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Arterial aging progresses through distinct stages that can lead to heart attack. While the first symptom of a heart attack can be sudden death, men and women face equal risk by ages 60-70. In 50% of cases, blood pressure and cholesterol levels are normal, and children of parents with premature heart disease have a much higher (200-300%) risk themselves.
Full Face Transplant
This document discusses the possibility and ethics of performing a full face transplant. It presents the case study of Ms. Poonam Singhal, who suffered severe facial disfigurement from an acid attack. The document outlines the medical feasibility of a full face transplant using modern techniques like microsurgery, immunosuppressants, and tissue matching. It also considers ethical issues like finding an appropriate donor and managing post-operative care. Hypothetical imaging is presented to illustrate what Ms. Singhal's face could look like after a successful full face transplant. The debate on this procedure is just beginning.
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The document discusses the future of medical tourism and cosmetic surgery in India. It notes that frequent international travel has increased due to advances in aviation, and many now travel abroad for medical purposes. India has become a major destination for medical tourism, especially for cosmetic surgery, due to several factors: the availability of highly qualified surgeons, high-quality implants and equipment, advanced technologies, and continual medical education. The number of cosmetic surgeries performed in India has grown significantly between 1987 and 2004. Common cosmetic procedures include rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction.
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This document discusses the history and growth of cosmetic surgery in India. It notes that cosmetic surgery dates back to ancient India with techniques described in the Sushrut Samhita in the 5th century BC. The document outlines key developments in cosmetic surgery throughout the 20th century in various countries. It then summarizes the history of cosmetic surgery in India, noting that the Cosmetic Surgery Center of India was established in 1987 and saw rapid growth, with procedures increasing over 670% between 1987-2004. Common cosmetic surgery procedures performed in India are also listed.
How to consult a patient
This document provides guidance on properly consulting with patients considering cosmetic surgery. It outlines important steps like determining the patient's motivation, assessing their emotional state, examining relevant areas, and recommending the right procedure or surgeon. The key aspects are choosing a qualified surgeon, making sure the timing is appropriate, matching expectations with limitations, and committing only to what can realistically be delivered to achieve the best outcome.
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Heart disease
Arterial aging progresses through distinct stages that can lead to heart attack. While the first symptom of a heart attack can be sudden death, men and women face equal risk by ages 60-70. In 50% of cases, blood pressure and cholesterol levels are normal, and children of parents with premature heart disease have a much higher (200-300%) risk themselves.
Full Face Transplant
This document discusses the possibility and ethics of performing a full face transplant. It presents the case study of Ms. Poonam Singhal, who suffered severe facial disfigurement from an acid attack. The document outlines the medical feasibility of a full face transplant using modern techniques like microsurgery, immunosuppressants, and tissue matching. It also considers ethical issues like finding an appropriate donor and managing post-operative care. Hypothetical imaging is presented to illustrate what Ms. Singhal's face could look like after a successful full face transplant. The debate on this procedure is just beginning.
Mediclal tourism cosmetic surgery
The document discusses the future of medical tourism and cosmetic surgery in India. It notes that frequent international travel has increased due to advances in aviation, and many now travel abroad for medical purposes. India has become a major destination for medical tourism, especially for cosmetic surgery, due to several factors: the availability of highly qualified surgeons, high-quality implants and equipment, advanced technologies, and continual medical education. The number of cosmetic surgeries performed in India has grown significantly between 1987 and 2004. Common cosmetic procedures include rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction.
Medical tourism in India
This document discusses the history and growth of cosmetic surgery in India. It notes that cosmetic surgery dates back to ancient India with techniques described in the Sushrut Samhita in the 5th century BC. The document outlines key developments in cosmetic surgery throughout the 20th century in various countries. It then summarizes the history of cosmetic surgery in India, noting that the Cosmetic Surgery Center of India was established in 1987 and saw rapid growth, with procedures increasing over 670% between 1987-2004. Common cosmetic surgery procedures performed in India are also listed.
How to consult a patient
This document provides guidance on properly consulting with patients considering cosmetic surgery. It outlines important steps like determining the patient's motivation, assessing their emotional state, examining relevant areas, and recommending the right procedure or surgeon. The key aspects are choosing a qualified surgeon, making sure the timing is appropriate, matching expectations with limitations, and committing only to what can realistically be delivered to achieve the best outcome.
Future of Cosmetic Surgery
This document discusses the future of cosmetic surgery in India according to Dr. Vijay Sharma. It notes that India has become a major medical tourism destination, and cosmetic surgery in particular is flourishing due to availability of qualified surgeons, high-quality implants and equipment, advanced technology, and continual medical education. Some key factors driving the growth of cosmetic surgery in India include changes in lifestyle, increased awareness, professional needs, important life events, self-image concerns, and globalization. The number of cosmetic surgeries performed in India has increased over 600-fold from 1987 to 2004. Common procedures include rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction.
