Psyc 100 Term Assignments Rationale ► Psychology.docx

Psyc 100 Term
Assignments
Rationale
► Psychology relies on a variety of research methods in order
to come to
a better understanding of behaviour and other phenomena. Most
research methods can be classified either as experiments or as
non-
experimental designs and it is important for students of
psychology to
be able to clearly differentiate which type of a design is being
used in
any specific study. As such, one goal of the term assignments is
for
you to be able to find different studies relating to a specific
topic and
identify which type of research method the study uses to
address the
questions of interest.
► In addition, reading and interpreting published research are
important
skills that all scientists must develop. The term assignments for
this
course will allow you to demonstrate that you can read,
summarize

and interpret research literature related to one specific topic
within the
scope covered in Psychology 100.
Overview
►two components
– Article Selection
►worth 3%
►due start of class Tuesday Feb. 21st
– Article Summaries
►worth 7%
►due start of class Thursday March 22nd
Assignment #1 – Rationale
►an essential early step in any empirical
investigation involves a review of the
published literature relevant to the specific
topic under investigation
►this assignment will familiarize you with
locating “good” research articles as well as
introducing you to some aspects of a

standard format – namely, APA format
►on WebCT you have been assigned a
general topic
related to that topic
►An efficient way of finding published
research that relates to your topic is to
conduct a literature search using PsycINFO
Using PsycINFO
Introduction
published in scholarly/academic journal. Luckily
you don’t need to skim through hundreds of
journals looking for a good article. You don’t
need to look through hundreds of Google results
either.
online psychology index which is like a very
specialized version of Google. PsycINFO will

find citations for articles on your topic, and will
even lead you to the actual articles.
Research Topic
investigating further the phenomenon of
bystander intervention that Darley and
Latane first examined in the 1960’s
in PsycINFO that have bystander
intervention as a subject
Connecting to PsycINFO
search engine which psychologists and
psychology students use to find journal
articles.

browser (Internet Explorer or Firefox) in a
new window and go to http://www.sfu.ca
http://www.sfu.ca/
Connecting to PsycINFO (con’t)
column click
on the link to Journal articles and databases.
reach all databases with
names starting with the letter P, and find PsycINFO in the list.

this
database.
on Connect to link to PsycINFO
previous page
PsycINFO -- you should now have a page like the one below
PsycINFO -- now type in your search term
bystander intervention
Using Official Subject Headings

in PsycINFO can be used to restrict the results of the search
choose to search for instances
where the search terms are Subjects
Search box to conduct your initial search
oing this you should get a screen like this
“bystander
intervention” is not recognized as an official term within
PsycINFO
asiest way is to use the “SmartText Searching” feature in
PsycINFO

SmartText Searching
• clicking here gives you the results (listed next)
SmartText Results
•
Narrowing Your Search Results
to Citations to Appropriate Articles
to find a scholarly or peer-reviewed journal
article which reports an empirical study.
limit your search results by making choices on
a Search Options menu like the one that
follows.
You can use the sliding bar beside each set of options to read

all the
options available before making your choices.
Often, you’ll
want to only
choose “Peer
Reviewed
Journals”
Narrowing Your Search Results (con’t)
to Citations to Appropriate Articles
choose
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal article
Methodology: Empirical Study
Language: English (and any other languages you
may read)

Narrowing Your Search Results to Citations to Appropriate
Articles
within a certain range of
publication dates by using the sliding bars on the right
2000
Narrowing Your Search Results to Citations to Appropriate
Articles
he
boxes) to set the limits
of 1995 and 2000 and click “Update Results”
True Experiments or
Correlational Studies?
instructed to select an article which describes a
true experiment, an experiment with an
independent variable. An independent variable
is one that can be manipulated or changed by
the researcher.
true experiments and correlational studies as

empirical studies. To decide if the article
describes a true experiment with an independent
variable you need to read the abstract of the
article carefully.
Finding the Journal Article
citation is the real goal of library research!
The SFU Library has an excellent
collection of psychology journals, some
online and some in paper format.
in the PsycINFO citation to open up a new
window with information about where to
get the journal.
Where can I get this
Assignment #1 – Formatting
►the American Psychological Association
(APA) has a publication manual that outlines
standard format for articles submitted for
publication
►your assignments need to conform to APA
formatting guidelines

General Instructions
►your manuscript should be printed on one
side of standard sized paper
-- 8 ½ X 11 in.
►use 12-pt Times Roman font
►leave uniform margins of at least 2.54 cm
(1 in.) at the top, bottom, left, and right of
each page
►double space between ALL lines of the
manuscript
Example Title
Page
Be sure to include:
• the short title & page
number
• the running head
• the title
• submission information

Reference Page
►your reference list should appear on a
NEW page at the end of your paper
►it provides the information necessary for a
reader to locate and retrieve any source
you cite in the body of the paper
►each source you cite in the paper must
appear in your reference list;
►similarly, each entry in the reference list
must be cited in your text.
Reference Page
Note: References are listed
alphabetically by last name
of the first author of each
source.
References
{centered on first line}
• use hanging indentation for each
reference

