The document discusses various topics related to psychology including stress, conformity, and abnormality. It summarizes several key studies on stress, including research on how stress affects the immune system and how daily hassles may be more strongly related to health outcomes than major life events. Regarding conformity, it outlines Asch's classic study from 1951 that found 74% of participants conformed at least once when giving incorrect answers alongside confederates. It also discusses why people conform, including informational social influence to seem knowledgeable and normative social influence to gain social approval.

1. Psychology AsPsychology As
levellevel
Unit 2Unit 2
(Stress, Conformity,(Stress, Conformity,
Abnormality)Abnormality)

2. IndexIndex
 Pg 3 – 14 StressPg 3 – 14 Stress
 Pg 15 – 27 ConformityPg 15 – 27 Conformity
 Pg 28 – 44 AbnormalityPg 28 – 44 Abnormality

3. StressStress
> Bodily response> Bodily response
> Immune system> Immune system
> Stress and Life events> Stress and Life events
> Stress and Daily hassles> Stress and Daily hassles
> Stress in the workplace> Stress in the workplace
> Stress and Personality> Stress and Personality
> Stress managememt> Stress managememt
Key topicsKey topics
you need toyou need to
knowknow

4. Bodily responseBodily response
StressorStressor
HypothalamusHypothalamus
PituitaryPituitary AutonomicAutonomic NervousNervous
glandgland System (ANS) –System (ANS) –
stimulates Sympatheticstimulates Sympathetic
releasesreleases adrenal adrenaladrenal adrenal SystemSystem
ACTHACTH cortex medullacortex medulla
releasesreleases adrenaline + noradrenalineadrenaline + noradrenaline
CorticosteroidsCorticosteroids
increased heart rateincreased heart rate
energyenergy and blood flowand blood flow
FIGHT/FLIGHTFIGHT/FLIGHT
PACPAC SAMSAM

5. Bodily responceBodily responce
Hans Selye (1956) – General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)Hans Selye (1956) – General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)
Stressor ALARM RESISTANCE EXHAUSTIONStressor ALARM RESISTANCE EXHAUSTION
(fight/(fight/ bodybody we developwe develop
flight)flight) ‘normalises’‘normalises’ ‘diseases of‘diseases of
but we are nowbut we are now adaption’ -adaption’ -
vulnerablevulnerable stress relatedstress related
a) if stressora) if stressor illnessesillnesses
has gonehas gone
b) if stressorb) if stressor
remainsremains

6. How stress effects theHow stress effects the
immune systemimmune system
Kiecolt – Glaser et al (1995)Kiecolt – Glaser et al (1995) Cohen et al (1984)Cohen et al (1984)
A01 – quick wounds healA01 – quick wounds heal Ao1- common cold virusAo1- common cold virus
-13 women carers plus 13-13 women carers plus 13 -394 pp’s, questionnaire and-394 pp’s, questionnaire and
(non-carers) control group(non-carers) control group exposed to common coldexposed to common cold
-punch biopsy, dressed and-punch biopsy, dressed and -after 7 days, developed-after 7 days, developed
Treated by same nurseTreated by same nurse clinical colds recordedclinical colds recorded
~carers took average of 9~carers took average of 9 ~failure to fight infection~failure to fight infection
Longer to healLonger to heal linked to high stress scoreslinked to high stress scores
A02-A02- A02 –A02 –
ProsPros ConsCons ProsPros ConsCons
Cause + effectCause + effect small samplesmall sample questionnairesquestionnaires ethicsethics
Occurs naturallyOccurs naturally ethicsethics the same=controlledthe same=controlled indirect studyindirect study

7. Stress and Life eventsStress and Life events
Holmes and Rahe (1967)Holmes and Rahe (1967) Rahe et al (1970)Rahe et al (1970)
Ao1- stress of life changes linkedAo1- stress of life changes linked Ao1 – link between LCU’s + illnessAo1 – link between LCU’s + illness
to illnessto illness -military version of SRRS-military version of SRRS
-social re-adjustment rating scale-social re-adjustment rating scale -2500 navy seamen over 3 navy-2500 navy seamen over 3 navy
(SRRS)(SRRS) cruisers, noted life events past 6cruisers, noted life events past 6
-394 pps compare 43 life events-394 pps compare 43 life events months, illnesses noted over 7months, illnesses noted over 7
-score for each one=-score for each one= month tour of dutymonth tour of duty
Life changing units (LCU)Life changing units (LCU) ~weak positive correlation~weak positive correlation
A02 -A02 - Ao2-Ao2-
ProsPros ConsCons ProsPros ConsCons
Scale easyScale easy study in USstudy in US large samplelarge sample navy men=navy men=
to use –to use – retrospectiveretrospective androcentricandrocentric
150= 30% increase150= 30% increase no specificno specific
300= 50% increase300= 50% increase illnessillness

8. Stress and daily hasslesStress and daily hassles
DeLongis et al (1982)DeLongis et al (1982)
-daily hassles stronger related to physical health than life-daily hassles stronger related to physical health than life
eventsevents
Ao1- 100 pp’s aged 45 -64, well educated + high incomeAo1- 100 pp’s aged 45 -64, well educated + high income
-3 questionnaires per month for 1 year: hassles + uplifts-3 questionnaires per month for 1 year: hassles + uplifts
scale, life events scale, health status scalescale, life events scale, health status scale
~frequency and intensity of hassles significantly correlated~frequency and intensity of hassles significantly correlated
with overall health statuswith overall health status
~daily uplifts had little effect on health~daily uplifts had little effect on health
Ao2-Ao2- ProsPros ConsCons
Large sampleLarge sample individual differencesindividual differences
US study +specificUS study +specific
peoplepeople

