The document analyzes the 31 instances of the word "coal" found across William Shakespeare's works. It finds that coal is usually used figuratively to represent burning hatred, lust, enmity, wars and death, with overwhelmingly negative connotations. Specific examples from plays like Coriolanus, King Henry VI, King John, and Richard II are discussed, showing coal being used as a metaphor for vulnerability, weakness, bitter recriminations, danger, and sadness. The analysis suggests Shakespeare covertly addressed England's transition to coal as an energy source through these largely negative portrayals.
“He doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus”: Julius Caesar as the Sun...Marianne Kimura
This document analyzes Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar through the lens of hidden allegories and symbolism. It argues that Julius Caesar represents the sun and the renewable energy economy, while the conspirators who assassinate him represent the coal economy and fossil fuels. Several passages and lines from the play are cited as evidence, with references to ideas from philosopher Giordano Bruno. The document examines how the play portrays the transition from a sun-based economy to one powered by coal through its characters and plot.
“Will’t not off?”: Will Steps Out from the Shadows of Measure for Measure Marianne Kimura
This document analyzes the secret allegorical meanings behind some of the characters in Shakespeare's play Measure for Measure. It argues that Duke Vincentio represents Shakespeare himself as a secret playwright staging deceptions. Isabella represents nature and the sun, while Angelo represents coal and capitalism. Mariana symbolizes people's engagement with Shakespeare's works through reading and performance. The analysis draws on allusions to figures like Giordano Bruno to uncover hidden meanings related to Shakespeare's purported support of environmentalism and opposition to coal.
This document discusses connections between Giordano Bruno, William Shakespeare, and solar imagery. It argues that Shakespeare used Bruno's philosophy and art of memory techniques to create allegories in his plays, with "Juliet is the sun" representing a cosmic allegory in Romeo and Juliet. Several quotes from Bruno's works are presented that discuss focusing the imagination through ordered architectures, which the author argues Shakespeare employed. Examples from Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet are analyzed to support these ideas. The document promotes the author's academic work and novel exploring these connections.
Hamlet contains hints that Shakespeare wrote it to convey a hidden message or puzzle. The document analyzes a passage where Hamlet instructs Ophelia to reveal the truth about his madness, suggesting the puzzle's solution will become clear when fossil fuels are seen as negatively as "the bloat King". The author believes Shakespeare, representing concern for the environment, used Hamlet to allegorically portray the transition from a sun-based economy to fossil fuel use. Clues like Hamlet's deceptive writings and references to exposing mysteries indicate the play itself contains a puzzle for future generations to solve regarding this message.
"To be or not to be": material being and the Divine FeminineMarianne Kimura
This document summarizes and analyzes a scholarly paper that examines how Shakespeare incorporated materialist ideas about non-human materials like coal and the sun in some of his plays. It argues that Othello allegorically depicts the rise of coal replacing the sun economy, with Iago representing coal. It also analyzes how Shakespeare alludes to Giordano Bruno's revolutionary materialist philosophy in Hamlet and the "to be or not to be" soliloquy. The document explores how Shakespeare recognized the agency of non-human materials and anticipated humanity's realization of the consequences of replacing the sun economy with fossil fuels.
"Antony and Cleopatra" is an allegorical story which depicts the end of the sun economy and the start of industrialization, the market economy and the fossil fuel based economy. Antony is the sun economy.
The document discusses an essay on dramatic poetry by John Dryden. It talks about different perspectives on whether ancients were superior to moderns in poetry and drama. Crites defends the ancients' focus on a single, complete action in a play that represents human nature and the changes in fortune through a lively imitation of nature. Neander concludes that while comedy does not need rhyme, heroic tragedy can be enhanced with the additional artifices of verse and rhyme.
“He doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus”: Julius Caesar as the Sun...Marianne Kimura
This document analyzes Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar through the lens of hidden allegories and symbolism. It argues that Julius Caesar represents the sun and the renewable energy economy, while the conspirators who assassinate him represent the coal economy and fossil fuels. Several passages and lines from the play are cited as evidence, with references to ideas from philosopher Giordano Bruno. The document examines how the play portrays the transition from a sun-based economy to one powered by coal through its characters and plot.