Excellent Makeover Program
Dr. Vijay Sharma outlines 11 "Golden Rules of Beauty" based on facial features and proportions that are considered universally attractive. These include having an oval face, equal length of face above and below the nose, high cheekbones, convex rather than concave facial features, and balanced proportions between parts of the face and body. He argues that modern society puts immense pressure on individuals to conform to narrow beauty standards due to emphasis on youth, beauty, and success. This "hyperaesthetic tension" has led to an increase in cosmetic procedures and taken importance away from inner virtues. Societal tolerance for those not considered attractive has decreased significantly.
Breast augmentation
The document discusses breast augmentation, including indications for the procedure, surgical approaches, implant placement and types, the operative procedure, postoperative care, and potential complications. Breast augmentation involves surgically increasing breast size through the use of saline- or silicone-filled breast implants inserted through incisions around the nipple, under the arm, or in the breast crease. Postoperative recovery takes several weeks, with limited activity and follow up visits with the surgeon to monitor healing.
Best face forward
The document discusses the rise in popularity of cosmetic surgery in India from 1987 to 2004. It attributes this 600-fold increase to several key factors, including increased awareness, emphasis on youth and beauty in modern Indian culture, globalization, and the need for professional presentation. Cosmetic surgery is now more widely available and affordable in India compared to other countries. The document also provides before and after photos of common cosmetic procedures like nose jobs, breast augmentations, and fat removal treatments.
Role of computer simulation
This document discusses the role of advanced computer simulation in modern cosmetic surgery. It describes how computer simulation can help both physicians and patients by allowing patients to visually express their desired changes and allowing doctors to demonstrate expected results. The objectives of computer simulation are to avoid patient dissatisfaction by explaining realistic expectations and limitations prior to surgery. A survey of over 7,000 patients found that explaining both desired results and potential problems led to higher patient satisfaction compared to only explaining benefits. The conclusion is that educating patients thoroughly through computer simulation can increase satisfaction by managing expectations.
Mediclal Tourism Cosmetic Surgery
1) Cosmetic surgery tourism is growing in India due to the availability of highly qualified surgeons, high quality implants and equipment, and lower costs compared to other countries.
2) Factors driving the rise in cosmetic procedures in India include increased awareness, globalization and exposure to international beauty standards, and the need for professionals to appear more presentable for business.
3) Between 1987-2004, cosmetic surgeries in India increased over 600-fold, with the most common procedures being rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction.
International college of cosmetic surgery
This document outlines the training programs and certification process for the International College of Cosmetic Surgery. It describes a multi-year certification process that requires candidates to complete clinical training, submit a log of surgical cases, and pass written and oral examinations to become a Fellow or Member. Fellows would be certified to perform cosmetic surgical procedures, while Members would be certified to perform non-invasive cosmetic procedures. The document also describes requirements for continuing education to maintain certification every two years through the College's re-certification program.
Hyperaesthetic tension
1. The document discusses the concept of "hyperaesthetic tension", which is the constant worry about one's appearance in modern society due to emphasis on youth, beauty, and success.
2. It notes how every body part can be subjected to various beauty treatments and procedures by industries and professionals focused on aesthetics and appearance enhancement.
3. The medical field has also contributed to this focus on beauty, with specialties like cosmetic surgery emerging to modify and "beautify" various aspects of the body.
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Hair weaving can cause several health issues including allergies, eczema, errythema, seborrhea, dermatitis, headaches, dizziness, and migraines. The document lists potential skin conditions such as eczema and dermatitis as well as neurological symptoms including headaches, dizziness, and migraines as hazards of hair weaving.
Complications of textured_surface_implants
Silicone breast implants are generally considered biologically inert. However, some patients develop seromas following implantation. This document discusses several hypothesized pathophysiological pathways by which textured silicone breast implants could potentially cause generalized symptoms, but finds each of them implausible based on the scientific evidence. Specifically, silicone is unlikely to act as an antigen, adjuvant, or hapten due to its small size and inability to repeatedly bind to host molecules. A foreign body reaction and resultant cytokine production also would not be expected to cause systemic disease. The document concludes it is very unlikely that silicone breast implants can induce generalized symptoms or disease.