9. Stress in the workplaceStress in the workplace
Johansson et al (1978)Johansson et al (1978) Marmot et alMarmot et al
(1997)(1997)
How stress affects health andHow stress affects health and Job – strain model –Job – strain model –
productivityproductivity high demand + low controlhigh demand + low control
A01- 14 saw mill workers andA01- 14 saw mill workers and Ao1- 7,372 men and womenAo1- 7,372 men and women
10 cleaners (control group)10 cleaners (control group) questionnaire + checked forquestionnaire + checked for
-stress hormones recorded and-stress hormones recorded and cardiovascular diseasecardiovascular disease
self ratings takenself ratings taken -5 years later pp’s reassessed-5 years later pp’s reassessed
~ raised levels of stress hormones~ raised levels of stress hormones ~pp’s in higher work grades had~pp’s in higher work grades had
on work dayson work days developed the fewestdeveloped the fewest
A02- aspects causing stress:A02- aspects causing stress: cardiovascular problemscardiovascular problems
.Repetitive work.Repetitive work Ao2- low control appears to beAo2- low control appears to be
.Machine paced-worker=no control.Machine paced-worker=no control linked to higher stress andlinked to higher stress and
.Working in isolation.Working in isolation cardiovascular diseasecardiovascular disease
.Responsible for wages.Responsible for wages

10. Other research intoOther research into
workplace stressworkplace stress
 Low control, high demand – Karasek (1979) = likely toLow control, high demand – Karasek (1979) = likely to
suffer depression, fatigue, cardiovascular disease andsuffer depression, fatigue, cardiovascular disease and
mortalitymortality
 Workload – Sales (1969) = finding the balance betweenWorkload – Sales (1969) = finding the balance between
quantity vs quality – lot of people find hard=stressquantity vs quality – lot of people find hard=stress
 Role conflict – Margolic and Kroes (1974) = foremen wereRole conflict – Margolic and Kroes (1974) = foremen were
7 times more likely to develop gastric ulcers than shop7 times more likely to develop gastric ulcers than shop
floor workersfloor workers
 Burnout – Maslach and Jackson (1984) = emotional labourBurnout – Maslach and Jackson (1984) = emotional labour
so high= extreme emotional exhaustion (ie nurses/so high= extreme emotional exhaustion (ie nurses/
doctors)doctors)
 Shiftwork – Czersler and Aschoff (1964) = going againstShiftwork – Czersler and Aschoff (1964) = going against
your natural body clock will cause significantly moreyour natural body clock will cause significantly more

11. Stress and personalityStress and personality
Behaviour TypeBehaviour Type
Type AType A Type BType B
.Competitive.Competitive .Relaxed.Relaxed
.Time urgent.Time urgent .One thing at a time.One thing at a time
.Impatient.Impatient .Patient.Patient
.Hostile + aggressive.Hostile + aggressive .Express feelings.Express feelings
Locus of controlLocus of control
““I control my destiny”I control my destiny” “Others control my“Others control my
destiny”destiny”
might get more stressed asmight get more stressed as might get moremight get more
stressedstressed
they feel they should be ablethey feel they should be able as they feel they can’tas they feel they can’t
to control thingsto control things do anythingdo anything
Internal
Internal External
External

12. Stress and personalityStress and personality
Friedman and Roseman (1959)Friedman and Roseman (1959) Kobasa et al (1979)Kobasa et al (1979)
Type A personality and illnessType A personality and illness -Hardiness-Hardiness
Ao1- 3200 39-59yr old healthyAo1- 3200 39-59yr old healthy . Control – how in charge of. Control – how in charge of
American males – split typeAmerican males – split type their lives that they feeltheir lives that they feel
A, B , X (in the middle)A, B , X (in the middle) .Commitment – how involved in.Commitment – how involved in
-assessed for personality using-assessed for personality using the world + sense of purposethe world + sense of purpose
Structured interviews +observationStructured interviews +observation .Challenge – how people view.Challenge – how people view
-Followed up for 8.5 years-Followed up for 8.5 years challenges (stressors or problems)challenges (stressors or problems)
~275 developed CHD (heart disease)~275 developed CHD (heart disease) ~hardy individuals exerience~hardy individuals exerience
~ 70% of those from type A~ 70% of those from type A fewer stress – related illnessesfewer stress – related illnesses
Ao2 -Ao2 - Ao2-Ao2- conscons
ProsPros conscons .Questionnaires = social desirability.Questionnaires = social desirability
Large sampleLarge sample androcentricandrocentric . Cofounding factors (ie. excersise,. Cofounding factors (ie. excersise,
individualisticindividualistic social support)social support)
cultureculture

13. Stress ManagementStress Management
BiologicalBiological
ApproachApproach
Drug TherapyDrug Therapy BiofeedbackBiofeedback
BZ’sBZ’s BB’sBB’s
IncreaseIncrease
GABAGABA
Binds toBinds to
heartheart
LearnLearn
controlcontrol
of stressof stress
EvaluationEvaluation
Quick, easy + effective,Quick, easy + effective,
Kahn et al(1986) = BZ’s were superior toKahn et al(1986) = BZ’s were superior to
aa placeboplacebo – 250 patients over 8 weeks– 250 patients over 8 weeks
Treat symptoms not underlying causeTreat symptoms not underlying cause
Side effects and withdrawal symptomsSide effects and withdrawal symptoms
EvaluationEvaluation
Sense of control, no side effects + long termSense of control, no side effects + long term
Attanasio et al(1985) = helped children +Attanasio et al(1985) = helped children +
teenagers gain control over migrainesteenagers gain control over migraines
Treat symptoms not underlying causeTreat symptoms not underlying cause
Specialist equipment + expert supervisionSpecialist equipment + expert supervision