Short-title & page#
Assignment #1 – Submission
► assignments are due at the START of lecture, 10:30 am on
Tuesday February 21st
► you will need to obtain copies of the abstract for each
article as well as copies of the method section for each
article.
article
either a true experiment or correlation and to show that they’re
dealing with the same general research hypothesis
Levy et al. Abstract
Experiment
Hypothesis
Levy et al. Method Section
Experiment due to random
assignment of subjects to
the four groups

Assignment #1 – Submission
► You will submit these along with an APA-formatted
reference page listing your two articles to your TM
(tutor/marker).
► Your submission will also include an APA-formatted cover
page (see WebCT for an example) listing your name,
student number, and TM’s name.
Assignment #1 Grading
Assignment #2 – Rationale
► One important skill you need to succeed when
writing papers, answering essay exam questions,
or simply taking notes in lecture is the ability to
summarise material accurately and concisely.
Accurately means that you have selected only the
key points and recorded them precisely. Concisely
means that you have used the minimum number
of words and figures to communicate the accurate
meaning of the original source.
Assignment #2 – Summarizing the
Articles

► Article summaries must be written in your own
words. If you merely copy the words of the
author(s) you are committing plagiarism. [You
should work through the Plagiarism module on
WebCT in order to avoid plagiarism.] Your article
summaries will require you to describe in your
own words what the article was about. Each
summary should be between 300 – 400 words and
should address the following issues in the
following order. Please label each section. Failure
to clearly label each section will result in a lower
grade.
Introduction
In their introduction, the author(s) will
describe previous research. In your summary
indicate the main findings of that previous
research. Additionally, in the introduction the
author(s) will describe the purpose of the
study they conducted and how it relates to
the previous research. In your summary you
should identify the question that the author(s)
were trying to answer and the hypotheses
they were evaluating.
Method
The author(s) will describe the methods they used in

their study. In your summary you should provide a
description of the methods used in the study and
identify the study as using either an experimental or
a non-experimental design.
For the experimental study identify the independent
and dependent variables and provide the operational
definitions of these variables. Briefly describe the
experimental method used.
For the non-experimental study identify the variables
being measured and how they are operationally
defined. Briefly describe the method used to study
the relationship between the variables.
Results
Summarize the major findings that the article
author(s) report in the results section.
Discussion
In the article’s Discussion section the
author(s) will tell you the implications of what
they found in their study. Your summary
should include a brief overview of the
implications of the study.
Assignment #2 – Formatting

►the assignment should be submitted in APA
format
Psyc 100 Assignment
#2
Example Summaries
Note:
The example summary is
provided only to illustrate
format.
General Instructions
►your manuscript should be printed on one
side of standard sized paper
-- 8 ½ X 11 in.
►use 12-pt Times Roman font
►leave uniform margins of at least 2.54 cm
(1 in.) at the top, bottom, left, and right of
each page
►double space between ALL lines of the
manuscript

Example Title
Page
Be sure to include:
• the short title & page
number
• the running head
• the title
• submission information
Example First
Page
• Short title & page #
Title
{heading centred}
Introduction
{heading centred,
underlined}

Method
{heading centred,
underlined}
• Start with the summary of
the experimental study
{heading left-justified}
Results
{heading centred,
underlined}
Short title & page
#
Discussion
[heading centred, underlined}
Continue with the summary
of the non- experimental
study

{heading left-justified}
Introduction
{heading centred, underlined}
Method
Results
Short title & page #
Discussion
Reference Page
►your reference list should appear on a
NEW page at the end of your paper
►it provides the information necessary for a
reader to locate and retrieve any source
you cite in the body of the paper
►each source you cite in the paper must
appear in your reference list;

►similarly, each entry in the reference list
must be cited in your text.
Reference Page
Note: References are listed
alphabetically by last name
of the first author of each
source.
References
{centered on first line}
• use hanging indentation for each
reference
Short-title & page#
Assignment #2 Submission
► each summary should be between 300-400
words
► be sure to clearly label the sections

► you will need to submit two copies of this
assignment:
aper/hard copy
► this will include the summary of the two articles (with the
title and reference pages)
► also submit your annotated copies of the two articles that
you summarized
► this will be just your written summary of the two articles
(with the title and reference pages)
► this needs to be in either .doc or .rtf format
• finally, with your hard copy you’ll need to include
a copy of the successful submission page from
your WebCT online-submission
Click Here
Click Here
Locate the file
on your
computer and
select it and

then click OK
Click Here
Click Here
You’ll want to print off and include a copy of this page with
your
hard copy.
Assignment #2 Submission
DUE:
►the paper copy is to be submitted at the
beginning of lecture (9:30 am) on March
22nd
►the electronic copy must be submitted by
9:00 am on the same day to avoid
penalties.
Assignment #2 Grading