Human fat tissue bank
Dr. Vijay Sharma proposes the concept of a Human Fat Tissue Bank that would collect, store, and preserve human fat cells through liposuction in order to later reintroduce the fat through autologous fat grafting or transplantation. The fat would be collected aseptically, stored at hypothermic temperatures, and later grafted back into the same patient or potentially another human to fill wrinkles or defects. Initial observations of autologous fat grafting show the fat can remain integrated for 12-24 months with less scarring than other dermal fillers. The Human Fat Tissue Banking concept could allow for autologous, homologous, or even heterologous fat grafting between humans and
Growth of cosmetic_surgery
The document discusses the growth of cosmetic surgery in India from 1987 to 2006. It notes that the first cosmetic surgery center in India was founded in 1987 in Bombay by Dr. Vijay Sharma. Since then, cosmetic surgeries in India have increased over 600-fold. Common procedures include rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction. The document attributes the rise in cosmetic procedures to factors like increased awareness, lifestyle changes, globalization, and the success of Indian beauty pageant contestants.
Full face transplant
This document discusses the debate around full face transplantation. It presents the story of Poonam Singhal, who suffered severe facial disfigurement from an acid attack. The document considers whether full face transplantation is now technically and ethically feasible, given advances in areas like microsurgery, immunosuppressive drugs, and computer imaging. It outlines some of the medical, legal, and ethical issues to consider, such as donor selection and consent, ensuring transplants are only done on appropriate recipients like severe burn victims, and amending laws around acid attacks. Hypothetical before and after computer images are presented of what a full face transplant for Poonam Singhal may look like.
Duties and rights_of_cosmetic_surgeon
Dr. Vijay Sharma outlines the key duties and rights of cosmetic surgeons. Some of the main duties include rendering services to improve patients' emotional well-being and confidence rather than just for financial gain. Cosmetic surgeons must obtain proper informed consent, maintain patient privacy and confidentiality, and make treatment recommendations based on scientific evidence. They should not solicit patients directly or use publicity for commercial purposes. Cosmetic surgeons also have a duty to continue their education, treat all patients respectfully regardless of attributes, and observe relevant laws and ethical standards in their practice.
Complications of silicon implant
This document discusses common postoperative complications that can occur with silicon implants, specifically for the nose, cheeks, chin, and breasts. Some frequent complications include edema, redness, infections, abnormal pigmentation, transparent reflection of the implant, displacement of the implant, and rejection. Based on a study of 179 nose implants, 58 chin implants, 27 cheek implants, and 253 breast augmentations, the most common issues were edema, residual edema, redness, abnormal pigmentation, transparent reflection, infection, dissatisfaction leading to removal, and displacement of the implant. A unique complication of breast implants is capsule formation, requiring manual breaking for the first postoperative year. Rejection of implants is rare.
Chemical peeling
1) The document compares the use of phenol-based chemical peels with and without the addition of crotamiton oil on 127 patients. Phenol peels remove the epidermis and upper dermis, resulting in a smoother appearance after new skin growth.
2) When used without crotamiton oil, phenol peels caused coagulation of proteins in the skin and whitening within days, with a light brown color developing within 3 days and peeling complete within 7-12 days.
3) Complications were minor and temporary in most cases, with irritation and edema the most common. No serious toxic effects were observed from the phenol amounts used. Success rates for treating wrinkles
Beauty concepts
The document outlines golden rules of beauty according to Dr. Vijay Sharma. It states that an oval face shape is considered the most beautiful for women, and high cheekbones and wide-open eyes are also considered attractive. It explains that these features signify a feminine bone structure and increased resistance to wrinkles.
3D Computer Imaging Assessment
This document summarizes a presentation by Dr. Vijay Sharma on the use of 3D computer imaging as an assessment tool for cosmetic surgeons. 3D imaging allows for clear evaluation of aesthetic defects, shows patients multiple surgical options, and helps manage expectations by demonstrating limitations and potential complications. It gives surgeons and patients freedom to view the face from any angle and closely examine flaws. Using 3D cameras, TVs, glasses and a joystick, Dr. Sharma found 3D imaging enhances confidence in decisions, ensures awareness of postoperative issues, and reduces unrealistic hopes for patients.
Heart disease in indians
Heart disease is the leading cause of death in India, with over 60 million people projected to have coronary heart disease by 2015. Mortality rates from heart disease are twice as high in India compared to the US and several times higher than some European countries. Risk factors like hypertension, diabetes and abnormal cholesterol develop at younger ages in India compared to Western countries. Diet plays a major role, as Indian diets tend to be high in saturated and trans fats. Primary prevention through controlling cholesterol levels earlier in life could help reduce India's growing heart disease burden.
