborn screening for inborn errors of metabolism.
mass spectrometry for pesticides residue analysis- L1sherif Taha
This is the first lecture in series of lectures on mass spectrometry for pesticides residue analysis. This lecture (1) include Pesticides classification, introduction to mass spectrometry, vacuum system for Agilent GC MS/ MS and AB SCIEX LC MS/ MS
A copper-catalyzed synthesis of N-sulfonylamidines is reported via a three-component coupling of sulfonyl azides, terminal alkynes, and trialkylamines. The reaction involves the formation of a ketenimine intermediate through 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of the sulfonyl azide and copper acetylide, which is then trapped by the trialkylamine to form the N-sulfonylamidine product. The method provides a practical route for synthesizing functionalized N-sulfonylamidines in good yields under mild conditions.
Photo-oxygenation of trans anethole (1), the main constituent of anise essential oil, using tetraphenylporphyrine (TPP) as a singlet oxygen sensitizer in chloroform gave 4-methoxybenzaldehyde (p-anisaldhyde) (2), 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)propan-2-ol (3) as well as erythro and threo 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,2-diol (4a, 4b). The structures of the photo-oxygenation products were elucidated by spectral means.
Evaluating Utility of APCI MS for Analyzing Organic PeroxidesAmanda Jameer
This study evaluated the ability of an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometer (APCI-MS) to detect various organic peroxides. Five organic peroxide standards were analyzed using the APCI-MS with both protonated water and methanol clusters as ionization reagents. Ionization with protonated water clusters primarily produced fragment ions, while protonated methanol clusters generated stable adduct ions for most peroxides. Specifically, tert-butyl hydroperoxide and peracetic acid showed a characteristic neutral loss of 34 amu, corresponding to H2O2, when ionized with protonated methanol. Overall, protonated methanol clusters were found to be a more effective ionization reagent for APCI-MS analysis
Structural and Spectroscopical Studies for a Complex Macromolecule (hGH)IOSR Journals
This document describes a study examining the effects of various environmental factors on the tertiary structure of human growth hormone (hGH) using UV spectroscopy. The factors investigated include pH, ionic strength using halides and divalent cations, temperature, and denaturants like urea. The results show that tryptophan residues are buried inside the hGH structure while tyrosine residues are on the surface. Changes in pH, salts, and other conditions cause shifts in the UV absorption peaks, indicating alterations in hGH structure. The study provides insights into how hGH conformation responds to biochemical changes in the body.
GC-MS is a technique that combines gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy to analyze mixtures of chemicals. Gas chromatography separates the components of a mixture, while mass spectroscopy characterizes each individual component. By combining the two techniques, analytical chemists can qualitatively and quantitatively evaluate solutions containing a few chemicals. GC-MS has a broad range of applications, including use in environmental science to quantify organic contaminants, forensic toxicology, criminal investigations, and law enforcement for drug detection.
The document describes a proposed study to develop a novel class of photoswitchable carboxylic acids whose acidity can be reversibly controlled by light. Dithienylethene compounds will be synthesized that can switch between open and closed states with different light wavelengths. The closed state is expected to be more conjugated, allowing electron donating/withdrawing substituents to influence acidity. Quantum calculations and acidity comparisons will predict acidity changes between states. Target compounds will be synthesized and characterized, with acidity measurements used to validate light-controlled changes. If successful, these photoswitchable acids could enable new applications in catalysis, biochemistry, and more.
1) Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a hyphenated technique that combines gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different molecules within a sample.
2) GC separates the components in a mixture through partitioning between a mobile and stationary phase, while MS identifies molecules by detecting their mass.
3) Common ionization techniques used in GC-MS include electron impact and chemical ionization. Mass analyzers like quadrupole, ion trap, and time-of-flight are used to detect ions.
4) GC-MS has applications in pharmaceutical analysis, forensics, anti-doping testing, and newborn screening for inborn errors of metabolism.
mass spectrometry for pesticides residue analysis- L1sherif Taha
This is the first lecture in series of lectures on mass spectrometry for pesticides residue analysis. This lecture (1) include Pesticides classification, introduction to mass spectrometry, vacuum system for Agilent GC MS/ MS and AB SCIEX LC MS/ MS
A copper-catalyzed synthesis of N-sulfonylamidines is reported via a three-component coupling of sulfonyl azides, terminal alkynes, and trialkylamines. The reaction involves the formation of a ketenimine intermediate through 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of the sulfonyl azide and copper acetylide, which is then trapped by the trialkylamine to form the N-sulfonylamidine product. The method provides a practical route for synthesizing functionalized N-sulfonylamidines in good yields under mild conditions.
This document provides an overview of quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) studies for sorption and accumulation of anionic and non-ionic surfactants. It discusses the limitations of using log P (octanol-water partition coefficient) in QSAR models for surfactants. Specifically, it analyzes QSAR studies of alcohol ethoxylates (AE), representing non-ionic surfactants, and linear alkyl benzene sulphates (LAS), representing anionic surfactants. The document evaluates alternatives that have been proposed to address the limitations of log P-based QSARs for predicting the environmental behavior of surfactants.
This document describes a study that used ultrahigh-resolution mass spectrometry to characterize a weathering series of crude oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill. The study found an increase in oxygenated compounds in more weathered oils, suggesting the formation of acidic, ketonic, and quinonic compounds through oxidation processes during weathering. The use of multiple ionization modes was able to provide more comprehensive characterization by accessing different functional groups in the complex oil mixtures.
This document discusses a study that measured secondary organic aerosol (SOA) yields and ozonolysis rate constants for a series of C5-C7 alkenes. The study found that SOA yields were generally greater for cyclic alkenes compared to their linear analogs. It also found that the position and identity of functional groups on oxygenated alkenes influenced both SOA yield and reaction kinetics through steric and electronic effects. The document concludes that small differences in molecular structure can have significant impacts on a VOC's atmospheric behavior and SOA-forming potential.
This document describes a study applying chemometric dimension reduction techniques (principal component analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, and positive least-squares discriminant analysis) to analyze complex gas and particle composition data from environmental chamber experiments of biogenic volatile organic compound photooxidation and secondary organic aerosol formation. The techniques are used to classify the oxidation systems and resultant secondary organic aerosols according to controlling chemistry and products formed. Results show model biogenic oxidative systems can be successfully separated and classified by their oxidation products. A holistic view of gas and particle phase results indicates gas phase oxidation chemistry governs differences in biogenic secondary organic aerosol compositions.
This document summarizes a study on soot formation in co-flow diffusion flames fueled by biodiesel. Biodiesel fuels tested include pure methyl ester fuels (B100CME and B100SME) as well as blends with diesel fuel. Soot volume fraction profiles were measured using laser extinction for flames with varying oxygen concentration in air. Peak soot volume fractions were highest for flames with 35-50% oxygen and decreased with further oxygen addition. Biodiesel blends showed intermediate sooting compared to pure biodiesel and diesel fuels. Higher flame temperatures led to higher soot oxidation rates and lower soot volume fractions.