“Will’t not off?”: Will Steps Out from the Shadows of Measure for Measure Marianne Kimura
This document analyzes the secret allegorical meanings behind some of the characters in Shakespeare's play Measure for Measure. It argues that Duke Vincentio represents Shakespeare himself as a secret playwright staging deceptions. Isabella represents nature and the sun, while Angelo represents coal and capitalism. Mariana symbolizes people's engagement with Shakespeare's works through reading and performance. The analysis draws on allusions to figures like Giordano Bruno to uncover hidden meanings related to Shakespeare's purported support of environmentalism and opposition to coal.
This document discusses connections between Giordano Bruno, William Shakespeare, and solar imagery. It argues that Shakespeare used Bruno's philosophy and art of memory techniques to create allegories in his plays, with "Juliet is the sun" representing a cosmic allegory in Romeo and Juliet. Several quotes from Bruno's works are presented that discuss focusing the imagination through ordered architectures, which the author argues Shakespeare employed. Examples from Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet are analyzed to support these ideas. The document promotes the author's academic work and novel exploring these connections.
Hamlet contains hints that Shakespeare wrote it to convey a hidden message or puzzle. The document analyzes a passage where Hamlet instructs Ophelia to reveal the truth about his madness, suggesting the puzzle's solution will become clear when fossil fuels are seen as negatively as "the bloat King". The author believes Shakespeare, representing concern for the environment, used Hamlet to allegorically portray the transition from a sun-based economy to fossil fuel use. Clues like Hamlet's deceptive writings and references to exposing mysteries indicate the play itself contains a puzzle for future generations to solve regarding this message.
"To be or not to be": material being and the Divine FeminineMarianne Kimura
This document summarizes and analyzes a scholarly paper that examines how Shakespeare incorporated materialist ideas about non-human materials like coal and the sun in some of his plays. It argues that Othello allegorically depicts the rise of coal replacing the sun economy, with Iago representing coal. It also analyzes how Shakespeare alludes to Giordano Bruno's revolutionary materialist philosophy in Hamlet and the "to be or not to be" soliloquy. The document explores how Shakespeare recognized the agency of non-human materials and anticipated humanity's realization of the consequences of replacing the sun economy with fossil fuels.
"Antony and Cleopatra" is an allegorical story which depicts the end of the sun economy and the start of industrialization, the market economy and the fossil fuel based economy. Antony is the sun economy.
The document discusses an essay on dramatic poetry by John Dryden. It talks about different perspectives on whether ancients were superior to moderns in poetry and drama. Crites defends the ancients' focus on a single, complete action in a play that represents human nature and the changes in fortune through a lively imitation of nature. Neander concludes that while comedy does not need rhyme, heroic tragedy can be enhanced with the additional artifices of verse and rhyme.
The document provides background information on William Shakespeare's play Macbeth. It discusses that the play was written between 1603-1606 and examines themes of evil and the possibilities of evil through the characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. It also summarizes that the play uses symbolism to represent good versus evil and order versus disorder. Shakespeare crafted Macbeth's character to be fully aware of the horror of his deeds as he is tempted by witches and his desire for power over Scotland.
William Shakespeare was one of the most influential writers of the 16th century. His works such as Romeo and Juliet, Venus and Adonis, and The Rape of Lucrece explored themes of love, tragedy, and death. Romeo and Juliet tells the story of two young lovers from feuding families whose love ends in tragedy. Venus and Adonis depicts the goddess Venus pursuing the unwilling Adonis, who dies while hunting. The Rape of Lucrece focuses on the rape of a woman which leads to her suicide and political change. Shakespeare's exploration of these dark themes through poetry and plays demonstrated his profound creative genius.
William Shakespeare is considered one of the most influential writers of all time. His works such as Romeo and Juliet, Venus and Adonis, and The Rape of Lucrece explored themes of love, tragedy, and death. Romeo and Juliet tells the story of two young lovers from feuding families who fall in love and ultimately die to be together. Venus and Adonis depicts the love and seduction between Venus and the young Adonis, who is killed while hunting. The Rape of Lucrece focuses on the rape and suicide of Lucretia, which led to the downfall of the royal family. Shakespeare used these works to profoundly examine the human condition through profound poetry and literature.