14. Stress ManagementStress Management
PsychologicalPsychological
ApproachApproach
Meichenbaum’sMeichenbaum’s
SITSIT
HardinessHardiness
TrainingTraining
Maddi (1998)Maddi (1998)
““the more hardythe more hardy
the person, thethe person, the
better they copebetter they cope
with stress”with stress”
EvaluationEvaluation
SIT is flexible and long termSIT is flexible and long term
Deals with the problem directlyDeals with the problem directly
Time consuming and expensiveTime consuming and expensive
Patients have to be motivated andPatients have to be motivated and
openly discuss experiencesopenly discuss experiences
EvaluationEvaluation
Deals with the underlying cause not justDeals with the underlying cause not just
symptomssymptoms
Only suit narrow band of determined peopleOnly suit narrow band of determined people
Concepts may be too complex ie. Lack ofConcepts may be too complex ie. Lack of
hardiness another label for negativityhardiness another label for negativity
Stress inoculationStress inoculation
therapy – preparationtherapy – preparation
to deal with stressto deal with stress
before it becomes abefore it becomes a
problemproblem

15. ConformityConformity
> Conformity research> Conformity research
> Why people conform> Why people conform
> Types of conformity> Types of conformity
> Milgram (obedience)> Milgram (obedience)
> Why people obey> Why people obey
> Independent behaviour> Independent behaviour
> Social influence/ social change> Social influence/ social change
KeyKey
topicstopics
you needyou need
to knowto know

16. Conformity researchConformity research
Asch (1951 and 1956)Asch (1951 and 1956) Crutchfield (1955)Crutchfield (1955)
Conform to the majorityConform to the majority
Ao1- (1951) 7 male students, only 1 realAo1- (1951) 7 male students, only 1 real Ao1- 600 pp’s, groups of 5 or 6, inAo1- 600 pp’s, groups of 5 or 6, in
- Carried out 123 times- Carried out 123 times booths out of sight. Data gathered onbooths out of sight. Data gathered on
-verbally match standard line with-verbally match standard line with intelligence, leadership and confidenceintelligence, leadership and confidence
Companion linesCompanion lines – pp’s had a row of switches (using– pp’s had a row of switches (using
(1951)Part way pp’s given a partner(1951)Part way pp’s given a partner Asch procedure) pressed appropriateAsch procedure) pressed appropriate
~(1951) 74% conformed at least once~(1951) 74% conformed at least once switch to give answer. Pp’s thoughtswitch to give answer. Pp’s thought
~(1956) pp’s given a partner =~(1956) pp’s given a partner = lights on their display panel showedlights on their display panel showed
conformity dropped to 8.7%conformity dropped to 8.7% others answersothers answers
~partner deserted him = conformity~partner deserted him = conformity ~ 30% conformity , lower levels for~ 30% conformity , lower levels for
Was 28.5%Was 28.5% Higher scoring pp’s on data.Higher scoring pp’s on data.
Ao2 –Ao2 –ProsPros conscons Ao2-Ao2-ProsPros conscons
Reliable – 123Reliable – 123 andocentricandocentric Large sampleLarge sample ethicsethics
TimesTimes lab experimentlab experiment =generalise=generalise lab experimentlab experiment
ethicsethics opportunity sampleopportunity sample

17. Why people conformWhy people conform
Informational socialInformational social
influenceinfluence
Based on the idea to be rightBased on the idea to be right
A person looks to others forA person looks to others for
information as they’re not sure howinformation as they’re not sure how
to behave.to behave.
Conform because we assumeConform because we assume
others have superior knowledge toothers have superior knowledge to
usus
Our publicOur public andand private opinionsprivate opinions
changechange
Tends to occur In ambiguousTends to occur In ambiguous
situationssituations
Normative social influenceNormative social influence
Based on the idea to be likedBased on the idea to be liked
A person conforms to theA person conforms to the
groups norms to fit in andgroups norms to fit in and
appear ‘normal’appear ‘normal’
Conform so that they don’t lookConform so that they don’t look
different or stand out, avoidingdifferent or stand out, avoiding
rejectionrejection
Our public opinionOur public opinion changeschanges butbut
our private opinion does notour private opinion does not
Tends to occur in unambiguousTends to occur in unambiguous
situations ie. ASCHsituations ie. ASCH

18. Types of ConformityTypes of Conformity
InternalisationInternalisation
Based on the idea to be rightBased on the idea to be right
and/or likedand/or liked
Conform as our views really areConform as our views really are
converted to those of othersconverted to those of others
Our publicOur public andand private opinionsprivate opinions
changechange
Tends to occur in the presence ofTends to occur in the presence of
the group but the new valuesthe group but the new values
become internalised and arebecome internalised and are
maintained even upon leaving themaintained even upon leaving the
groupgroup
ComplianceCompliance
Based on the idea to be rightBased on the idea to be right
and/or likedand/or liked
Conform to agree with theConform to agree with the
majority decision (perhaps duemajority decision (perhaps due
to social pressure) but onlyto social pressure) but only
whilst in the presence of otherwhilst in the presence of other
group membersgroup members
Our public opinionOur public opinion changeschanges butbut
our private opinion does notour private opinion does not
As normative social influenceAs normative social influence
occursoccurs