The document describes previous models for determining total organic carbon (TOC) content based on well log data that had limitations and inaccuracies. It then discusses the development of a new artificial neural network model to estimate TOC for Barnett and Devonian shale formations using core TOC data and well logs as inputs. The neural network model predicted TOC for Barnett shale with high accuracy, with average absolute deviation of 0.91 wt% and R2 of 0.93 compared to measured TOC. It also outperformed previous models for estimating TOC in Devonian shale, achieving an average absolute deviation of 0.99 wt% and R2 of 0.89.
Head space gas_chromatography_analysis_of_residual (1)DivvyaIndran
This document describes a study that developed and validated a gas chromatography method for simultaneously analyzing 16 residual solvents using an EC-5 column with headspace injection. The method was found to provide good separation and resolution between peaks. Key findings include:
- The EC-5 column was selected based on matching solute and stationary phase polarities to improve resolution.
- The method was validated according to ICH guidelines and showed the method to be specific, accurate, precise, and rugged.
- The retention times of the 16 solvents were reported and resolution between peaks was calculated, demonstrating good separation of the solvents.
Formulation of oxygenated water-in-diesel fuel emulsion and investigation of ...Ashish Gadhave
The main interest of this research was to formulate highly stable, oxygenated water-in-diesel emulsion that gives minimum hazardous exhaust emission. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) are found to be very viable oxygenate amongst other four oxygenated components. The oxygenated W/D emulsion is formulated using 20% FAME, 10% water, and 5% blend of Span 80/Tween 80 and diesel. The properties of this oxygenated fuel emulsion are investigated. Though the viscosity of fuel is found to be increased, it is within the standard limit value. There is an improvement in oxygenated fuel emulsion in burning test, evaporation rate test, and calorific value.
Righi et al_climate_impact_of_biofuels_in_shipping-global_model_studies_og_th...www.thiiink.com
ABSTRACT: Aerosol emissions from international shipping
are recognized to have a large impact on the Earth’s radiation
budget, directly by scattering and absorbing solar radiation and
indirectly by altering cloud properties. New regulations have
recently been approved by the International Maritime Organi-
zation (IMO) aiming at progressive reductions of the maximum
sulfur content allowed in marine fuels from current 4.5% by
mass down to 0.5% in 2020, with more restrictive limits already
applied in some coastal regions. In this context, we use a global
bottom-up algorithm to calculate geographically resolved emis-
sion inventories of gaseous (NOx, CO, SO2) and aerosol (black
carbon, organic matter, sulfate) species for different kinds of
low-sulfur fuels in shipping. We apply these inventories to study the resulting changes in radiative forcing, attributed to particles from shipping, with the global aerosol-climate model EMAC-MADE. The emission factors for the different fuels are based on measurements at a test bed of a large diesel engine. We consider both fossil fuel (marine gas oil) and biofuels (palm and soy bean oil) as a substitute for heavy fuel oil in the current (2006) fleet and compare their climate impact to that resulting from heavy fuel oil use. Our simulations suggest that ship-induced surface level concentrations of sulfate aerosol are strongly reduced, up to about 40-60% in the high-traffic regions. This clearly has positive consequences for pollution reduction in the vicinity of major harbors. Additionally, such reductions in the aerosol loading lead to a decrease of a factor of 3-4 in the indirect global aerosol effect induced by emissions from international shipping.
This document discusses the potential use of essential oil vapors as antimicrobial agents. It provides a brief history of using essential oil vapors medicinally since ancient times. Recent research shows that essential oil vapors, such as from tea tree, bergamot, lavender and eucalyptus, have antimicrobial effects against bacteria and fungi. The document outlines common screening methods used to test the antimicrobial activity of essential oil vapors and issues regarding vapor dispersion and toxicity. It summarizes several studies demonstrating the in vitro effects of various essential oil vapors against bacteria.
Mass spectrometry is a versatile analytical technique used to characterize molecules through determination of molecular weight, elemental composition, and presence of functional groups. It is used for mechanistic studies of gas-phase ion chemistry, as a detector coupled to chromatography instruments, and integrated into vacuum systems. Mass spectrometry involves the steps of sample introduction, ionization, mass analysis, and ion detection/data analysis.
This document describes the synthesis and anti-proliferative evaluation of novel mefenamic acid-based indole analogues. A series of analogues were designed and synthesized using a palladium-catalyzed coupling-cyclization reaction between mefenamic acid-derived alkynes and various iodoindoles. The compounds were evaluated for growth inhibition against normal and cancer cell lines. Several analogues showed selective inhibition of oral cancer cells, with one compound (5g) found to be particularly promising as an anti-proliferative agent.
The study of intermolecular interactions at interfaces is essential for a number of applications, in addition
to the understanding of mechanisms involved in sensing and biosensing with liquid samples. There are,
however, only a few methods to probe such interfacial phenomena, one of which is the atomic force
spectroscopy (AFS) where the force between an atomic force microscope tip and the sample surface is
measured. In this study, we used AFS to estimate adhesion forces for a nanostructured film of poly(oethoxyaniline)
(POEA) doped with various acids, in measurements performed in air. The adhesion force
was lower for POEA doped with inorganic acids, such as HCl and H2SO4, than with organic acids, because
the counterions were screened by the ethoxy groups. Significantly, the morphology of POEA both in the
film and in solution depends on the doping acid. Using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) we observed
that POEA dissolved in amixture of dimethyl acetamide exhibits a more extended coil-like conformation,
with smaller radius of gyration, than for POEA in water, as in the latter POEA solubility is lower. In AFS
measurements in a liquid cell, the force curves for a POEA layer displayed an attractive region for pH 5
due to van der Waals interactions, with no contribution from a double-layer since POEA was dedoped. In
contrast, for pH 3, POEA was doped and the repulsive double-layer force dominated. With AFS one is
therefore able to correlate molecular-level interactions with doping and morphology of semiconducting
polymers.
Propensity of salicylamide and ethenzamide cocrystallization with aromatic ca...Maciej Przybyłek
The cocrystallization of salicylamide (2-hydroxybenzamide, SMD) and ethenzamide (2-ethoxybenzamide, EMD) with aromatic carboxylic acids was examined both experimentally and theoretically. The supramolecular synthesis taking advantage of the droplet evaporative crystallization (DEC) technique was combined with powder diffraction and vibrational spectroscopy as the analytical tools. This led to identification of eleven new cocrystals including pharmaceutically relevant coformers such as mono- and dihydroxybenzoic acids. The cocrystallization abilities of SMD and EMD with aromatic carboxylic acids were found to be unexpectedly divers despite high formal similarities of these two benzamides and ability of the R2,2(8) heterosynthon formation. The source of diversities of the cocrystallization landscapes is the difference in the stabilization of possible conformers by adopting alternative intramolecular hydrogen boding patterns. The stronger intramolecular hydrogen bonding the weaker affinity toward intermolecular complexation potential. The substituent effects on R2,2(8) heterosynthon properties are also discussed.