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There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
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Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
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This document discusses the future of cosmetic surgery in India according to Dr. Vijay Sharma. It notes that India has become a major medical tourism destination, and cosmetic surgery in particular is flourishing due to availability of qualified surgeons, high-quality implants and equipment, advanced technology, and continual medical education. Some key factors driving the growth of cosmetic surgery in India include changes in lifestyle, increased awareness, professional needs, important life events, self-image concerns, and globalization. The number of cosmetic surgeries performed in India has increased over 600-fold from 1987 to 2004. Common procedures include rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction.
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Dr. Vijay Sharma outlines 11 "Golden Rules of Beauty" based on facial features and proportions that are considered universally attractive. These include having an oval face, equal length of face above and below the nose, high cheekbones, convex rather than concave facial features, and balanced proportions between parts of the face and body. He argues that modern society puts immense pressure on individuals to conform to narrow beauty standards due to emphasis on youth, beauty, and success. This "hyperaesthetic tension" has led to an increase in cosmetic procedures and taken importance away from inner virtues. Societal tolerance for those not considered attractive has decreased significantly.
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The document discusses breast augmentation, including indications for the procedure, surgical approaches, implant placement and types, the operative procedure, postoperative care, and potential complications. Breast augmentation involves surgically increasing breast size through the use of saline- or silicone-filled breast implants inserted through incisions around the nipple, under the arm, or in the breast crease. Postoperative recovery takes several weeks, with limited activity and follow up visits with the surgeon to monitor healing.
Best face forward
The document discusses the rise in popularity of cosmetic surgery in India from 1987 to 2004. It attributes this 600-fold increase to several key factors, including increased awareness, emphasis on youth and beauty in modern Indian culture, globalization, and the need for professional presentation. Cosmetic surgery is now more widely available and affordable in India compared to other countries. The document also provides before and after photos of common cosmetic procedures like nose jobs, breast augmentations, and fat removal treatments.
Role of computer simulation
This document discusses the role of advanced computer simulation in modern cosmetic surgery. It describes how computer simulation can help both physicians and patients by allowing patients to visually express their desired changes and allowing doctors to demonstrate expected results. The objectives of computer simulation are to avoid patient dissatisfaction by explaining realistic expectations and limitations prior to surgery. A survey of over 7,000 patients found that explaining both desired results and potential problems led to higher patient satisfaction compared to only explaining benefits. The conclusion is that educating patients thoroughly through computer simulation can increase satisfaction by managing expectations.
Mediclal Tourism Cosmetic Surgery
1) Cosmetic surgery tourism is growing in India due to the availability of highly qualified surgeons, high quality implants and equipment, and lower costs compared to other countries.
2) Factors driving the rise in cosmetic procedures in India include increased awareness, globalization and exposure to international beauty standards, and the need for professionals to appear more presentable for business.
3) Between 1987-2004, cosmetic surgeries in India increased over 600-fold, with the most common procedures being rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction.
International college of cosmetic surgery
This document outlines the training programs and certification process for the International College of Cosmetic Surgery. It describes a multi-year certification process that requires candidates to complete clinical training, submit a log of surgical cases, and pass written and oral examinations to become a Fellow or Member. Fellows would be certified to perform cosmetic surgical procedures, while Members would be certified to perform non-invasive cosmetic procedures. The document also describes requirements for continuing education to maintain certification every two years through the College's re-certification program.
Hyperaesthetic tension
1. The document discusses the concept of "hyperaesthetic tension", which is the constant worry about one's appearance in modern society due to emphasis on youth, beauty, and success.
2. It notes how every body part can be subjected to various beauty treatments and procedures by industries and professionals focused on aesthetics and appearance enhancement.
3. The medical field has also contributed to this focus on beauty, with specialties like cosmetic surgery emerging to modify and "beautify" various aspects of the body.
Hazards of hair_weaving
Hair weaving can cause several health issues including allergies, eczema, errythema, seborrhea, dermatitis, headaches, dizziness, and migraines. The document lists potential skin conditions such as eczema and dermatitis as well as neurological symptoms including headaches, dizziness, and migraines as hazards of hair weaving.
Complications of textured_surface_implants
Silicone breast implants are generally considered biologically inert. However, some patients develop seromas following implantation. This document discusses several hypothesized pathophysiological pathways by which textured silicone breast implants could potentially cause generalized symptoms, but finds each of them implausible based on the scientific evidence. Specifically, silicone is unlikely to act as an antigen, adjuvant, or hapten due to its small size and inability to repeatedly bind to host molecules. A foreign body reaction and resultant cytokine production also would not be expected to cause systemic disease. The document concludes it is very unlikely that silicone breast implants can induce generalized symptoms or disease.