19. Obedience – MilgramObedience – Milgram
(1963)(1963)
Ao1- how far people will obey authority, even when that means hurting someoneAo1- how far people will obey authority, even when that means hurting someone
elseelse
-40 men, voluntary, deceived- told experimenting ‘learning and memory’-40 men, voluntary, deceived- told experimenting ‘learning and memory’
-pp + confederate (acting like pp) drew lots – learner and teacher (draw fixed)-pp + confederate (acting like pp) drew lots – learner and teacher (draw fixed)
-pp watch confederate wired to chair + shock generator, + pp given 45V shock-pp watch confederate wired to chair + shock generator, + pp given 45V shock
-in other room, pp taught learner word pairs- wrong answer = shock given from-in other room, pp taught learner word pairs- wrong answer = shock given from
15V to 450V (confederate didn’t actually receive them)15V to 450V (confederate didn’t actually receive them)
-at 300V confederate asked to be let out “couldn’t stand the pain”-at 300V confederate asked to be let out “couldn’t stand the pain”
-if pp stopped, they were ordered to continue-if pp stopped, they were ordered to continue
~65% administrated 450V, none stopped before 300V~65% administrated 450V, none stopped before 300V
Ao2-Ao2- prospros conscons
Ethics – good debriefing schemeEthics – good debriefing scheme lacks internal validitylacks internal validity
External validity as littleExternal validity as little ETHICS- deception, informedETHICS- deception, informed
Difference to any authoritiveDifference to any authoritive consent, protection of pp’s,consent, protection of pp’s,
figure and person.figure and person. Right to withdrawRight to withdraw

20. Obedience – MilgramObedience – Milgram
(1963)(1963)
Hofling et al (1966Hofling et al (1966) – SUPPORTS Milgram) – SUPPORTS Milgram
A01 –nurse received a phone call from an unknown doctor and asked toA01 –nurse received a phone call from an unknown doctor and asked to
administer a drug to a patient so it would take effect before headminister a drug to a patient so it would take effect before he
arrived. Breaking rules to obey this order:arrived. Breaking rules to obey this order:
- Taking telephone instructions from an unknown doctor- Taking telephone instructions from an unknown doctor
-acting without signed paperwork from doctor-acting without signed paperwork from doctor
-asked for twice the maximum daily dosage allowed to be administered-asked for twice the maximum daily dosage allowed to be administered
~21 out of 22 nurses obeyed, preparing the medication before being~21 out of 22 nurses obeyed, preparing the medication before being
stoppedstopped
Ao2 –Ao2 – ProsPros ConsCons
Ecological validity andEcological validity and Ethics- deception andEthics- deception and
Supports Milgram’sSupports Milgram’s informed consentinformed consent
Ecological validityEcological validity Small sampleSmall sample
High experimental validityHigh experimental validity

21. Why people obeyWhy people obey
 Gradual commitmentGradual commitment (foot in the door)(foot in the door)
once you’ve agreed to a minor request, gradually increased untilonce you’ve agreed to a minor request, gradually increased until
you do something you’d never have agreed with in the first placeyou do something you’d never have agreed with in the first place
ie. Smoking banie. Smoking ban
 Agentic shiftAgentic shift (shift between agentic and autonomous)(shift between agentic and autonomous)
Agentic state= feel were acting out the wishes of another person,Agentic state= feel were acting out the wishes of another person,
feel less responsible for own actionsfeel less responsible for own actions
Autonomous state= behaving normally –acting on our ownAutonomous state= behaving normally –acting on our own
 Justified AuthorityJustified Authority
believe the socialised authority have the right to tell us what tobelieve the socialised authority have the right to tell us what to
dodo
 BuffersBuffers
protect us from the consequence of our actions ie. Differentprotect us from the consequence of our actions ie. Different
room was the buffer in Milgram’s study.room was the buffer in Milgram’s study.

22. Independent behaviourIndependent behaviour
ConformityConformity
 IndividuationIndividuation
want an individual identity, uniquenesswant an individual identity, uniqueness
Occurs when this outweighs desire to conformOccurs when this outweighs desire to conform
Snyder and Fromkin (1980)Snyder and Fromkin (1980)
-led 1 group of American students to believe attitudes were different from social-led 1 group of American students to believe attitudes were different from social
normnorm
-led other group to believe attitudes were identical to social norm-led other group to believe attitudes were identical to social norm
~ ‘identity stolen’ group resisted conformity pressures (stating individuality)~ ‘identity stolen’ group resisted conformity pressures (stating individuality)
 Maintain ControlMaintain Control
want to control majority of their personal life eventswant to control majority of their personal life events
Giving in to normative social influence creates difficulty for thisGiving in to normative social influence creates difficulty for this
Burger (1992)Burger (1992)
people with a desire for personal control resist conformity pressures easier.people with a desire for personal control resist conformity pressures easier.
 Prior commitmentPrior commitment
when publically committed to an opinion, less likely to change their viewwhen publically committed to an opinion, less likely to change their view
not wanting to seem indecisivenot wanting to seem indecisive
Asch (1956) ‘public reveal’ = when offered to change answer, majority didn’tAsch (1956) ‘public reveal’ = when offered to change answer, majority didn’t
 Time to think and Social supportTime to think and Social support
feel that they need to be mindful and engage in critical thinkingfeel that they need to be mindful and engage in critical thinking
Aronson (1999) = finding support builds confidence against fearing rejectionAronson (1999) = finding support builds confidence against fearing rejection
Four things
to
remember
Ao1
Ao1
Ao1
Ao1
A
02
A
02
A
02
A
02