1. Hydrocarbon pollution from sources like petroleum is a serious environmental problem and can be toxic to all living organisms. Crude oil contains a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and heavy metals that are difficult to remediate when co-contaminated.
2. The toxicity of hydrocarbons depends on their chemical properties and exposure levels, and can damage human organ systems and cause diseases. Long term exposure to compounds in crude oil like aromatics and polyaromatics can lead to cancer and nervous system effects.
3. Living organisms can be exposed to more volatile light hydrocarbon fractions through inhalation and ingestion of contaminated air and water, while heavier fractions persist in soils and can be absorbed through skin contact
This document compares three methods for collecting groundwater samples to measure methane concentrations: 1) Direct-Fill VOA, an open system where vials are filled directly from the source, 2) Inverted VOA, a semi-closed system where vials are filled while inverted under water, and 3) IsoFlask, a closed system that collects both water and exsolving gases without contact with air. Testing of these methods at nine wells found that when methane concentrations were below 20 mg/L, the difference between methods was small, but above 20 mg/L, IsoFlask samples showed significantly higher concentrations than Direct-Fill VOA samples, while Inverted VOA samples showed lower concentrations. This suggests open and semi-
This document summarizes a research project on the effect of temperature on the bioavailability and microbial degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil. PAHs are toxic compounds found in the environment from both natural and industrial sources. The student aims to examine how temperature affects the bioavailability and biodegradation of two PAHs, fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene, in soil by conducting a microcosm experiment over different temperatures and analyzing samples after various time periods using gas chromatography. The results will provide information on how temperature influences PAH removal from soil to help design effective bioremediation strategies.
It is an scientific article published in the Journal of Aerosol Science. The topic is within the subjects of Materials/Environmental sciences. The publication can be also downloaded for free from the below link:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021850215000919
This document describes a system developed to assess the stability of airborne nanoparticle agglomerates under aerodynamic shear. The system includes an aerosolization device that uses a fluidized bed process to generate stable aerosols from dry nanopowders. A critical orifice is then used to apply varying levels of shear force to the aerosols by inducing turbulence as they pass through. Changes in particle size distribution and morphology after passing through the orifice are analyzed to test the deagglomeration potential of different nanomaterials. Various nanomaterials were tested to investigate how their properties like composition, size, and shape influence stability.
Question 1 - 4 marks (750 words)Conceptual frameworks have ident.docxmakdul
Question 1 - 4 marks (750 words)
Conceptual frameworks have identified a number of qualitative criteria that financial information should possess if it is to be useful to decision making. The AASB framework Chapter 3 QC12-16 for example makes reference to ‘faithful representation’, with neutrality being one of the key components of ‘faithful representation’. Critically evaluate whether it is possible for financial information to ever be neutral and/or representationally faithful. In your discussion you should consider why standard setters might want to make reference to representational faithfulness within conceptual frameworks.
Question 3 - 4 marks (750 words)
The Conceptual Framework Chapter 1 OB2 states that "the objective of general purpose financial reporting is to provide financial information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity" Does the identification of these particular users have implications for the measurement basis chosen by the IASB? In your response you will need to consider whether fair values or historical costs will be more relevant to the users identified within the conceptual framework.
text book - Deegan, C. (2014). Financial accounting theory (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill: Sydney.
w a t e r r e s e a r c h 4 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 1 5 0 – 1 1 5 8
A v a i l a b l e a t w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / w a t r e s
Sorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoate
on activated carbons and resin: Kinetic and isotherm study
Qiang Yua,b,c, Ruiqi Zhanga, Shubo Denga,b,c,*, Jun Huanga,b,c, Gang Yua,b,c
aDepartment of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
bPOPs Research Center, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
cState Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 5 August 2008
Received in revised form
30 November 2008
Accepted 1 December 2008
Published online 13 December 2008
Keywords:
PFOS
PFOA
Activated carbon
Anion-exchange resin
Sorption kinetics
Sorption isotherm
* Corresponding author. Department of En
Tel.: þ86 10 6279 2165; fax: þ86 10 6279 4006
E-mail address: [email protected]
0043-1354/$ – see front matter ª 2008 Elsevi
doi:10.1016/j.watres.2008.12.001
a b s t r a c t
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) have increasingly attrac-
ted global concerns in recent years due to their global distribution, persistence, strong
bioaccumulation and potential toxicity. The feasibility of using powder activated carbon
(PAC), granular activated carbon (GAC) and anion-exchange resin (AI400) to remove PFOS
and PFOA from water was investigated with regard to their sorption kinetics and
isotherms ...
This document provides an overview of quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) studies for sorption and accumulation of anionic and non-ionic surfactants. It discusses the limitations of using log P (octanol-water partition coefficient) in QSAR models for surfactants. Specifically, it analyzes QSAR studies of alcohol ethoxylates (AE), representing non-ionic surfactants, and linear alkyl benzene sulphates (LAS), representing anionic surfactants. The document evaluates alternatives that have been proposed to address the limitations of log P-based QSARs for predicting the environmental behavior of surfactants.
This document describes a study that used ultrahigh-resolution mass spectrometry to characterize a weathering series of crude oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill. The study found an increase in oxygenated compounds in more weathered oils, suggesting the formation of acidic, ketonic, and quinonic compounds through oxidation processes during weathering. The use of multiple ionization modes was able to provide more comprehensive characterization by accessing different functional groups in the complex oil mixtures.
This document discusses a study that measured secondary organic aerosol (SOA) yields and ozonolysis rate constants for a series of C5-C7 alkenes. The study found that SOA yields were generally greater for cyclic alkenes compared to their linear analogs. It also found that the position and identity of functional groups on oxygenated alkenes influenced both SOA yield and reaction kinetics through steric and electronic effects. The document concludes that small differences in molecular structure can have significant impacts on a VOC's atmospheric behavior and SOA-forming potential.
This document describes a study applying chemometric dimension reduction techniques (principal component analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, and positive least-squares discriminant analysis) to analyze complex gas and particle composition data from environmental chamber experiments of biogenic volatile organic compound photooxidation and secondary organic aerosol formation. The techniques are used to classify the oxidation systems and resultant secondary organic aerosols according to controlling chemistry and products formed. Results show model biogenic oxidative systems can be successfully separated and classified by their oxidation products. A holistic view of gas and particle phase results indicates gas phase oxidation chemistry governs differences in biogenic secondary organic aerosol compositions.
This document summarizes a study on soot formation in co-flow diffusion flames fueled by biodiesel. Biodiesel fuels tested include pure methyl ester fuels (B100CME and B100SME) as well as blends with diesel fuel. Soot volume fraction profiles were measured using laser extinction for flames with varying oxygen concentration in air. Peak soot volume fractions were highest for flames with 35-50% oxygen and decreased with further oxygen addition. Biodiesel blends showed intermediate sooting compared to pure biodiesel and diesel fuels. Higher flame temperatures led to higher soot oxidation rates and lower soot volume fractions.