Human fat tissue bank
Dr. Vijay Sharma proposes the concept of a Human Fat Tissue Bank that would collect, store, and preserve human fat cells through liposuction in order to later reintroduce the fat through autologous fat grafting or transplantation. The fat would be collected aseptically, stored at hypothermic temperatures, and later grafted back into the same patient or potentially another human to fill wrinkles or defects. Initial observations of autologous fat grafting show the fat can remain integrated for 12-24 months with less scarring than other dermal fillers. The Human Fat Tissue Banking concept could allow for autologous, homologous, or even heterologous fat grafting between humans and
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The document discusses the growth of cosmetic surgery in India from 1987 to 2006. It notes that the first cosmetic surgery center in India was founded in 1987 in Bombay by Dr. Vijay Sharma. Since then, cosmetic surgeries in India have increased over 600-fold. Common procedures include rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, and liposuction. The document attributes the rise in cosmetic procedures to factors like increased awareness, lifestyle changes, globalization, and the success of Indian beauty pageant contestants.
Full face transplant
This document discusses the debate around full face transplantation. It presents the story of Poonam Singhal, who suffered severe facial disfigurement from an acid attack. The document considers whether full face transplantation is now technically and ethically feasible, given advances in areas like microsurgery, immunosuppressive drugs, and computer imaging. It outlines some of the medical, legal, and ethical issues to consider, such as donor selection and consent, ensuring transplants are only done on appropriate recipients like severe burn victims, and amending laws around acid attacks. Hypothetical before and after computer images are presented of what a full face transplant for Poonam Singhal may look like.
Duties and rights_of_cosmetic_surgeon
Dr. Vijay Sharma outlines the key duties and rights of cosmetic surgeons. Some of the main duties include rendering services to improve patients' emotional well-being and confidence rather than just for financial gain. Cosmetic surgeons must obtain proper informed consent, maintain patient privacy and confidentiality, and make treatment recommendations based on scientific evidence. They should not solicit patients directly or use publicity for commercial purposes. Cosmetic surgeons also have a duty to continue their education, treat all patients respectfully regardless of attributes, and observe relevant laws and ethical standards in their practice.
Complications of silicon implant
This document discusses common postoperative complications that can occur with silicon implants, specifically for the nose, cheeks, chin, and breasts. Some frequent complications include edema, redness, infections, abnormal pigmentation, transparent reflection of the implant, displacement of the implant, and rejection. Based on a study of 179 nose implants, 58 chin implants, 27 cheek implants, and 253 breast augmentations, the most common issues were edema, residual edema, redness, abnormal pigmentation, transparent reflection, infection, dissatisfaction leading to removal, and displacement of the implant. A unique complication of breast implants is capsule formation, requiring manual breaking for the first postoperative year. Rejection of implants is rare.
Chemical peeling
1) The document compares the use of phenol-based chemical peels with and without the addition of crotamiton oil on 127 patients. Phenol peels remove the epidermis and upper dermis, resulting in a smoother appearance after new skin growth.
2) When used without crotamiton oil, phenol peels caused coagulation of proteins in the skin and whitening within days, with a light brown color developing within 3 days and peeling complete within 7-12 days.
3) Complications were minor and temporary in most cases, with irritation and edema the most common. No serious toxic effects were observed from the phenol amounts used. Success rates for treating wrinkles
Beauty concepts
The document outlines golden rules of beauty according to Dr. Vijay Sharma. It states that an oval face shape is considered the most beautiful for women, and high cheekbones and wide-open eyes are also considered attractive. It explains that these features signify a feminine bone structure and increased resistance to wrinkles.
3D Computer Imaging Assessment
This document summarizes a presentation by Dr. Vijay Sharma on the use of 3D computer imaging as an assessment tool for cosmetic surgeons. 3D imaging allows for clear evaluation of aesthetic defects, shows patients multiple surgical options, and helps manage expectations by demonstrating limitations and potential complications. It gives surgeons and patients freedom to view the face from any angle and closely examine flaws. Using 3D cameras, TVs, glasses and a joystick, Dr. Sharma found 3D imaging enhances confidence in decisions, ensures awareness of postoperative issues, and reduces unrealistic hopes for patients.
Heart disease in indians
Heart disease is the leading cause of death in India, with over 60 million people projected to have coronary heart disease by 2015. Mortality rates from heart disease are twice as high in India compared to the US and several times higher than some European countries. Risk factors like hypertension, diabetes and abnormal cholesterol develop at younger ages in India compared to Western countries. Diet plays a major role, as Indian diets tend to be high in saturated and trans fats. Primary prevention through controlling cholesterol levels earlier in life could help reduce India's growing heart disease burden.
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There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
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Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
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10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
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1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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