23. Independent behaviourIndependent behaviour
ObedienceObedience
 Disobedient role modelsDisobedient role models
refusing to obey models encourages disobediencerefusing to obey models encourages disobedience
Milgram variation=Milgram variation=
when confederate pp’s refused to give shocks, real pp’s didwhen confederate pp’s refused to give shocks, real pp’s did
90% of the time90% of the time
 Questioning authorities motives and statusQuestioning authorities motives and status
Authority figure’s ‘power’ over you is in doubtAuthority figure’s ‘power’ over you is in doubt
Milgram variation= run down office- made it easier toMilgram variation= run down office- made it easier to
question how legitimate authority of the experimenter wasquestion how legitimate authority of the experimenter was
– obedience =48%– obedience =48%
 Feelings of sympathy/ EmpathyFeelings of sympathy/ Empathy
honest feelings of care outweigh obedience, regardless ofhonest feelings of care outweigh obedience, regardless of
status or authoritystatus or authority
Milgram variation= some pp’s disobeyed to fulfil their beliefsMilgram variation= some pp’s disobeyed to fulfil their beliefs
of no halmof no halm
three
things to
remember
A02
A
o1
A
o1
A
o1
A
02
A
02

24. Independent behaviourIndependent behaviour
Individual differencesIndividual differences
 CultureCulture
social norms may affect resistance to conformity + obediencesocial norms may affect resistance to conformity + obedience
Smith and Bond (1998) = reviewed conformity using Asch’sSmith and Bond (1998) = reviewed conformity using Asch’s
study in 17 countries~ collectivist cultures = higher conformitystudy in 17 countries~ collectivist cultures = higher conformity
 GenderGender
men and women are socialised differently, affecting conformiymen and women are socialised differently, affecting conformiy
and obedience levelsand obedience levels
Larsen et al (1979) = women conform in friendship groups,Larsen et al (1979) = women conform in friendship groups,
men conform in high status groups/circlesmen conform in high status groups/circles
 Locus of control (LOC)Locus of control (LOC)
how in control of events = how individual see themselves to behow in control of events = how individual see themselves to be
Rotter (1996) = internal LOC = less likely to conform and obeyRotter (1996) = internal LOC = less likely to conform and obey
Miller (1975) = external LOC = more obedient due to factor ofMiller (1975) = external LOC = more obedient due to factor of
authority and power. Internal LOC = authority was irrelevantauthority and power. Internal LOC = authority was irrelevant
A
02
A
o1
A
o1
A
o1
A
02
A
02
three
things to
remember

25. How social influence helpsHow social influence helps
us to understand socialus to understand social
changechange The belief that only eveil people do evil actsThe belief that only eveil people do evil acts
Milgram demonstrated this wasn’t the case;Milgram demonstrated this wasn’t the case;
Zimbaro (2007) – 10 steps to resist unwanted influences:Zimbaro (2007) – 10 steps to resist unwanted influences:
1.1. Admit mistakesAdmit mistakes
2.2. Be mindfulBe mindful
3.3. Be responsibleBe responsible
4.4. Respect just authority but rebel against unjustRespect just authority but rebel against unjust
5.5. Balance desire for group acceptance with value of ownBalance desire for group acceptance with value of own
individualityindividuality
6.6. Assert your individualityAssert your individuality
7.7. Do not sacrifice freedoms for the illusion of securityDo not sacrifice freedoms for the illusion of security
8.8. Be frame vigilantBe frame vigilant
9.9. Develop a balanced time perspectiveDevelop a balanced time perspective
10.10. Oppose unjust systemsOppose unjust systems

26. How social influence helpsHow social influence helps
us to understand socialus to understand social
changechange Enlightenment effectEnlightenment effect
Gergen (1973) = people will be less susceptible to blindGergen (1973) = people will be less susceptible to blind
obedience if they are knowledgeable about the processobedience if they are knowledgeable about the process
involved in social influenceinvolved in social influence
Blass (2000) – no correlationBlass (2000) – no correlation
information doesn’t necessarily change a persons behaviourinformation doesn’t necessarily change a persons behaviour
once in an authority dominated situationonce in an authority dominated situation
 Gradual commitment (foot in the door)Gradual commitment (foot in the door)
once committed to a small request, people feel obliged to goonce committed to a small request, people feel obliged to go
along with the request further ie. Sales people and charitiesalong with the request further ie. Sales people and charities
Useful for us as a society?Useful for us as a society?
people should bear in mind this technique to try and affectpeople should bear in mind this technique to try and affect
changechange

27. How social influence helpsHow social influence helps
us to understand socialus to understand social
changechange Role of minorityRole of minority
if people simply went along with the majority there would be noif people simply went along with the majority there would be no
change or innovation. Knowledge is essential for social change ie.change or innovation. Knowledge is essential for social change ie.
Rosa Parks, Martin Luther KingRosa Parks, Martin Luther King
Small minority groups may be dismissed initially but over a long period ofSmall minority groups may be dismissed initially but over a long period of
time – can become influentialtime – can become influential
-Consistency – must be consistent in their opposition to the majority-Consistency – must be consistent in their opposition to the majority
-Timing – Zeitgeist= timing and development must be right to affect-Timing – Zeitgeist= timing and development must be right to affect
majoritymajority
-Social cryptoamnesia = changed so much that you forgot who gave you-Social cryptoamnesia = changed so much that you forgot who gave you
the original messagethe original message
Mugny and Perez (1991) and Perez et al (1995) – ‘The dissociationMugny and Perez (1991) and Perez et al (1995) – ‘The dissociation
model’ = minority groups influence majority group through socialmodel’ = minority groups influence majority group through social
cryptoamnesia – minority ideas are assimilated into the majoritycryptoamnesia – minority ideas are assimilated into the majority
viewpoint without those in the majority remembering where theviewpoint without those in the majority remembering where the
ideas came from.