The document describes previous models for determining total organic carbon (TOC) content based on well log data that had limitations and inaccuracies. It then discusses the development of a new artificial neural network model to estimate TOC for Barnett and Devonian shale formations using core TOC data and well logs as inputs. The neural network model predicted TOC for Barnett shale with high accuracy, with average absolute deviation of 0.91 wt% and R2 of 0.93 compared to measured TOC. It also outperformed previous models for estimating TOC in Devonian shale, achieving an average absolute deviation of 0.99 wt% and R2 of 0.89.
Head space gas_chromatography_analysis_of_residual (1)DivvyaIndran
This document describes a study that developed and validated a gas chromatography method for simultaneously analyzing 16 residual solvents using an EC-5 column with headspace injection. The method was found to provide good separation and resolution between peaks. Key findings include:
- The EC-5 column was selected based on matching solute and stationary phase polarities to improve resolution.
- The method was validated according to ICH guidelines and showed the method to be specific, accurate, precise, and rugged.
- The retention times of the 16 solvents were reported and resolution between peaks was calculated, demonstrating good separation of the solvents.
Formulation of oxygenated water-in-diesel fuel emulsion and investigation of ...Ashish Gadhave
The main interest of this research was to formulate highly stable, oxygenated water-in-diesel emulsion that gives minimum hazardous exhaust emission. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) are found to be very viable oxygenate amongst other four oxygenated components. The oxygenated W/D emulsion is formulated using 20% FAME, 10% water, and 5% blend of Span 80/Tween 80 and diesel. The properties of this oxygenated fuel emulsion are investigated. Though the viscosity of fuel is found to be increased, it is within the standard limit value. There is an improvement in oxygenated fuel emulsion in burning test, evaporation rate test, and calorific value.
Righi et al_climate_impact_of_biofuels_in_shipping-global_model_studies_og_th...www.thiiink.com
ABSTRACT: Aerosol emissions from international shipping
are recognized to have a large impact on the Earth’s radiation
budget, directly by scattering and absorbing solar radiation and
indirectly by altering cloud properties. New regulations have
recently been approved by the International Maritime Organi-
zation (IMO) aiming at progressive reductions of the maximum
sulfur content allowed in marine fuels from current 4.5% by
mass down to 0.5% in 2020, with more restrictive limits already
applied in some coastal regions. In this context, we use a global
bottom-up algorithm to calculate geographically resolved emis-
sion inventories of gaseous (NOx, CO, SO2) and aerosol (black
carbon, organic matter, sulfate) species for different kinds of
low-sulfur fuels in shipping. We apply these inventories to study the resulting changes in radiative forcing, attributed to particles from shipping, with the global aerosol-climate model EMAC-MADE. The emission factors for the different fuels are based on measurements at a test bed of a large diesel engine. We consider both fossil fuel (marine gas oil) and biofuels (palm and soy bean oil) as a substitute for heavy fuel oil in the current (2006) fleet and compare their climate impact to that resulting from heavy fuel oil use. Our simulations suggest that ship-induced surface level concentrations of sulfate aerosol are strongly reduced, up to about 40-60% in the high-traffic regions. This clearly has positive consequences for pollution reduction in the vicinity of major harbors. Additionally, such reductions in the aerosol loading lead to a decrease of a factor of 3-4 in the indirect global aerosol effect induced by emissions from international shipping.
This document discusses the potential use of essential oil vapors as antimicrobial agents. It provides a brief history of using essential oil vapors medicinally since ancient times. Recent research shows that essential oil vapors, such as from tea tree, bergamot, lavender and eucalyptus, have antimicrobial effects against bacteria and fungi. The document outlines common screening methods used to test the antimicrobial activity of essential oil vapors and issues regarding vapor dispersion and toxicity. It summarizes several studies demonstrating the in vitro effects of various essential oil vapors against bacteria.
Mass spectrometry is a versatile analytical technique used to characterize molecules through determination of molecular weight, elemental composition, and presence of functional groups. It is used for mechanistic studies of gas-phase ion chemistry, as a detector coupled to chromatography instruments, and integrated into vacuum systems. Mass spectrometry involves the steps of sample introduction, ionization, mass analysis, and ion detection/data analysis.
This document describes the synthesis and anti-proliferative evaluation of novel mefenamic acid-based indole analogues. A series of analogues were designed and synthesized using a palladium-catalyzed coupling-cyclization reaction between mefenamic acid-derived alkynes and various iodoindoles. The compounds were evaluated for growth inhibition against normal and cancer cell lines. Several analogues showed selective inhibition of oral cancer cells, with one compound (5g) found to be particularly promising as an anti-proliferative agent.
The study of intermolecular interactions at interfaces is essential for a number of applications, in addition
to the understanding of mechanisms involved in sensing and biosensing with liquid samples. There are,
however, only a few methods to probe such interfacial phenomena, one of which is the atomic force
spectroscopy (AFS) where the force between an atomic force microscope tip and the sample surface is
measured. In this study, we used AFS to estimate adhesion forces for a nanostructured film of poly(oethoxyaniline)
(POEA) doped with various acids, in measurements performed in air. The adhesion force
was lower for POEA doped with inorganic acids, such as HCl and H2SO4, than with organic acids, because
the counterions were screened by the ethoxy groups. Significantly, the morphology of POEA both in the
film and in solution depends on the doping acid. Using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) we observed
that POEA dissolved in amixture of dimethyl acetamide exhibits a more extended coil-like conformation,
with smaller radius of gyration, than for POEA in water, as in the latter POEA solubility is lower. In AFS
measurements in a liquid cell, the force curves for a POEA layer displayed an attractive region for pH 5
due to van der Waals interactions, with no contribution from a double-layer since POEA was dedoped. In
contrast, for pH 3, POEA was doped and the repulsive double-layer force dominated. With AFS one is
therefore able to correlate molecular-level interactions with doping and morphology of semiconducting
polymers.
Propensity of salicylamide and ethenzamide cocrystallization with aromatic ca...Maciej Przybyłek
The cocrystallization of salicylamide (2-hydroxybenzamide, SMD) and ethenzamide (2-ethoxybenzamide, EMD) with aromatic carboxylic acids was examined both experimentally and theoretically. The supramolecular synthesis taking advantage of the droplet evaporative crystallization (DEC) technique was combined with powder diffraction and vibrational spectroscopy as the analytical tools. This led to identification of eleven new cocrystals including pharmaceutically relevant coformers such as mono- and dihydroxybenzoic acids. The cocrystallization abilities of SMD and EMD with aromatic carboxylic acids were found to be unexpectedly divers despite high formal similarities of these two benzamides and ability of the R2,2(8) heterosynthon formation. The source of diversities of the cocrystallization landscapes is the difference in the stabilization of possible conformers by adopting alternative intramolecular hydrogen boding patterns. The stronger intramolecular hydrogen bonding the weaker affinity toward intermolecular complexation potential. The substituent effects on R2,2(8) heterosynthon properties are also discussed.