First Term Test
►Thursday January 26th
-choice questions
-answer essay
questions
number
Multiple Choice Answer Sheets
(need to use a pencil)
Fill in circles completely
Complete Personal Information
Fill in special code
Completely erase changes
3 3 3 3
Short-Answer Essay
► Use Outline

► Limit essay to space provided
► Circle the question you’ve chosen to answer
► Write your name, ID #, and your TMs name
Jane Student 399999999
Your TMs Name
Psyc 100 Term Assignments
Rationale
Psychology relies on a variety of research methods in order to
come to a better
understanding of behaviour and other phenomena. Most research
methods can be
classified either as true experiments or as non-experimental
designs and it is important
for you as a student of psychology to be able to clearly
differentiate which type of a
design is being used in any specific study. One goal of the term
assignments is for you
to be able to find different studies relating to a specific topic
and identify which type of
research method the study uses to address the questions of
interest.
In addition, reading and interpreting published research are
important skills that all

scientists must develop. The term assignments for this course
will allow you to
demonstrate that you can select, read, summarize and interpret
research literature
related to one specific topic within the scope covered in
Psychology 100.
The written assignments must be completed entirely by you
alone.
Assignment #1 (3% of final grade)
You will be assigned a specific topic relevant to the Psyc 100
curriculum (see your WebCT
MyGrades section by the middle of the second week of classes).
With your assigned topic
area in mind, you should read the appropriate section of the
textbook to fully understand the
scope and parameters of your topic area (many of the topics will
only be discussed in class
later in the course). Once you feel that you understand enough
about the assigned
topic, you will use PsycINFO® (an abstract database that
provides coverage of the
psychological literature from the 1800s to the present) to find
two empirical (original data
collected), peer-reviewed research articles that you understand
well enough that you
can summarize them in your own words. One of these articles
must be based on a true
experiment while the other article must be based on a non-
experimental study that examines
the same general research hypothesis. [In addition, to ensure
that not everyone uses the

same articles, there will be further constraints on the articles
including limiting them to a
specific range of publication dates and requiring that at least
one author of the article have a
last name starting with a range of specific initials.] You will
find your specific topic [with
related restrictions] on your MyGrades page (WebCT) by the
middle of the second week of
classes.
Step 1. Finding The Articles
An efficient way of finding published research that relates to
your topic is to conduct a
literature search using PsycINFO®. There is a learning module
on WebCT that will provide
you with specific instructions on using PsycINFO® to find
articles relevant to your specific
topic. The articles you use must be listed in PsycINFO®– this is
a way to ensure the
scientific merit of the articles you select – however, you will
need to judge whether or
not the research reported is empirical or not, and truly
experimental or not.
2
Format Notes: Formatting your Assignments
Nearly all manuscripts and published works in Psychology
follow a standard set of

conventions outlined by the American Psychological
Association (APA). For authors wishing
to publish research and students of psychology, these
conventions provide a standard format
so that ideas can be more accurately communicated. Of
particular concern is the appropriate
acknowledgement of original sources with citations and
references. Instruction will be
provided in class and you should complete the APA learning
module in WebCT.
Step 2. Submission of Assignment #1
Once you have found two empirical articles (one true
experiment, one non-experimental) that
meet the criteria you were assigned you will need to obtain
paper copies (print or photocopy
originals) of the abstract and method section for each article
(DO NOT simply copy and
paste into a word-processed document – that is considered
unacceptable academic conduct).
You will submit the appropriate article sections properly
annotated (labels and highlighting or
underlining) to indicate the evidence supporting your judgment
that the article is reporting a
true experiment (non-experimental) design assessing the same
general research hypothesis.
Your submission will include an APA-formatted title page (see
WebCT for an example) listing
your name, student number, and your tutor/marker’s (TM’s)
name, followed by the annotated
article sections, followed by an APA-formatted reference page
listing your two articles.
Assignment #1 is due in class at 10:30 on Tuesday February 21

st
. Late assignments
will be awarded a grade of zero.
Assignment #1 will be graded based on the appropriateness of
the articles submitted and the
conformity of your title and reference pages to APA standards
(see WebCT). Articles deemed
inappropriate, that is, incorrect topic, publication dates,
author(s), two articles reporting the
same type of research method, or both articles not related to the
same general research
hypothesis must be replaced with appropriate articles for
Assignment #2.
Assignment #2 (7% of final grade)
Rationale
One important skill you need to succeed when writing papers,
answering essay exam
questions, or simply taking notes in lecture is the ability to
summarise material accurately
and concisely. Accurately means that you have selected only the
key points and recorded
them precisely. Concisely means that you have used the
minimum number of words and
figures to communicate the accurate meaning of the original
source. One goal of the
assignments in this course is to give you practice in
summarising material in your own
words.