Andromache is Hector's wife in Greek mythology who is a prominent figure representing the tragic fate of losing family. Throughout literature and art, Andromache is depicted as a passionate wife and mother who is desperate after Hector's death, becoming a symbol of the woman separated from her loved ones. She maintains her dignity and strength of character despite becoming a slave after Troy falls. Andromache represents an early step toward a more modern female figure as she is also involved in defending Troy rather than confined to domestic duties alone.
The Renaissance period saw a revival of learning in Europe following the Middle Ages. Greek scholars fled Constantinople after its fall and spread Greek manuscripts, enlightening Western minds. This led to new discoveries and a focus on humanity. In England, the Renaissance spirit was strongest during the Elizabethan period. Writers like Shakespeare produced great works of drama and poetry focusing on human qualities and individuality. This was inspired by humanism and the rediscovery of classical works. The Renaissance marked a transition between the medieval worldview and modern thought.
This document discusses Pope's use of allusions in his poem "The Rape of the Lock". It argues that Pope expects the reader to have in-depth knowledge of classical literature to fully understand the poem. It examines a passage where Pope alludes to two techniques Homer uses to indicate time - references to judges dining and laborers' dinner. The author argues this shows the complexity of Pope's allusions and how they interact with and enhance the meanings and contexts of the poem. In general, the document aims to demonstrate how deeply embedded classical influences and allusions are in Pope's poetry, and how understanding the contexts behind the allusions provides fuller insight into his works.
This document summarizes how a witch might interpret Shakespeare's play Macbeth. The witch notes parallels between the misfortunes of a sailor and his wife in the play's opening scene, and the ill fate that befalls Macbeth and his wife after Duncan's murder. However, unlike the sailor's wife, Macbeth has committed no obvious transgression against the witches. The document then suggests that through allegory, Macbeth represents the rise of capitalism and fossil fuel use, which harmed communal societies like that of the witches. It argues Shakespeare subtly took revenge on capitalists through the play, prophesying capitalism's demise. The witches represent victims of the capitalist class and conduct an indirect "
Timothy Kimball presents on how Geoffrey Chaucer can be considered a Romantic writer through his most famous work The Canterbury Tales. Specifically, Kimball analyzes three tales - "The Knight's Tale", "The Miller's Tale", and "The Squire's Tale" - and argues they exhibit the key qualities of a romance through their use of settings, characters embarking on quests, and tests of values. However, Chaucer also subverts expectations through crude humor, complicated plots and variations, showing his skill and desire to put his unique stamp on the tradition. Ultimately, Kimball concludes Chaucer was highly influenced by the romance genre and should be viewed as an admirer and hopeful romantic writer himself through
This document provides background information on Alexander Pope and his poem "The Rape of the Lock". It discusses Pope's life, literary works, the Augustan literary period in England, and an overview of "The Rape of the Lock" as a mock heroic poem that satirized a feud between aristocratic families by using elements of classical epics. The background details Pope's intentions and the characters, places, sylphs, and card game referenced in his mock heroic poem.
The document provides context about Geoffrey Chaucer and his famous work The Canterbury Tales. It discusses that Chaucer used a pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral as a frame for various stories told by a group of pilgrims from various social classes. The pilgrims meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark and agree to tell stories on their journey to entertain each other. Chaucer provides brief portraits of each pilgrim in the Prologue to introduce the characters.
The document provides a history of humor from ancient times to the modern era. It discusses examples of humor found in Gothic cathedrals, classical graffiti, and the works of playwrights like Aristophanes, Plautus, Terence, and Shakespeare. It also covers the rise of humor in novels by authors such as Cervantes, Fielding, Austen, Dickens, Twain, and Heller among others. The document examines different eras and genres of comedy like Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, New Comedy, as well as jesters, fools, and the development of wit and satire over time.
The document summarizes Crites' views on ancient and modern dramatists. According to Crites:
1. The ancients had a special genius for drama and closely observed nature, faithfully representing it in their works. Their dramas also observed the unities of time, place and action.