1. Hydrocarbon pollution from sources like petroleum is a serious environmental problem and can be toxic to all living organisms. Crude oil contains a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and heavy metals that are difficult to remediate when co-contaminated.
2. The toxicity of hydrocarbons depends on their chemical properties and exposure levels, and can damage human organ systems and cause diseases. Long term exposure to compounds in crude oil like aromatics and polyaromatics can lead to cancer and nervous system effects.
3. Living organisms can be exposed to more volatile light hydrocarbon fractions through inhalation and ingestion of contaminated air and water, while heavier fractions persist in soils and can be absorbed through skin contact
This document compares three methods for collecting groundwater samples to measure methane concentrations: 1) Direct-Fill VOA, an open system where vials are filled directly from the source, 2) Inverted VOA, a semi-closed system where vials are filled while inverted under water, and 3) IsoFlask, a closed system that collects both water and exsolving gases without contact with air. Testing of these methods at nine wells found that when methane concentrations were below 20 mg/L, the difference between methods was small, but above 20 mg/L, IsoFlask samples showed significantly higher concentrations than Direct-Fill VOA samples, while Inverted VOA samples showed lower concentrations. This suggests open and semi-
This document summarizes a research project on the effect of temperature on the bioavailability and microbial degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil. PAHs are toxic compounds found in the environment from both natural and industrial sources. The student aims to examine how temperature affects the bioavailability and biodegradation of two PAHs, fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene, in soil by conducting a microcosm experiment over different temperatures and analyzing samples after various time periods using gas chromatography. The results will provide information on how temperature influences PAH removal from soil to help design effective bioremediation strategies.
It is an scientific article published in the Journal of Aerosol Science. The topic is within the subjects of Materials/Environmental sciences. The publication can be also downloaded for free from the below link:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021850215000919
This document describes a system developed to assess the stability of airborne nanoparticle agglomerates under aerodynamic shear. The system includes an aerosolization device that uses a fluidized bed process to generate stable aerosols from dry nanopowders. A critical orifice is then used to apply varying levels of shear force to the aerosols by inducing turbulence as they pass through. Changes in particle size distribution and morphology after passing through the orifice are analyzed to test the deagglomeration potential of different nanomaterials. Various nanomaterials were tested to investigate how their properties like composition, size, and shape influence stability.
Question 1 - 4 marks (750 words)Conceptual frameworks have ident.docxmakdul
Question 1 - 4 marks (750 words)
Conceptual frameworks have identified a number of qualitative criteria that financial information should possess if it is to be useful to decision making. The AASB framework Chapter 3 QC12-16 for example makes reference to ‘faithful representation’, with neutrality being one of the key components of ‘faithful representation’. Critically evaluate whether it is possible for financial information to ever be neutral and/or representationally faithful. In your discussion you should consider why standard setters might want to make reference to representational faithfulness within conceptual frameworks.
Question 3 - 4 marks (750 words)
The Conceptual Framework Chapter 1 OB2 states that "the objective of general purpose financial reporting is to provide financial information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity" Does the identification of these particular users have implications for the measurement basis chosen by the IASB? In your response you will need to consider whether fair values or historical costs will be more relevant to the users identified within the conceptual framework.
text book - Deegan, C. (2014). Financial accounting theory (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill: Sydney.
w a t e r r e s e a r c h 4 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 1 5 0 – 1 1 5 8
A v a i l a b l e a t w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / w a t r e s
Sorption of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoate
on activated carbons and resin: Kinetic and isotherm study
Qiang Yua,b,c, Ruiqi Zhanga, Shubo Denga,b,c,*, Jun Huanga,b,c, Gang Yua,b,c
aDepartment of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
bPOPs Research Center, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
cState Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 5 August 2008
Received in revised form
30 November 2008
Accepted 1 December 2008
Published online 13 December 2008
Keywords:
PFOS
PFOA
Activated carbon
Anion-exchange resin
Sorption kinetics
Sorption isotherm
* Corresponding author. Department of En
Tel.: þ86 10 6279 2165; fax: þ86 10 6279 4006
E-mail address: [email protected]
0043-1354/$ – see front matter ª 2008 Elsevi
doi:10.1016/j.watres.2008.12.001
a b s t r a c t
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) have increasingly attrac-
ted global concerns in recent years due to their global distribution, persistence, strong
bioaccumulation and potential toxicity. The feasibility of using powder activated carbon
(PAC), granular activated carbon (GAC) and anion-exchange resin (AI400) to remove PFOS
and PFOA from water was investigated with regard to their sorption kinetics and
isotherms ...
3. (Thermo Scientific, NJ, USA) was equipped with a krypton UV gas dis-
charge lamp (Syagen Technology, Inc., Tustin, CA) that produces 10.0
and 10.6 eV photons (120 nm). For both positive and negative ioniza-
tion mode, N2 sheath gas at 40 psi was used to facilitate ionization,
while the auxiliary port remained closed. Also, for both modes, the heat-
ed vaporizer region was held at 350 °C, while the capillary temperature
was set to 300 °C. The APCI source (Thermo Scientific, NJ, USA) param-
eters for positive mode were a sheath gas at 10 psi, an auxiliary gas at
7 psi, a capillary temperature of 350 °C, and a heated vaporizer region
at 400 °C. In negative mode the parameters were a sheath gas at
32 psi, an auxiliary gas at 5 psi, a capillary temperature of 250 °C, and
a heated vaporizer region at 450 °C. For both positive and negative ion-
ization modes the discharge current was set to 4.00 μA. Finally, for the
ESI analysis, a heated electrospray (HESI) source (Thermo Scientific,
NJ, USA) was used, and conditions for positive mode were a spray volt-
age of 5.20 V, a heated vaporizer region at 300 °C, capillary temperature
of 300 °C, and sheath and auxiliary gas at 40 and 5 psi, respectively. For
negative mode, the typical conditions were a spray voltage of 4.50 V, a
heated vaporizer region at 300 °C, capillary temperature of 200 °C, and
sheath and auxiliary gas at 35 and 30 psi, respectively. Each sample
was run in quadruplicate, and average and standard deviation values
were calculated.
3. Results and discussion
The three main atmospheric pressure ionization sources, namely ESI,
APPI, and APCI, were used to analyze all standard mixtures and
individual compounds (since previous results showed only marginal
improvements when exploring the combination of APPI and APCI, this
specific ionization method was not further explored in this study).