3
Step 1. Summarizing The Articles
Article summaries must be written in your own words. If you
merely copy the words of the
author(s) you are committing plagiarism. [You should work
through the Plagiarism module in
WebCT in order to learn how to avoid plagiarism.]
Each summary should be between 300 – 400 words and should
address the following issues
in the following order. Please label each section. Please include
an in-text citation in each
section. Failure to clearly label each section or missing in-text
citations will result in a lower
grade.
Introduction (Experimental) (or Non-Experimental)
In their introduction, the author(s) will describe previous
research. In your summary indicate
the main findings of that previous research. Additionally, in the
introduction the author(s) will
describe the purpose of the study they conducted and how it
relates to the previous
research. In your summary you should identify the question that
the author(s) were trying to
answer and the hypotheses they were evaluating. Be sure to
specify the general hypothesis
concisely – it will be compared with the general hypothesis of

your second article summary.
Method
The author(s) will describe the methods they used in their study.
In your summary you should
provide a conceptual description of the methods used in the
study and identify the study as
using either a true experimental or a non-experimental design.
For the experimental study identify the independent and
dependent variables and provide the
operational definitions of these variables. Briefly describe the
experimental method used.
For the non-experimental study identify the variables being
measured and how they are
operationally defined. Briefly describe the method used to study
the relationship between the
variables.
Results
Summarize the major findings that the article author(s) report in
the results section. This is a
conceptual summary only – do not include specifics unless
critical to communicating the main
findings.
Discussion
In the article’s Discussion section the author(s) will tell you the
implications of what they
found in their study. Your summary should include a brief
overview of the implications of the
study.

4
Part of your goal is to communicate your understanding of the
research, so the accuracy of
the summaries will be important. Assignment #2 will be graded
based on the appropriateness
of the article summaries and how your paper conforms to APA
standards (see WebCT for the
grading guide used by the TMs).
Article summaries must be written in your own words (you need
to paraphrase the ideas
expressed in the articles). Using quotations is strongly
discouraged as it demonstrates a lack
of understanding of the material. In the rare cases when a
quotation is absolutely necessary,
you must include the proper quotation marks and the
appropriate citation.
Format Notes: Formatting your Assignments
Nearly all manuscripts and published works in Psychology
follow a standard set of
conventions outlined by the American Psychological
Association (APA). Of particular concern
is the appropriate acknowledgement of original sources with
citations and references.
Instruction will be provided in class and you should complete
the APA learning module in
WebCT.

APA specifies 1 inch (2.54 cm) margins on all sides, double-
spacing of all lines (title page
and reference page included), 12-point Times (Times New
Roman) font, and single-sided
printed pages for manuscripts. Please do not use any document
covers.
Step 2. Submitting Assignment #2
Your assignment submission should include the following in
this order:
-formatted title page listing your name, student
number, and TM’s name (see
WebCT for an example)
– see WebCT for
details)
-formatted reference page listing the two articles you
summarized
your name on each)
o remember, do NOT just cut and paste these into a word-
processed document
o on the copies of the articles, identify and label by
circling/highlighting the
specific elements of the study that make one a true experimental
design, and
for the other, a non-experiment design

the
hypothesis, the independent and dependent variables, and the
experimental method
-experimental study you will need to identify and
label the
research question, the variables under investigation, and the
method
used
m
WebCT
o Windows users see:
http://www.wikihow.com/Take-a-Screenshot-in-Microsoft-
Windows#In_Windows_7
o Mac users see:
http://www.wikihow.com/Take-a-Screenshot-in-Mac-OS-X
o Linux users: -- if you’re using Linux you surely know
http://www.wikihow.com/Take-a-Screenshot-in-Microsoft-
Windows#In_Windows_7
http://www.wikihow.com/Take-a-Screenshot-in-Mac-OS-X
5
You must submit two copies of this assignment. One copy, the
paper hardcopy will
include the annotated copies of the articles. Be sure that you’ve
stapled the various
components of the assignment, in the requisite order, in advance
of bringing to class for

submission.
The second copy of the assignment (only the material you have
written) must be
submitted electronically in WebCT (in either .doc, docx, or .rtf
format).
The paper copy and the article photocopies will be returned to
you with comments; we will
archive the electronic copy of your assignment as an antidote to
plagiarism.
The paper copy is to be submitted at the beginning of class
(9:30am) on Thursday,
March 22
nd
– the electronic copy must be submitted by 9:00 am on the
same day to
avoid late or incomplete penalties.
Late or incomplete assignment submissions will not be graded
(e.g., a paper copy of the
article summaries without attached articles or a missing
electronic copy) until complete and
are subject to significant penalties (25% per day late or
incomplete).
This article was downloaded by: [Simon Fraser University]
On: 18 March 2012, At: 20:07
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered

Number:
1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer
Street,
London W1T 3JH, UK
Journal of Divorce &
Remarriage
Publication details, including instructions
for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjdr20
Impact of Parental Divorce
on Children's Dreams
Karoline Proksch Dipl. Psych. a & Michael
Schredl Dipl. Psych. a
a Lucidity Institute, Stanford, CA, USA
b Sleep Laboratory, Central Institute of
Mental Health, Mannheim, Germany
Available online: 12 Oct 2008
To cite this article: Karoline Proksch Dipl. Psych. & Michael
Schredl Dipl.
Psych. (1999): Impact of Parental Divorce on Children's
Dreams, Journal of
Divorce & Remarriage, 30:1-2, 71-82
To link to this article:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J087v30n01_05
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use:
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/
terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private
study
purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,
redistribution,
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjdr20
http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J087v30n01_05
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution
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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or
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Impact of Parental Divorce
on Children’s Dreams
Karoline Proksch
Michael Schredl
ABSTRACT. The present article summarizes the findings of
major
studies investigating the effect of stress on dreams. Forty-four
children
(11 to 13 yrs.) participated in this study to investigate the
impact of
parental divorce on their dreams. The dreams of the acute
divorce
group have not been, as expected, more negatively toned but
showed
more ‘‘primitivity’’ and ‘‘unsuccessful roles.’’ These findings
were
discussed within the continuity and mastery hypothesis of
dreaming.
[Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document
Delivery Service:
1-800-342-9678. E-mail address: [email protected]]
KEYWORDS. Dream content, stress, divorce, children, sleep
disor-
ders

In 1994, about 30% of all marriages in Germany ended with
separa-
tion (Statistisches Bundesamt, 1996). The process of divorce for
all
persons is a period of transition which may be accompanied by
stress,
depression, and other problems (e.g., Emery, 1994). At least one
child
was present in 54% of the divorce cases (Statistisches
Bundesamt,
1996). These children often experienced family quarrels prior to
the
divorce, at times accompanied by violence, the breaking-off of
paren-
tal relationships, or a complete separation from one parent.
Results of
Karoline Proksch, Dipl. Psych., is affiliated with the Lucidity
Institute, Stanford,
CA. Michael Schredl, Dipl. Psych., is affiliated with the Sleep
Laboratory, Central
Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim, Germany.
Address correspondence to: M. Schredl, Schlaflabor,
Zentralinstitut für Seelische
Gesundheit, Postfach 12 21 20, 68072 Mannheim, Germany.
Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 30 (1/2) 1999
E 1999 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All r ights r eserved. 71
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JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE72
a variety of studies investigating short-term and long-term
effects of
divorce on children indicate that children experiencing parental
sepa-
ration show more interpersonal problems, mental health
problems,
such as depression or lower school achievement (Chase-
Lansdale,
Cherlin & Kiernan, 1995; Bolgar, Zweig-Frank & Paris, 1995).
Another way to investigate the impact of stress on the well-
being of
a person, is to study their dreams. According to the continuity
hypoth-
esis which states that dreaming is reflecting waking life (e.g.,
Dom-
hoff, 1996), one would expect that dreams after stress or major
life
events reflect the event itself and the possible negative affects
associ-
ated with the event. For example, several studies in adults
(Goode-
nough et al., 1975; De Koninck & Koulak, 1975; Lauer et al.,

1987;
Powell, Nielson & Chung, 1993) showed that a presleep stress
film in
some cases lead to the incorporation of film elements and
higher
self-rated involvement but most dream affects shifted toward
negative
emotions compared to the affect of watching a neutral film.
Other
experimental stressors, such as presleep suggestions (De
Koninck &
Brunette, 1992) and difficult cognitive tasks (Cicogna et al.,
1976;
Stewart & Koulack, 1993) yield to similar results. However,
some
researchers (e.g., Breger, Hunter & Lane, 1971) criticized that
the
impact of experimental stress may be different from the effects
of real
life stress. Breger, Hunter and Lane (1971) showed that intense
psy-
chotherapy or awaiting a major surgery is more potent in
altering
dream content (e.g., higher rates of incorporation) and dream
affect
than a presleep film. Persons vulnerable to stress tend to rate
their
dreams as more anxious than controls do and their dreams also
contain
a greater incidence of misfortunes (Nesca & Koulak, 1991).
Other
emotional stress, such as menstrual stress (Sirois-Berliss & De
Ko-
ninck, 1982), interpersonal conflict (Delorme et al., 1996),
nuclear
accident (Davidson et al., 1988), tornado (Pagel, Vann &