2. The ancients were more honored for drama than any other branch of knowledge.
3. While moderns have progressed in fields like science, their dramas are not as suitable honored or carefully crafted. Modern dramas often violate the unity of time and action and are not a natural or true representation of nature like the ancients.
4. Overall, Crites finds the
William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar depicts the conspiracy to assassinate Roman leader Gaius Julius Caesar. The conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius, kill Caesar due to fears of his ambition and desire for power. However, Marc Antony, one of Caesar's allies, gives a speech following the assassination that sways public opinion against the conspirators by distorting their motivations. Antony's speech highlights the theme of the play - that the pursuit and abuse of power can undermine society.
The document provides a historical overview of humor from ancient times to the modern era. It discusses examples of humor found in ancient Greek and Roman literature as well as medieval cathedrals. During the Renaissance, humor flourished in the works of writers like Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Cervantes. In later centuries, satirists like Swift, Pope, and Voltaire used wit to critique society, while authors from Dickens to Twain created funny yet realistic characters. The document traces how humor evolved from bawdy comedy and satire to more subtle forms found in novels, plays, and jokes.
This document is a thesis presented by William Lucas Patton analyzing Shakespeare's views on the populace in Coriolanus and Julius Caesar based on his portrayals in the two plays. It discusses Shakespeare's influences including Plutarch's historical accounts which portrayed the Roman mobs negatively. It analyzes how Shakespeare depicted the mobs and senators in both plays, finding that while the mobs were irrational, the senators were also corrupt and manipulative. The thesis argues that Shakespeare had misgivings about both republicanism and monarchism, and sought a middle ground rather than condemning either system of government.
The document discusses the key elements and characteristics of both classical and Shakespearean tragedies. For classical tragedies, it outlines elements such as stories based on well-known myths and legends, a strong religious element focused on fate and divine justice, few actors with speaking roles, and characters of high social status. For Shakespearean tragedies, it summarizes elements like the presence of a tragic hero with a tragic flaw, conflicts between good and evil with goodness ultimately defeated, supernatural elements that advance the plot, and the use of comic relief scenes.
This document contains summaries of passages from Ulysses by James Joyce. The summaries are in 3 sentences or less and provide the key context and meaning from each excerpt, including references to characters, locations, myths, and literary works mentioned. There are over 40 summaries included.
This document provides an overview of theatrical genres throughout history. It begins by discussing the cultural contexts that influence genre and defines some key genres like comedy and tragedy. It then examines specific genres in more depth, including ancient Greek and Roman tragedy, medieval religious drama, Shakespearean tragedy, and modern absurdist works. The document traces how genres have evolved over time and been adapted to different cultures while still embodying universal human themes. It also explores how genres serve social functions like teaching moral lessons or providing comic relief.
The Romantic period in English and American literature saw experimentation with new styles and subjects as strict rules were loosened. Romanticism focused on the individual imagination and consciousness over society. In England, Romanticism was most influential from the late 18th to mid-19th century, expressed through poetry, while the American version was delayed and novel-focused. William Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads in 1798 is seen as marking the start of the English Romantic period, praising nature and the human mind's response.
The document provides background information on William Shakespeare's play Macbeth. It discusses that the play was written between 1603-1606 and examines themes of evil and the possibilities of evil through the characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. It also summarizes that the play uses symbolism to represent good versus evil and order versus disorder. Shakespeare crafted Macbeth's character to be fully aware of the horror of his deeds as he is tempted by witches and his desire for power over Scotland.
William Shakespeare was one of the most influential writers of the 16th century. His works such as Romeo and Juliet, Venus and Adonis, and The Rape of Lucrece explored themes of love, tragedy, and death. Romeo and Juliet tells the story of two young lovers from feuding families whose love ends in tragedy. Venus and Adonis depicts the goddess Venus pursuing the unwilling Adonis, who dies while hunting. The Rape of Lucrece focuses on the rape of a woman which leads to her suicide and political change. Shakespeare's exploration of these dark themes through poetry and plays demonstrated his profound creative genius.