Table 1 shows the primary different compound classes and whether or
not they were ionized in the three sources; since concentrations were
kept consistent across the range of compounds, the differences ob-
served are mostly due to ionization efficiency. It is very noticeable that
APPI and APCI are able to ionize a much larger range of compound clas-
ses when compared to ESI. Moreover, when comparing APPI to APCI it is
clear that even though most of the results overlap, APPI provides some
advantages over APCI as it enables the efficient ionization and detection
of two-ring PAHs, oxygen containing PAHs (such as dibenzofuran), and
anhydrides. Overall, thus, APCI or ESI do not seem to provide any signif-
icant advantages over the APPI ionization source as there is no com-
pound class that can only be ionized in those sources, and one could
claim that APPI is the most versatile atmospheric pressure ionization
source for crude oil analysis. The ability of APPI (and to a lesser extent
of APCI) to significantly expand the range of compounds that can be ion-
ized (especially with respect to ESI) by being able to ionize compounds
that are nonpolar and cannot be easily protonated/deprotonated, can be
attributed to their ionization mechanisms and has been widely reported
and explained.(deHoffman and Stroobant, 2007; Kauppila et al., 2015;
Short et al., 2007) On the other hand, ESI, as expected, is limited to ion-
izing acidic and basic compounds that easily lose or gain a hydrogen
atom, respectively. Another noticeable feature illustrated in Table 1 is
the complete inability of any of the sources (even APPI) to ionize pure
alkanes; this can be attributed to their absence of either an aromatic
ring structure (which allows for the detection of PAHs), or of heteroat-
om containing functional groups (i.e. lactones, anhydrides). The only
Table 1
Ionization of the main compound classes in the three ionization sources (APPI, APCI, and ESI), in positive and negative ionization mode. Compounds present at ≥1% relative abundance in a
particular source and mode are depicted with a checkmark.
Positive Negative
APPI APCI ESI APPI APCI ESI
Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs)
2 Ring PAH Naphthalene ✓ – – – – –
3 Ring PAH Anthracene ✓ ✓ – – – –
4 Ring PAH Chrysene ✓ ✓ – – – –
5 Ring PAH Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene ✓ ✓ – – – –
7 Ring PAH Hexaphenylbenzene ✓ ✓ – – – –
Sulfur PAH Dibenzothiophene ✓ ✓ – – – –
Oxygen PAH Dibenzofuran ✓ – – – – –
Nitrogen PAH Pyridinic nitrogen: Dibenzo(a,h)acridine ✓ ✓ ✓ – – –
Pyrrolic nitrogen:
7H-Dibenzo(c,g)carbazole
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Alkanes Alkanes Straight chain:
Octadecane
– – – – – –
Cyclic:
Decalin
– – – – – –
Functional group types Alcohol Aliphatic:
Tetracosanol
– – – – – –
Aromatic:
1-Pyrenemethanol
✓ ✓ ✓ – – –
Aldehyde Aliphatic:
1-Octadecanal
– – – – – –
Aromatic:
1-Pyrenecarbaldehyde
✓ ✓ ✓ – – –
Ketone Aliphatic:
2-Nonadecanone
✓ ✓ ✓ – – –
Aromatic:
1-Acetylpyrene
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – –
Carboxylic Acid Aliphatic:
Stearic acid
– – – ✓ ✓ ✓
Aromatic:
1-Pyrenecarboxylic acid
✓ ✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓
Phenol 4-Isopropylphenol – – – ✓ – ✓
Lactone γ-Octalactone ✓ ✓ ✓ – – –
Anhydride Phthalic anhydride ✓ – ✓ – – –
Polyoxygenated compounds Carboxylic Acid 2,6-Naphthalenedicarboxylic acid – – – ✓ ✓ ✓
Ketone Anthraquinone ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –
Alcohol 1,5-Dihydroxynaphthalene ✓ ✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓
1020 A.K. Huba et al. / Science of the Total Environment 568 (2016) 1018–1025
4. instance in which alkanes are ionized is when they present easily ioniz-
able groups, such as a carboxylic acid (APPI, APCI, and ESI) or a ketone
(APPI only). Even though the ionization of pure hydrocarbons was pre-
viously achieved under very specific conditions (Tose et al., 2015), the
lack of ionization of non-functionalized alkanes under common crude
oil analysis conditions (such as the ones employed in this study), evi-
dences a significant limitation of crude oil characterization by atmo-
spheric pressure ionization HRMS. This is especially noteworthy since
alkanes usually represent one of the most abundant compound classes
of a typical oil. (Fingas, 2015) While Table 1 provides useful information
regarding the potential ionization, or lack thereof, of the main com-
pound classes that one may expect to find in crude oil samples, it does
not give any information on the relative ionization efficiencies between
the different compounds and ionization techniques.
In order to investigate the influence of structure on ionization effi-
ciencies, the molar intensities of the ions were calculated (by dividing
the intensity by the molarity) and compared. Moreover, to provide a
better way of comparison, the relative molar intensities were then cal-
culated by normalizing all values to the largest peak in a specific data
set. Fig. 1 illustrates the total ionization efficiencies (the sum of the rad-
ical and protonated species) of the major compound classes that were
shown to be ionized in at least one of the three sources. The results
from each ionization type and mode are shown normalized to the
highest abundance compound class in that particular source and mode.
Overall, from Fig. 1 it is clear that compounds prone to protonation or
deprotonation (such as pyrrolic and pyridinic nitrogens, ketones, and car-
boxylic acids) have the highest ionization efficiencies irrespectively to
the source type. Besides that, it is obvious that the ionization efficiencies
in the three ionization sources vary greatly based on compound type.
While APPI and APCI show similar results with respect to their most
abundant classes (aromatic ketones and pyrrolic nitrogens in positive
and negative mode, respectively), the abundances of the other classes
are highly variable, especially in negative mode. In APPI, for example,
phenols represent the second most abundant class in negative mode,
while this class is completely absent in APCI. In ESI on the other hand,
the two classes that are preferentially ionized in positive and negative
mode, respectively, are pyridinic nitrogens and aromatic carboxylic
acids. As previously seen in Table 1, Fig. 1 also illustrates the ability of
APPI to enable the ionization of species that are not easily protonated/
deprotonated, such as PAHs and heteroatom containing PAHs. It also
shows that APPI and APCI positive mode enable the efficient detection
of both the nitrogen containing compound classes (pyridinic and
pyrrolic), while ESI only marginally detects the pyrrolic species in posi-
tive mode and would likely require a combination of the positive and
negative mode analysis. This advantage is in accordance with previously
reported results obtained with the APPI ionization source. (Purcell et al.,
2006; Purcell et al., 2007).