Altomare,
1995), release from prison (Pung, 1978), loss of a beloved
person
(Garfield, 1996) or escaping from homeland (Cernovsky, 1990)
lead
to similar effects in dreams. Further evidence of the relationship
be-
tween negative dream emotions and stress is provided by
findings that
show that stress increases nightmare frequency (Kales et al.,
1980;
Cook, Kaplan & Wood, 1990; Koulack & Nesca, 1992; Tan &
Hicks,
1995). Even many years after severe stressors, for example,
sexual
abuse (Garfield, 1987; Draijer, 1990; Cuddy & Belicki, 1992) or
sur-
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Karoline Proksch and Michael Schredl 73

viving the Holocaust (Lavie & Kaminer, 1991), the dreams tend
to be
more negative than those of non-stressed controls.
Cartwright and coworkers (Cartwright & Lamberg, 1992; Cart-
wright, 1996) have investigated the effects of divorce on women
and
found, as expected, more negative dream emotions in the
divorce
group in comparison with married females (Cartwright et al.,
1984). In
addition, dream content differentiated women reacting with
depres-
sion from women who did not. The dreams of the former were
domi-
nated by non-prefered roles of the dream ego and inadequate
coping
behavior (Trenholme et al., 1984). A follow-up after one year
showed
that differences in dream content diminished (such as
preponderance
of negative dream emotions) in non-depressed women
(Cartwright et
al., 1984). King (1996), who carried out a questionnaire study,
re-
ported that adults whose parents were divorced have more
negative
dreams and dreams which show a higher activity.
In children, a considerable amount of research has investigated
the
effects of trauma, such as natural and man-made disaster, sexual
and
physical abuse, war exposure, animal attacks, and
hospitalizations on
children’s dreams (overview: Nader, 1996). For example, Terr

(1979,
1981) has studied a group of 25 children who were kidnapped
while
riding the school bus. Almost every child suffered, among other
symp-
toms such as anxiety and pessimistic expectations, from night
terrors
and nightmares directly after the trauma. Even a few years after
the
trauma, nightmares did occur at the same intensity although
they were
less frequent and did not replay the original traumatic
experience
(Terr, 1983). The psychological impact of the Intifada (Israeli-
Arab
conflict) on Palestinian children living in refugee camps (10 to
12
years old) was studied by Nashef (1992). Their dreams
contained
more anxiety and conflict themes than the dreams of controls.
Unfor-
tunately, almost no systematic research exists on the
relationship be-
tween everyday stress and dream content in children although
Garfield
(1984) gave parallels between dream content and waking-life
prob-
lems, such as being chased in the dream representing feelings of
pressure from within or without in waking life. An experimental
study
of the influence of television was carried out by Foulkes,
Belvedere
and Brubaker (1971). They found no relationship between film
con-
tent and negative dream emotions. However, Viermerö and
Pajaanen

(1992) reported a relationship between the amount of time
watching
violent TV series and the occurence of ‘‘bad’’ dreams. This
discrepan-
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cy may be explained by the recurrent exposure present in the
second
study over the single exposure design used by Foulkes et al.
(1971).
To summarize, dreams seem to reflect the effects of stress on
adults
and on children.
The present study is aimed to investigate the effects of parental
divorce on children’s sleep and dreams. According to the
previous
findings, it was expected that dreams would be negative-toned,

show
higher involvement of the dream ego and would be
characterized by
inadequate coping behavior.
METHOD
Participants
Overall, 44 children (11 to 13 years old) partcipated in the
study.
They were divided into three groups: children whose parents
were
divorced within the last year (acute), children whose parents
were
divorced one to five years ago (non-acute), and a control group
of
children living with both parents (see Table 1). Twenty-six
children
attended ‘‘Gymnasium’’ and 18 children ‘‘Hauptschule.’’
Materials
Personality questionnaire. To measure personality, a
standardized
test (Persönlichkeits-fragebogen für Kinder, PFK 9-14; Seitz &
Rausche, 1976) was used. This test measured three different
areas:
behavior (70 items), motives (72 items), and self-concepts (61
items),
TABLE 1. Description of the Sample
Variable Divorce (<1 yr.) Divorce (1-5 yrs.) No Divorce
(N = 12) (N = 10) (N = 22)

age (yrs.) 11.1± 0.3 12.1± 1.0 12.0± 0.7
female/male 8/4 5/5 16/6
Gymn./Hauptsch. 8/4 6/4 12/10
Sleep index 5.6± 2.1 3.5± 2.1 4.2± 2.1
No. of dreams 13.1± 7.7 13.0± 6.4 12.8± 6.4
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such as ego-strength, anxiety, emotionality, extraversion, school
achievement, shyness, and social behavior. Interitem
consistency of
the 15 subscales ranged from r = .587 to r = .812.
Sleep questionnaire. To quantify the sleep behavior, the
Pittsburgh
Sleep Quality Index (Buysse et al., 1988) was used. The
questionnaire
was comprised of 19 items measuring sleep quality, sleep
efficiency,
and sleep disturbances during the last month. The global score