William Shakespeare is considered one of the most influential writers of all time. His works such as Romeo and Juliet, Venus and Adonis, and The Rape of Lucrece explored themes of love, tragedy, and death. Romeo and Juliet tells the story of two young lovers from feuding families who fall in love and ultimately die to be together. Venus and Adonis depicts the love and seduction between Venus and the young Adonis, who is killed while hunting. The Rape of Lucrece focuses on the rape and suicide of Lucretia, which led to the downfall of the royal family. Shakespeare used these works to profoundly examine the human condition through profound poetry and literature.
Andromache is Hector's wife in Greek mythology who is a prominent figure representing the tragic fate of losing family. Throughout literature and art, Andromache is depicted as a passionate wife and mother who is desperate after Hector's death, becoming a symbol of the woman separated from her loved ones. She maintains her dignity and strength of character despite becoming a slave after Troy falls. Andromache represents an early step toward a more modern female figure as she is also involved in defending Troy rather than confined to domestic duties alone.
The Renaissance period saw a revival of learning in Europe following the Middle Ages. Greek scholars fled Constantinople after its fall and spread Greek manuscripts, enlightening Western minds. This led to new discoveries and a focus on humanity. In England, the Renaissance spirit was strongest during the Elizabethan period. Writers like Shakespeare produced great works of drama and poetry focusing on human qualities and individuality. This was inspired by humanism and the rediscovery of classical works. The Renaissance marked a transition between the medieval worldview and modern thought.
This document discusses Pope's use of allusions in his poem "The Rape of the Lock". It argues that Pope expects the reader to have in-depth knowledge of classical literature to fully understand the poem. It examines a passage where Pope alludes to two techniques Homer uses to indicate time - references to judges dining and laborers' dinner. The author argues this shows the complexity of Pope's allusions and how they interact with and enhance the meanings and contexts of the poem. In general, the document aims to demonstrate how deeply embedded classical influences and allusions are in Pope's poetry, and how understanding the contexts behind the allusions provides fuller insight into his works.
This document summarizes how a witch might interpret Shakespeare's play Macbeth. The witch notes parallels between the misfortunes of a sailor and his wife in the play's opening scene, and the ill fate that befalls Macbeth and his wife after Duncan's murder. However, unlike the sailor's wife, Macbeth has committed no obvious transgression against the witches. The document then suggests that through allegory, Macbeth represents the rise of capitalism and fossil fuel use, which harmed communal societies like that of the witches. It argues Shakespeare subtly took revenge on capitalists through the play, prophesying capitalism's demise. The witches represent victims of the capitalist class and conduct an indirect "
Timothy Kimball presents on how Geoffrey Chaucer can be considered a Romantic writer through his most famous work The Canterbury Tales. Specifically, Kimball analyzes three tales - "The Knight's Tale", "The Miller's Tale", and "The Squire's Tale" - and argues they exhibit the key qualities of a romance through their use of settings, characters embarking on quests, and tests of values. However, Chaucer also subverts expectations through crude humor, complicated plots and variations, showing his skill and desire to put his unique stamp on the tradition. Ultimately, Kimball concludes Chaucer was highly influenced by the romance genre and should be viewed as an admirer and hopeful romantic writer himself through
This document provides background information on Alexander Pope and his poem "The Rape of the Lock". It discusses Pope's life, literary works, the Augustan literary period in England, and an overview of "The Rape of the Lock" as a mock heroic poem that satirized a feud between aristocratic families by using elements of classical epics. The background details Pope's intentions and the characters, places, sylphs, and card game referenced in his mock heroic poem.
The document provides context about Geoffrey Chaucer and his famous work The Canterbury Tales. It discusses that Chaucer used a pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral as a frame for various stories told by a group of pilgrims from various social classes. The pilgrims meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark and agree to tell stories on their journey to entertain each other. Chaucer provides brief portraits of each pilgrim in the Prologue to introduce the characters.
The document provides a history of humor from ancient times to the modern era. It discusses examples of humor found in Gothic cathedrals, classical graffiti, and the works of playwrights like Aristophanes, Plautus, Terence, and Shakespeare. It also covers the rise of humor in novels by authors such as Cervantes, Fielding, Austen, Dickens, Twain, and Heller among others. The document examines different eras and genres of comedy like Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, New Comedy, as well as jesters, fools, and the development of wit and satire over time.