As mentioned before, Fig. 1 depicts the total ionization efficiencies,
i.e., for compounds producing both radical and protonated ions the sum
is calculated and plotted. In ESI the formation of the radical ion is very un-
likely, and in APPI and APCI the respective ease to form radical or proton-
ated ions depends on several factors, namely the composition of the
solvent and mobile phase, and the ionization energies and proton/elec-
tron affinities of the solvents, mobile phase, and analytes.(deHoffman
and Stroobant, 2007) For example, in the presence of a dopant such as
toluene, solvents like methanol or acetonitrile have shown to initiate
the formation of protonated ions.(Kauppila et al., 2002; Raffaelli and
Saba, 2003) On the other hand, solvents which have low proton affinity
(e.g., chloroform, hexane, and water) preferentially form radical ions by
charge exchange reactions. (Kauppila et al., 2002) Fig. 2a and b were cre-
ated in order to obtain a more detailed interpretation of the relative ratio
of the radical versus protonated ion formation, and show compound clas-
ses that are relevant in APPI and APCI positive mode. The ratios of radical
versus protonated ions in APPI and APCI are very similar, and it is very ob-
vious that some compound classes preferentially form radical ions, while
others get protonated more easily. More specifically, heteroatom con-
taining functional groups such as pyrrolic and pyridinic nitrogens, alde-
hydes, ketones, and lactones preferentially form protonated ions, while
PAH species form mainly radical ions. However, for PAHs, it can be no-
ticed that as the size of the PAH increases (by increasing the number of
rings) the formation of the protonated ionic species increases as well
(e.g., protonated ions are not formed for a 2- or 3-ring PAH, while for a
5-ring PAH there is a radical to protonated ion ratio of about 1). This re-
sult is in accordance with previous findings reporting that the protonated
ion is often dominant for larger PAHs (Anacleto et al., 1995; Mansoori,
1998; Marvin et al., 1999). In addition, one can also notice that larger
PAHs show a higher relative molar intensity, and are thus ionized more
efficiently.
This trend is more clearly illustrated in Fig. 3a, which shows an in-
crease in total ionization efficiency with PAH size in both APPI and
APCI. The statistical significance of the results was evaluated by a
Student's t-test and showed significant increases (p b 0.01) in ionization
as the ring size increases for all transitions (2–3, 3–4, 4–5 rings). The dif-
ference in ionization energy can explain the higher relative molar
Fig. 1. Graph illustrating the total relative ionization efficiencies of the major compound classes that were ionized in at least one ionization source. Each compound was run in
quadruplicate, all values portrayed represent averages, with the error bars representing the relative percent error.
1021A.K. Huba et al. / Science of the Total Environment 568 (2016) 1018–1025
5. intensity of 3-ring PAHs over 2-ring PAHs (8.1444 ± 0.001 eV for naph-
thalene, (Lias, 2016) 7.439 ± 0.06 eV for anthracene, (Lias, 2016) and
7.891 ± 0.001 eV for phenanthrene (Lias, 2016)), while the increased
formation of protonated cations can explain the remainder of the
trend (3–4, and 4–5 rings). One can also notice that, when normalized
to the highest molar intensity peak (the 5-ring PAH), the relative ioniza-
tion efficiency of smaller PAHs is better in APPI compared to APCI. The
ability of APPI to better ionize small PAHs is in accordance with results
obtained by Robb et al. showing a much better sensitivity for naphtha-
lene in APPI with respect to APCI. (Robb et al., 2000) A separate trend
was found when looking at how methylation affects the ionization effi-
ciencies, and is illustrated in Fig. 3b. As can be seen, the relative molar
intensity significantly (p b 0.01) increases as the level of methylation
increases for all transitions, with the exception of naphthalene to
methyl-naphthalene in the APCI source (both only marginally ion-
ized). This correlates well and can be explained with the decreasing
ionization energies of methylated naphthalenes (8.1444 ± 0.001 eV
for naphthalene,(Lias, under review) 7.96 ± 0.03 eV for 1-methyl
naphthalene,(Lias, 2016) and 7.78 ± 0.03 eV for 1.4-dimethyl naph-
thalene (Nounou, 1966)). Further results regarding the methylation
trend with larger PAHs, however, suggest that this trend weakens
with the increase of PAH size, and eventually disappears for large
(4-ring) PAHs. These same trends also hold true for heteroatom con-
taining PAHs, such as the sulfur containing benzothiophene, and can
be observed in Fig. 4a and b.
Another interesting finding that was obtained from the size distribu-
tion study, was the varying nature in ionization efficiencies of specific
compounds with the same number of rings but different ring structure
(i.e., isomeric compounds such as chrysene and benzo(a)anthracene).
This result is shown in Fig. 5 and clearly points out how the ionization
efficiency of benzo(a)anthracene is significantly higher than the one
of chrysene (p b 0.05) in both ionization sources, but most prevalently
in APPI. This trend can be explained, similarly to the methylation
trend, by looking at the ionization energies of the two compounds
(7.60 ± 0.03 eV for chrysene,(Shahbaz et al., 1981) and 7.46 ±
0.03 eV for benzo(a)anthracene(Akiyama et al., 1981)). An additional
interesting aspect of ionization differences for isomeric compounds il-
lustrated in Fig. 5, is the clear dissimilarity in the extent of protonation
of the two compounds. While for benzo(a)anthracene the amount of
the protonated ionic species is almost 50% of the total ions formed, for
chrysene protonation is almost completely absent (b1% in APPI, and
b4% in APCI). Since isomeric compounds often times have considerably
different physical, chemical, and toxicological properties,(Dabestani
and Ivanov, 1999) it is extremely important to use all available informa-
tion (such as differences in ionization behavior) in order to interpret a
mixture of unknown compounds. Fig. 5 shows that, in this particular
case, the relative amount of protonated ion formation could suggest
the presence of one of the two isomers over the other.
So far, these results have shown that factors such as size, methyla-
tion, and ring structure affect the ionization efficiencies of PAHs in
APPI as well as in APCI. An additional factor is shown in Fig. 6, which
takes a closer look at the effect that heteroatoms have on the ionization
Fig. 2. Comparison of the average relative molar intensities of the radical versus the
protonated ion in (a) APPI and (b) APCI positive mode.
Fig. 3. Relative total molar intensities in APPI and APCI positive mode, showing (a) the effect of size (2 ring PAH = naphthalene, 3 ring PAH = mixture of anthracene/phenanthrene, 4 ring
PAH = mixture of chrysene/benz(a)anthracene, and 5 ring PAH = dibenzo(a,h)anthracene), and (b) the effect of methylation on the ionization efficiencies of PAHs. Average molar
intensities are depicted, with error bars showing the relative percent error.
1022 A.K. Huba et al. / Science of the Total Environment 568 (2016) 1018–1025
6. efficiency of PAHs. In order to exclude the contribution of any of the pre-
viously described factors, four PAHs of equal size, methylation level, and
ring type (3 rings, 2 six membered rings and 1 five membered ring)
were chosen and compared (i.e., fluorene, carbazole, dibenzofuran,
and dibenzothiophene). As expected, carbazole is the compound that
is most efficiently ionized, and this can be attributed mainly to its ease
to be protonated. This is also the only compound that is detected in
ESI since this technique relies on protonation and deprotonation. All
the other PAHs (containing no heteroatoms, sulfur, and oxygen) do
not have easily protonable groups and thus only significantly ionize by
the radical ionization mechanism which is less efficient and only possi-
ble in APPI or APCI. When comparing APPI to APCI it can be seen that
APCI provides a better ionization of carbazole (p b 0.01), but for all
other compounds the ionization efficiency is significantly (p b 0.01) bet-
ter for APPI. It can therefore be concluded from Fig. 6 that, overall, APPI
provides the best ionization efficiencies over the range of heteroatom
containing compounds depicted in this study.