ranges
from 0 to 21. The cut-off point 5 indicated sleep problems.
Dream content analysis. First, several scales of the dream
manual of
Riemann et al. (1985) were adopted, such as dream-like quality,
visual
and auditory perception. Second, dream content rating scales by
Breg-
er, Hunter and Lane (1971), including formal-descriptive and
thematic
dimensions, were translated into German. The formal-
descriptive di-
mensions (five-point scales ranging from 1 to 5) were:
‘‘anxiety’’
experienced by the dream ego; ‘‘cognitive disturbance,’’ such
as con-
fusion, fragmentation of dream episodes, inconsistencies;
‘‘implausi-
bility,’’ i.e., from real life (1) to bizarre (5); ‘‘involvement’’ of
the
dream ego; and ‘‘primitivity’’ ranging from extremely
socialized ex-
pression of impulses, such as conversation, intellectual activity,
help-
ing someone to mostly or extremely primitive or unsocialized
expres-
sion of impulses, such as stealing, injuring others, destroying
something, or murder. The thematic dimensions (three-point
scales
ranging from 1 to 3) were: ‘‘quality of interactions,’’ pleasant
(1),
neutral (2), unpleasant (3); ‘‘roles’’ inadequate or unsuccessful
(1), for
example, when the dreamer fails a task, neutral (2), such as
walking

around, talking, and adequate-successful (3), e.g., dreamer wins
a
game or does something well; ‘‘outcome’’ of the dream,
desirable
outcome (1), neutral (2), and undesirable outcome (3).
Procedure
In public schools children were asked to participate in the
study. If a
child was willing to participate written consent of the parent(s)
was
obtained. First, sociodemographic data were elicited, and then
the
children completed the personality and sleep questionnaires.
During a
period of twelve weeks the participants kept a dream diary
writing
down every dream recalled in the morning. In weekly sessions
chil-
dren rated their dreams along the scales by Breger et al. (1971).
In
these sessions questions about dreams and emotional issues of
the
children were discussed. In addition, dream content was judged
along
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the scales of Riemann et al. (1985) and Breger et al. (1971) by
an
independent rater, and the dream words were counted out. The
statisti-
cal analysis included ANOVA procedures with contrasts
between di-
vorce groups and controls and ANCOVA procedures to control
for
word count.
RESULTS
Personality questionnaire. The analysis of variance of the
personal-
ity dimensions led to one significant result: the children whose
parents
were divorced within the last year scored higher on the
dimension
‘‘need for improvement.’’
Sleep questionnaire. The mean global score of the sleep
question-
the
three groups did not reach significance, a tendency of
heightened
values was found in the acute divorce group in comparison with

con-
trols (p = .0654, one-tailed; see Table 1).
Dream recall and dream word count. Overall, 568 dream reports
were collected over the twelve-week peroid. Dream recall did
not
differ between the three groups (see Table 1). Mean word count
was
er dream (range: 4 to 327 words). The
analysis of
variance revealed significant group differences (F = 6.5, p =
.0016; see
Table 2) so that word count was used as covariate in further
analysis.
Dream content. In Table 2 the formal aspects measured by the
Riemann et al. scales are depicted. When word count was
partialed out
(all effects p < .0001), all three scales still showed differences
between
children of the acute divorced group and controls. For example,
TABLE 2. Formal Dream Aspects of the Three Groups
(Riemann et al., 1985)
(N = 157) (N = 130) (N = 281)
word count 37.4± 33.4*** 49.6± 50.1 52.5± 43.4
dream-like quality 1.73± 0.94** 1.89± 0.82 2.06± 0.77
visual perception 1.17± 1.21*** 1.25± 0.88* 1.48± 0.87
auditory perception 0.20± 0.58* 0.38± 0.65 0.42± 0.77
*p < .05, **p < .01, *** p < .001 comparison to controls
(covariate word count)

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dreams of the acute divorce dream group were less dream-like
(more
realistic) and contained a lower amount of visual and auditory
percep-
tion. Significant differences were also found for the dimension
‘‘prim-
itivity’’ and ‘‘roles’’ (see Table 3). A similar but smaller
difference in
the dimension ‘‘roles’’ was found for the non-acute divorce
group.
The self-rated dimension ‘‘involvement’’ of the dream ego was
more
pronounced in both divorce groups than in controls. The
correlations
between self-ratings of the children and the ratings made by a
judge
were high: ‘‘anxiety’’ (r = .905), ‘‘cognitive disturbances’’ (r =
.581),

‘‘implausibility’’ (r = .784), ‘‘involvement’’ (r = .777),
‘‘primitivity’’
(r = .749), ‘‘quality of interaction’’ (r = .747), ‘‘roles’’ (r =
.801), and
‘‘outcome’’ (r = .793).
The results of the judge’s ratings showed similar patterns to the
children’s self-ratings (see Table 4), with the exception of the
dimen-
sion ‘‘involvement.’’ One unexpected finding was the
significantly
lower value of the dimension ‘‘implausibility’’ of the non-acute
di-
vorce group.
DISCUSSION
As expected, marked effects of parental divorce on personality
measures were not found, yet this may be due to the small
sample size.
TABLE 3. Descriptive and Thematic Dream Dimensions of the
Three Groups
(Self-ratings, Breger, Hunter & Lane, 1971)
(N = 157) (N = 130) (N = 281)
Anxiety 2.29± 1.54 2.05± 1.40 2.25± 1.59
Cognitive disturbances 1.59± 0.93 1.63± 0.89 1.70± 0.92
Implausibility 3.27± 1.46 2.86± 1.39* 3.25± 1.35
Involvement1 2.46± 1.59* 2.47± 1.51* 2.20± 1.47
Primitivity 2.55± 1.10*** 2.21± 1.04 2.21± 1.08
Quality of interaction 1.99± 0.74 1.93± 0.76 1.97± 0.76
Roles 2.52± 0.76*** 2.66± 0.60* 2.81± 0.48
Outcome 2.00± 0.79 1.98± 0.82 2.12± 0.82