28. AbnormalityAbnormality
> Defining abnormality> Defining abnormality
> Limitations of the definitions> Limitations of the definitions
> Biological approach> Biological approach
> Biological therapies> Biological therapies
> Psychological approaches and> Psychological approaches and
therapiestherapies
Key topicsKey topics
you need toyou need to
knowknow

29. Defining AbnormalityDefining Abnormality
 Deviation from social normsDeviation from social norms
is an unspoken set of rules that cultures abide byis an unspoken set of rules that cultures abide by
to allow smooth function of the cultureto allow smooth function of the culture
 Failure to function adequatelyFailure to function adequately
behaviour is abnormal if it is maladaptive (stopsbehaviour is abnormal if it is maladaptive (stops
us from functioning properly in daily life)us from functioning properly in daily life)
 Deviation from ideal mental healthDeviation from ideal mental health
is a list of criteria that state what is healthyis a list of criteria that state what is healthy
These are the three definitions namedThese are the three definitions named
on the specificationon the specification

30. Deviation from socialDeviation from social
normsnorms
 All societies have their standards of behaviourAll societies have their standards of behaviour
and attitudesand attitudes
 These norms are based on the beliefs that aThese norms are based on the beliefs that a
society has, over what is considered desirable andsociety has, over what is considered desirable and
worth striving forworth striving for
 Cultures vary – not just one set of rulesCultures vary – not just one set of rules
 Used to justify removal of people from a societyUsed to justify removal of people from a society
 Classifying anyone who breaks the rules asClassifying anyone who breaks the rules as
abnormal is also known as Cultural relativismabnormal is also known as Cultural relativism
An example of deviating from social norms in ourAn example of deviating from social norms in our
culture is walking up an escalator backwards.culture is walking up an escalator backwards.

31. Failure to functionFailure to function
adequatelyadequately
 Argued that it is the most ‘humane’ definition- left to theArgued that it is the most ‘humane’ definition- left to the
people close to the individual to decide if they need helppeople close to the individual to decide if they need help
or not – avoiding unnecessary labellingor not – avoiding unnecessary labelling
 Rosehan and Seligman (1989) suggested 7 criteria to helpRosehan and Seligman (1989) suggested 7 criteria to help
judge behaviour as normal. Key ones to remember:judge behaviour as normal. Key ones to remember:
--PPersonal distress (guilt, depression to an excessiveersonal distress (guilt, depression to an excessive
degree)degree)
--IIrrationality (irrational beliefsrrationality (irrational beliefs irrational behaviour)irrational behaviour)
--MMaladaptiveness (behaviour interfering with the abilityaladaptiveness (behaviour interfering with the ability
to cope with everyday situations)to cope with everyday situations)
--SStatistical rarity (behaviour shown only by a minority)tatistical rarity (behaviour shown only by a minority)
PIMSPIMS

32. Deviation from idealDeviation from ideal
mental healthmental health
 Looks at what is ‘ideal’ mental health and suggests thatLooks at what is ‘ideal’ mental health and suggests that
deviation from this reflects abnormalitydeviation from this reflects abnormality
 Jahoda 1958 suggested 6 criteria for ideal mental health.Jahoda 1958 suggested 6 criteria for ideal mental health.
Key ones to remember:Key ones to remember:
--RResistance to stress (a person who has developed foodesistance to stress (a person who has developed food
coping strategies for stress)coping strategies for stress)
--AAdapting to the environment (being flexible enough todapting to the environment (being flexible enough to
change and adjust to different circumstances. Ie elderlychange and adjust to different circumstances. Ie elderly
lady abnormal to a younger person as unable tolady abnormal to a younger person as unable to
‘change with the times’‘change with the times’
--PPersonal autonomy (a person who has the ability forersonal autonomy (a person who has the ability for
individual choice, rather than what others think)individual choice, rather than what others think)
--SSelf actualisation (hierarchy to strive for their potential)elf actualisation (hierarchy to strive for their potential)
RAPSRAPS

33. Limitations of theLimitations of the
definitionsdefinitions
Deviation from social normsDeviation from social norms
 Social norms change over time; changing views ofSocial norms change over time; changing views of
homosexualityhomosexuality
What is considered ‘normal’ at one time, would notWhat is considered ‘normal’ at one time, would not
be at anotherbe at another
Failure to function adequatelyFailure to function adequately
 Criticised as not differentiating sufficientlyCriticised as not differentiating sufficiently
between abnormal behaviour and unconventionalbetween abnormal behaviour and unconventional
or eccentricor eccentric
 Personal distress – everyone gets distressed soPersonal distress – everyone gets distressed so
when does this become abnormal?when does this become abnormal?