Lastly, this study aimed at illustrating how and to what extent ion
suppression effects (in the three atmospheric pressure ionization
sources here used) affect molar relative intensities. In order to do so, a
proof of concept study with the same four PAHs (which covered a
range of possible heteroatoms) shown in Fig. 6 were analyzed in indi-
vidual solutions, additionally to the mixture containing about 50 other
PAHs. Fig. 7 illustrates the results that were obtained, and clearly
shows that significant suppression (p b 0.05) is present in APCI (for
fluorene, dibenzofuran, and dibenzothiophene). APPI also shows some
suppression for fluorene (p b 0.01), while the ionization of carbazole
(p b 0.01) is enhanced in the mixture with respect to the individual so-
lution. The other two compounds in APPI do not show statistically dif-
ferent ionization efficiencies whether present in a complex mixture or
not. Surprisingly, ESI does not show ion suppression with the exception
of dibenzothiophene. One has to take into account, however, that the
overall ionization efficiencies of all compounds except carbazole, was
negligible (b1%) in ESI when compared to the other two ionization
sources (see Fig. 6). Moreover, the mixture is solely comprised of
PAHs, which are compounds not ionized in ESI. The here obtained ESI
results were included to give a comprehensive picture of all the sources,
and to show that, as expected, even though a complex matrix was pres-
ent the lack of ionization of the majority of compounds in such matrix
lead to almost no suppression. In order to better demonstrate suppres-
sion effects in ESI, a future study including a mixture containing com-
pounds well ionized in ESI (such as pyridinic nitrogen compounds)
should be performed. When comparing solely APCI and APPI, the latter
provides the more consistent ionization efficiencies and thus less sup-
pression from the matrix. These, results are in agreement with previous
reports showing that APPI exhibits reduced suppression effects when
compared to both ESI and APCI.(Hanold et al., 2004; Short et al., 2007)
Overall, it is evident that suppression does influence the ionization effi-
ciencies, even for the least affected ionization method (APPI). This is
clearly shown by the relative molar intensities of fluorene and carba-
zole: while for the mixture the ionization efficiency for carbazole was
Fig. 4. Relative total molar intensities in APPI and APCI positive mode, showing (a) the effect of size (2 ring PAH = benzothiophene, 3 ring PAH = dibenzothiophene, and 4 ring PAH =
naphthodibenzothiophene) and (b) the effect of methylation on the ionization efficiencies of a sulfur containing PAH. Average molar intensities are depicted, with error bars showing the
relative percent error.
Fig. 5. Comparison of two 4-ring isomeric PAHs (benzo(a)anthracene and chrysene),
showing significant differences in ionization efficiency and formation of the protonated
ionic species (depicted by the shaded area). The compounds were both run in
quadruplicate with the relative molar intensity representing the average value and the
error bars representing the relative percent error.
Fig. 6. Total relative molar intensities depicting the ionization efficiencies of heteroatom
containing PAHs in the positive ionization mode. Relative molar intensities are an
average of quadruplicate runs, and error bars represent the relative percent error.
1023A.K. Huba et al. / Science of the Total Environment 568 (2016) 1018–1025
7. significantly higher than the one for fluorene, for the individual solu-
tions the two values were not statistically different. Thus, when refer-
ring and comparing relative ionization efficiencies in comprehensive
petroleum studies by HRMS, which heavily rely on infusion data (with
no prior chromatographic separation and thus particularly affected by
suppression effects), it is imperial to take the matrix into consideration.
Overall, the results here presented provide a fairly comprehensive
picture of the ionization behavior of major compound classes present
in crude oil under the specific conditions used in this analysis. Even
though the APPI source seems to provide the best results (with the
data being concentration independent on a range from 0.2–2 ppm), sig-
nificant limitations with respect to the analysis of complex environmen-
tal mixtures were shown. As previously mentioned, elemental
composition data and the comparison of so called compound “classes”
are fundamental tools used to interpret and compare oil composition.
However, since this data is intrinsically biased due to limitations in the
ionization of the numerous different compound types present in the
crude oil, an understanding of such biases is fundamental in order to
evaluate the significance of the results obtained. Several research
areas, such as understanding the compositional changes of crude oil
due to weathering, rely on the accuracy of HRMS data to portray the
“true” composition of the crude oil. (Huba and Gardinali, 2016; Ray et
al., 2014; Ruddy et al., 2014) This is a very crucial step in understand-
ing the ultimate fate and toxicity of oil released into the environ-
ment. It is thus evident that this study provides knowledge that is
critical when interpreting crude oil characterization results by
HRMS, and that the results here presented will benefit future re-
search in this field.
4. Conclusion
The present study provides a comprehensive overview of the bene-
fits and drawbacks of the three main atmospheric pressure ionization
sources (ESI, APPI, and APCI) with respect to the ionization of the prin-
cipal compound classes expected to be found in crude oil. Moreover,
computation of molar intensities allowed for semi-quantitative compar-
isons of the relative ionization efficiencies. The overall complete lack of
ionization of non-functionalized alkanes was a clear and significant lim-
itation pertinent to all three sources. Out of the three sources, the results
showed that, if a comprehensive oil characterization is targeted, the
APPI source seems to provide the best results, by being able to ionize
the broadest range of compounds, as well as providing the best overall
ionization efficiencies, and less ionization suppression with respect to
APCI. ESI, on the other hand, showed severe limitations, as the amount
of different compound classes that are ionized is significantly lower
compared to both APPI and APCI. This study, moreover, showed that
the ionization efficiency is influenced by several factors: the presence
of easily protonated or deprotonated functional groups (primary fac-
tor), the size, the methylation level, the presence/absence/type of het-
eroatoms, the isomeric structure, and the presence/absence of a
complex matrix.
These results are critical information needed in order to interpret
HRMS oil characterization results, and additionally provide the knowl-
edge needed to aid in the selection of a specific ionization source with
respect to a compound type of interest. Therefore, these findings,
which can be further applied to other high-resolution mass analyzers
beyond the Orbitrap, in addition to future studies expanding the range
Fig. 7. Comparison of ionization efficiencies of four PAHs analyzed in quadruplicate in individual solutions and in a PAH mixture, illustrating the extent of ionization suppression in (a) APPI,
(b) APCI, and (c) ESI. Relative molar intensities and error bars represent the average value and the relative percent error, respectively.
1024 A.K. Huba et al. / Science of the Total Environment 568 (2016) 1018–1025
8. of compound classes and dopants used, will provide the fundamental
understanding required to greatly expand the power of HRMS analysis
of crude oils.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.044.
Aknowledgments
The Environmental Analysis Research Laboratory acknowledges the
support from the Thermo Scientific Corporation in the development of
this work. AKH would like to thank Kathia Sandoval for helpful discus-
sions. This is contribution number 795 from the Southeast Environmen-
tal Research Center at Florida International University.
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