1one-tailed tests
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TABLE 4. Descriptive and Thematic Dream Dimensions of the
Three Groups
(Ratings by judge, Breger, Hunter & Lane, 1971)
(N = 157) (N = 130) (N = 281)
Anxiety 2.27± 1.46 2.12± 1.41 2.25± 1.42
Cognitive disturbances 1.66± 0.86 1.49± 0.75 1.59± 0.80
Implausibility 3.41± 1.24 3.19± 1.38 3.44± 1.21
Involvement1 2.40± 1.57 2.39± 1.54 2.19± 1.46
Primitivity 2.55± 0.99* 2.52± 1.07 2.40± 1.06
Quality of interaction 2.03± 0.69 1.94± 0.73 1.96± 0.71

Roles 2.59± 0.71*** 2.70± 0.59 2.80± 0.50
Outcome 2.09± 0.76 2.12± 0.78 2.22± 0.75
1one-tailed tests
On the other hand, increased sleep difficulties were associated
with
recent divorce, congruent with findings indicating that stress
increases
sleep problems in adults (e.g., Hohagen et al., 1993).
Whereas dream recall frequency did not differ between the three
groups, dream length was considerably lower in the acute-
divorce
group. If one interprets dream length as a measure of dream
recall, as
done by Waterman (1991), one could say that stress reduces the
amount of recalled dream material. In the literature, the findings
con-
cerning the effect of stress on dream recall are inhomogeneous,
for
example, stress increases dream recall in females but reduces
dream
recall in males (Armitage, 1992). It may also be possible that
sleep
disturbances influence dream recall since it was found that
dream
recall and dream length were higher in long sleepers (Taub,
1972).
The formal aspects of the lowered auditory and visual
perception in
the dreams of the acute-divorce group cannot be explained by
the

influence of stress on dreams, and thus warrants further
research.
Although dream content of the acute-divorce group did not
reflect
an increased global negative affect (‘‘anxiety,’’ ‘‘quality of
interac-
tions’’ and ‘‘outcome’’), as predicted by previous findings (see
introduction), it showed more ‘‘primitivity,’’ such as
unsocialized ex-
pression of impulses and ‘‘inadequate’’ or ‘‘unsuccessful’’
roles.
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These dreams may reflect role confusion the child experiences
during
the time of separation and adaptation to new family structures
(e.g.,
Knoke, 1994). Although a small difference was still found in

the
non-acute divorce group, the increase of ‘‘adequate’’ and
‘‘success-
ful’’ roles in these dreams may indicate an increase of coping
behavior
in those children adapting to the new situation. Whether dreams
them-
selves contribute to the adaption process is discussed in the
literature
as mastery hypothesis (Koulack, 1993). Wright and Koulack
(1987)
assumed that the process of mastery in dreams is the same that
occurs
during the waking state. When we are confronted by a stressful
event
or a problem during the waking state, we think about it, until
obtaining
a successful resolution or until having to put it away because of
other
demands of our waking life. Support for this hypothesis was
provided
by the findings of Cartwright (1991, 1996) who found that
incorpora-
tion of the ex-spouse in the dream was helping the investigated
women
to cope with divorce. The findings of Hajek and Blecher (1991)
re-
ported that persons with negative toned dreams about smoking
are
those who stayed abstinent. In the present study, higher self-
rated
involvement in dream action and more realistic (less dream-
like)
dreams in the acute-divorce group may reflect the process of
mastery
within the dream.

On the other hand, dream work was adopted in group therapy
with
women undergoing divorce to cope effectively with the demands
of
this transition period (Falk and Hill, 1995).
Overall, the results of the present study indicate that children’s
dreams were influenced by the stressor divorce. To extend the
present
findings, it will be of interest to carry out a prospective
longitudinal
study of children prior to divorce, during the process, and at
least one
or two years after the divorce. Additional measures such as
subjective
stress experienced by the child and the investigation of
incorporation
of the life event into dreams (the separated parent, family
conflict) will
shed more light on the possible coping function of dreams.
Whether or
not the reported pattern (no change in dream emotions but more
‘‘primitive’’ themes and ‘‘unsuccessful role’’ behavior) is
typical for
children of divorce could be evaluated by studying dreams of
children
who experience other stressors, for example, mental illness of
one
parent, school problems or loss of a near relative.
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