The document summarizes Crites' views on ancient and modern dramatists. According to Crites:
1. The ancients had a special genius for drama and closely observed nature, faithfully representing it in their works. Their dramas also observed the unities of time, place and action.
2. The ancients were more honored for drama than any other branch of knowledge.
3. While moderns have progressed in fields like science, their dramas are not as suitable honored or carefully crafted. Modern dramas often violate the unity of time and action and are not a natural or true representation of nature like the ancients.
4. Overall, Crites finds the
William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar depicts the conspiracy to assassinate Roman leader Gaius Julius Caesar. The conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius, kill Caesar due to fears of his ambition and desire for power. However, Marc Antony, one of Caesar's allies, gives a speech following the assassination that sways public opinion against the conspirators by distorting their motivations. Antony's speech highlights the theme of the play - that the pursuit and abuse of power can undermine society.
The document provides a historical overview of humor from ancient times to the modern era. It discusses examples of humor found in ancient Greek and Roman literature as well as medieval cathedrals. During the Renaissance, humor flourished in the works of writers like Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Cervantes. In later centuries, satirists like Swift, Pope, and Voltaire used wit to critique society, while authors from Dickens to Twain created funny yet realistic characters. The document traces how humor evolved from bawdy comedy and satire to more subtle forms found in novels, plays, and jokes.
This document is a thesis presented by William Lucas Patton analyzing Shakespeare's views on the populace in Coriolanus and Julius Caesar based on his portrayals in the two plays. It discusses Shakespeare's influences including Plutarch's historical accounts which portrayed the Roman mobs negatively. It analyzes how Shakespeare depicted the mobs and senators in both plays, finding that while the mobs were irrational, the senators were also corrupt and manipulative. The thesis argues that Shakespeare had misgivings about both republicanism and monarchism, and sought a middle ground rather than condemning either system of government.
The document discusses the key elements and characteristics of both classical and Shakespearean tragedies. For classical tragedies, it outlines elements such as stories based on well-known myths and legends, a strong religious element focused on fate and divine justice, few actors with speaking roles, and characters of high social status. For Shakespearean tragedies, it summarizes elements like the presence of a tragic hero with a tragic flaw, conflicts between good and evil with goodness ultimately defeated, supernatural elements that advance the plot, and the use of comic relief scenes.
This document contains summaries of passages from Ulysses by James Joyce. The summaries are in 3 sentences or less and provide the key context and meaning from each excerpt, including references to characters, locations, myths, and literary works mentioned. There are over 40 summaries included.
This document provides an overview of theatrical genres throughout history. It begins by discussing the cultural contexts that influence genre and defines some key genres like comedy and tragedy. It then examines specific genres in more depth, including ancient Greek and Roman tragedy, medieval religious drama, Shakespearean tragedy, and modern absurdist works. The document traces how genres have evolved over time and been adapted to different cultures while still embodying universal human themes. It also explores how genres serve social functions like teaching moral lessons or providing comic relief.
The Romantic period in English and American literature saw experimentation with new styles and subjects as strict rules were loosened. Romanticism focused on the individual imagination and consciousness over society. In England, Romanticism was most influential from the late 18th to mid-19th century, expressed through poetry, while the American version was delayed and novel-focused. William Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads in 1798 is seen as marking the start of the English Romantic period, praising nature and the human mind's response.
Venus and Adonis: Shakespeare Allegorizes Ovid to Subvert the New Elizabethan...Marianne Kimura
This document discusses William Shakespeare's narrative poem Venus and Adonis, published in 1593. The author argues that the poem is an allegory for the transition in England from a "sun economy" powered by biomass to one powered by coal in the early 1600s. In the poem, Venus represents English society and Adonis represents the sun. Through imagery and allusions, Shakespeare laments the decline of the sun economy and the rise of fossil fuel use, which he saw as unsustainable. The analysis draws comparisons between Shakespeare's poem and its source material in Ovid to support the claim that Shakespeare used allegory to subtly critique England's emerging coal economy.
The document discusses three key historical events that influenced literature during the age of Dryden: (1) the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660, (2) the religious and political controversies of the time including the Popish Plot, and (3) the Glorious Revolution of 1688. It then describes how literature changed after the restoration, with writers abandoning old standards and imitating immoral French works, leading to a period of vulgar realism and formalism in English literature.