34. Limitations of theLimitations of the
definitionsdefinitions
Deviation from ideal mental healthDeviation from ideal mental health
 Having to be ‘ideal’ means that most people would beHaving to be ‘ideal’ means that most people would be
considered abnormal as very few people achieve selfconsidered abnormal as very few people achieve self
actualisationactualisation
 Culturally specific ‘ideal’ mental healthCulturally specific ‘ideal’ mental health
Malinowski – observed the hunter gatherer TrobriandMalinowski – observed the hunter gatherer Trobriand
islands. Observed basic needs, derived needs andislands. Observed basic needs, derived needs and
integrative needsintegrative needs
~islanders used magic before going on dangerous fishing~islanders used magic before going on dangerous fishing
tripstrips
.Viewed this as perfectly rational – magic functioned to.Viewed this as perfectly rational – magic functioned to
reduce anxiety and tensionreduce anxiety and tension
.In modern western society, this would be considered.In modern western society, this would be considered
‘abnormal’‘abnormal’

35. Biological approach toBiological approach to
psychopathologypsychopathology
 Psychological disorders have a physical causePsychological disorders have a physical cause
 Argues that mental disorders are related to the physicalArgues that mental disorders are related to the physical
structure and functioning of the brainstructure and functioning of the brain
 The cause may be one of the following:The cause may be one of the following:
-Genetics – faulty genes are known to cause some-Genetics – faulty genes are known to cause some
diseases with psychological effectsdiseases with psychological effects
(Huntington's disease)(Huntington's disease)
-Neurotransmitters – Too much or too little chemical-Neurotransmitters – Too much or too little chemical
brain signals may producebrain signals may produce
psychological disorderspsychological disorders
-Infection – disorders may be caused by an infection-Infection – disorders may be caused by an infection
(general paresis)(general paresis)
-Brain injury – may produce psychological disorders-Brain injury – may produce psychological disorders

36. Biological therapiesBiological therapies
 Drugs – used to change neurotransmitter levelsDrugs – used to change neurotransmitter levels
 Psychosurgery – brain surgery – destruction, separation or removal ofPsychosurgery – brain surgery – destruction, separation or removal of
specific partsspecific parts
 Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) – patient given general anaestheticElectro-convulsive therapy (ECT) – patient given general anaesthetic
and muscle relaxants to prevent damage – electrodes placed on bothand muscle relaxants to prevent damage – electrodes placed on both
sides of patients forehead – small electric current passed throughsides of patients forehead – small electric current passed through
brain – seizure occurs (for approx. 1minbrain – seizure occurs (for approx. 1min
Biological methodsBiological methods
ProsPros ConsCons
-Lot of evidence to show-Lot of evidence to show -Ethical: addiction to drugs,-Ethical: addiction to drugs,
Biological causes canBiological causes can -Suppresses symptoms doesn’t cure-Suppresses symptoms doesn’t cure
Produce symptomsProduce symptoms -Psychosurgery is irreversible-Psychosurgery is irreversible
-Ethical: people are not to-Ethical: people are not to -Psychological therapies can be-Psychological therapies can be
Blame –its just an illnessBlame –its just an illness just as effective, without anyjust as effective, without any
-Biological therapies have-Biological therapies have interference to biologicalinterference to biological
Helped relieve conditionsHelped relieve conditions structuresstructures
That could not be treatedThat could not be treated
previouslypreviously

37. PsychologicalPsychological
approachesapproaches
 Psychodynamic modelPsychodynamic model
>conflict in development>conflict in development
 Behavioural modelBehavioural model
>learnt in the same way as all behaviours>learnt in the same way as all behaviours
 Cognitive modelCognitive model
>controlled by thoughts and beliefs>controlled by thoughts and beliefs

38. Psychodynamic modelPsychodynamic model
 Abnormality is the result of problems in childhoodAbnormality is the result of problems in childhood
developmentdevelopment
 Model is based on Freud’s division of personality into theModel is based on Freud’s division of personality into the
id, ego and superegoid, ego and superego
-Freud’s stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency-Freud’s stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency
and genital stagesand genital stages
 Conflict and anxiety in childhood due to the ego notConflict and anxiety in childhood due to the ego not
being developed enough to deal with the id’s desires,being developed enough to deal with the id’s desires,
understand real-word issues or cope with the superegosunderstand real-word issues or cope with the superegos
moral demandsmoral demands
 Conflict or anxiety in childhood also due to certain stageConflict or anxiety in childhood also due to certain stage
of development: ie. Anal stage – conflict during pottyof development: ie. Anal stage – conflict during potty
trainingtraining
 Anxiety from the conflicts repressed into unconsciousAnxiety from the conflicts repressed into unconscious
mind trauma in adulthood may ‘trigger’ repressedmind trauma in adulthood may ‘trigger’ repressed
conflicts into conscious mind psychological disordersconflicts into conscious mind psychological disorders

39. Psychodynamic therapiesPsychodynamic therapies
 Psychoanalysis – dream analysis to revealPsychoanalysis – dream analysis to reveal
unconscious desiresunconscious desires
 Free association – used to analyse free speechFree association – used to analyse free speech
psychodynamic modelpsychodynamic model
ProsPros ConsCons
-Unique approach-Unique approach -Hard to-Hard to
ChildhoodChildhood scientifically test soscientifically test so
experiences linkexperiences link cannot be provencannot be proven
-patient understands-patient understands right or wrongright or wrong
Causes of problems andCauses of problems and -Psychoanalysis --Psychoanalysis -
Can resolve them andCan resolve them and time consuming andtime consuming and
Release anxietiesRelease anxieties so very expensiveso very expensive

40. Behavioural ModelBehavioural Model
 Abnormal behaviours are learnt in the same way that al behavioursAbnormal behaviours are learnt in the same way that al behaviours
are learnt through classical and operant conditioningare learnt through classical and operant conditioning
Classical conditioningClassical conditioning – (phobias and taste aversions)– (phobias and taste aversions)
Phobias can be created when the natural fear response is associatedPhobias can be created when the natural fear response is associated
with a particular stimulus.with a particular stimulus.
Loud noise (UCS)Loud noise (UCS) fear (UCR)fear (UCR)
White rat + loud noise (UCS)White rat + loud noise (UCS) fear (UCR)fear (UCR)
White rat (CS) fear (CR)White rat (CS) fear (CR)
If a person is ill after a certain food/drink = Taste (CS)If a person is ill after a certain food/drink = Taste (CS) nausea (CR)nausea (CR)
Operant conditioningOperant conditioning – learning from the consequences of actions– learning from the consequences of actions
Action Good outcome positive/negative reinforcementAction Good outcome positive/negative reinforcement
repeatedrepeated
Action Bad outcome not repeatedAction Bad outcome not repeated
-Phobias – avoid phobic stimuli – removes anxiety – negative reinforcement-Phobias – avoid phobic stimuli – removes anxiety – negative reinforcement
-Bulimics – feel guilt + disgust – sick – removes feelings – negative reinforcement-Bulimics – feel guilt + disgust – sick – removes feelings – negative reinforcement
Watson and RaynerWatson and Rayner
(1920) – 11month old(1920) – 11month old
‘little Albert’‘little Albert’

41. Behavioural therapiesBehavioural therapies
 Based on changes through conditioningBased on changes through conditioning
-what reinforces current behaviour – change through-what reinforces current behaviour – change through
conditioningconditioning
Classical conditioning therapiesClassical conditioning therapies
Aversion therapy – an undesirable behaviour or stimulus can beAversion therapy – an undesirable behaviour or stimulus can be
associated with an unpleasant responseassociated with an unpleasant response
Systematic desensitisation – a phobia can be gradually introduced toSystematic desensitisation – a phobia can be gradually introduced to
the feared objectthe feared object
-teach the patient deep muscle relaxation techniques-teach the patient deep muscle relaxation techniques
-therapist and patient construct a hierarchy of-therapist and patient construct a hierarchy of
frightening/stressful events or objectsfrightening/stressful events or objects
-therapist helps the patient to work their way up the hierarchy-therapist helps the patient to work their way up the hierarchy
whilst maintaining the deep relaxationwhilst maintaining the deep relaxation
-can return to an earlier stage if patient becomes upset-can return to an earlier stage if patient becomes upset
Operant conditioning therapiesOperant conditioning therapies
Often used in psychiatric hospitals – control behaviour by removingOften used in psychiatric hospitals – control behaviour by removing
the reinforcements which maintain the behaviour – newthe reinforcements which maintain the behaviour – new
reinforcements for better behaviourreinforcements for better behaviour

42. Behavioural modelBehavioural model
ProsPros ConsCons
-Scientific approach-Scientific approach -Cannot explain all behaviour-Cannot explain all behaviour
so clear testableso clear testable as it neglects:as it neglects:
concepts - supportedconcepts - supported .influence of genetics and.influence of genetics and
in many experimentsin many experiments biology (brain functioning)biology (brain functioning)
-behavioural therapies –-behavioural therapies – .influence of cognitions.influence of cognitions
effective for treatingeffective for treating -Behavioural therapies:-Behavioural therapies:
phobias, eatingphobias, eating not effective for allnot effective for all
disorders, obsessionsdisorders, obsessions disorders also proceduresdisorders also procedures
And compulsionsAnd compulsions may sometimes raise ethicalmay sometimes raise ethical
issuesissues

43. Cognitive modelCognitive model
 Irrational thoughts and beliefs cause abnormal behaviours.Irrational thoughts and beliefs cause abnormal behaviours.
Ellis (1991) – ‘ABC’ modelEllis (1991) – ‘ABC’ model
Activating eventActivating event BeliefBelief ConsequenceConsequence
Eg. Failed examEg. Failed exam
rational irrationalrational irrational rationalrational irrationalirrational
““I didn’t “I’m tooI didn’t “I’m too moremore depressiondepression
prepare” stupid”prepare” stupid” revisionrevision
Beck (1963) ‘cognitive triad’ of negative, automatic thoughts linked toBeck (1963) ‘cognitive triad’ of negative, automatic thoughts linked to
depression:depression:
Negative thoughts aboutNegative thoughts about themselvesthemselves (“I cant succeed”)(“I cant succeed”)
Negative thoughts about theNegative thoughts about the worldworld (‘succession makes a good person’)(‘succession makes a good person’)
Negative thoughts about theNegative thoughts about the futurefuture (“nothing will change”)(“nothing will change”)
AA BB CC

44. Cognitive therapiesCognitive therapies
 Try to change faulty cognitions:Try to change faulty cognitions:
-therapist and client identify faulty cognitions-therapist and client identify faulty cognitions
-work out whether the cognitions are true-work out whether the cognitions are true
-set goals to think in more positive/ adaptive ways-set goals to think in more positive/ adaptive ways
An example of this is Meichenbaum’s SITAn example of this is Meichenbaum’s SIT
Cognitive modelCognitive model
ProsPros ConsCons
-Useful approach to-Useful approach to -Faulty cognitions may-Faulty cognitions may
depression and anorexiadepression and anorexia simply be the consequencesimply be the consequence
(considers thoughts and(considers thoughts and of a disorder rather thanof a disorder rather than
beliefs – role they play)beliefs – role they play) it’s causeit’s cause
-Cognitive therapies have-Cognitive therapies have -Cognitive therapies are-Cognitive therapies are
often treated depression,often treated depression, time consuming andtime consuming and
anxiety, stress and eatinganxiety, stress and eating expensive. They may beexpensive. They may be
disorders successfullydisorders successfully more effective whenmore effective when
combined with othercombined with other
approachesapproaches