The document discusses three key historical events that influenced literature during the age of Dryden: (1) the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660, which brought revolution to English literature; (2) religious and political controversies in the late 1600s including the Popish Plot; and (3) the Glorious Revolution of 1688 that restored Protestant rule. Literature during this period became immoral and coarse, reflecting the debauchery of the court, before eventually evolving towards realism and a simpler style of expression.
John Milton was a 17th century English poet, writer, and government official. He is renowned for his epic poem Paradise Lost but was also a prolific writer of prose, addressing issues of religion, politics, and liberty. Milton wrote numerous pamphlets and treatises in his distinctive Latinate prose style. His most famous work, Areopagitica, opposed censorship and championed free speech. Both Milton's poetry and prose reflected his deep convictions and engagement with the religious and political debates of his time.
From the restoration to augustan age with defoe's robinson crusoeValentinat94
The Restoration period in England from 1660-1714 saw the return of the monarchy under Charles II after the English Civil War. Charles II represented immorality that was reflected in his court. His brother James II succeeded him but sought to reimpose Catholicism, causing conflict. In 1688, William of Orange deposed James II without violence. William III and Mary II established limitations on the monarch's power through the Bill of Rights. The Glorious Revolution established the supremacy of Parliament. The Augustan Age from 1714-1760 saw the rise of the middle class and economic prosperity through figures like Robert Walpole and William Pitt. Literature flourished in genres like poetry, drama, and journalism.
Performing the Anthropocene in "Romeo and Juliet"Marianne Kimura
The start of the Anthropocene Epoch was recently defined as 1610 and this coincides with the career of Shakespeare. Moreover, "Romeo and Juliet" contains a sequence of scenes that actually shows the birth of the Anthropocene Era!
Assignment 1 Implications of Health Economic Concepts for Healthc.docxtrippettjettie
Assignment 1: Implications of Health Economic Concepts for Healthcare
Due Week 4 and worth 200 points
Select at least five (5) economic concepts covered in the first four weeks’ readings, and discuss the primary manner in which these concepts impact the world of health care economics. Some examples of selected concepts are health demand and supply, elasticity, resources, health measures, and costs.
Write a four to six (4-6) page paper in which you:
1. Assess the value of healthcare professionals and decision makers understanding the discipline of health economics.
2. Defend or critique the importance of considering the complex nature of health and healthcare when examining the economic principles related to healthcare delivery.
3. Analyze the primary potential benefits of learning about health economics related to government involvement in healthcare economics, financing, and delivery.
4. Analyze the main potential benefits of learning about health economics related to private sector government involvement in healthcare economics, financing, and delivery.
5. Use at least five (5) current references. Three of these references must be from current peer-reviewed sources to support and substantiate your comments and perspectives.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
· Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
· Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
11 Enlightenment and Rococo: The Claims of Reason and the Excesses of Privilege
THINKING AHEAD
What was the English Enlightenment?
Who were the philosophes and what was their relation to Rococo art and culture?
What was the result of cross-cultural contact between Europeans and peoples of the South Pacific and China?
London, the city of elegance and refinement painted in 1747 by Venetian master of cityscapes Canaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canal; 1697–1768), was rivaled only by Paris as the center of European intellectual life in the eighteenth century (Fig. 11.1). The painting offers no hint that the city had been devastated by fire 80 years earlier. Before dawn on the morning of September 2, 1666, a baker’s oven exploded on Pudding Lane in London. A strong east wind hastened the fire’s spread until, by morning, some 300 houses were burning. In his private diaries, Samuel Pepys [peeps] (1633–1703) recorded what he saw on that fateful day:
I rode down to the waterside, . . . and there saw a lamentable fire. . . . Everybody endeavoring to remove their goods, and flinging into the river or bringing them into lighters that lay off; poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them, an ...
On Gothic Romanticism; or, Wordsworth's Poetry and the English Political Imag...Tom Duggett
The document summarizes Thomas J. E. Duggett's research on Gothic Romanticism. It discusses his PhD thesis on Wordsworth's Gothic politics, his approach of new formalism and affiliation with new historicism. It provides an overview of his book Gothic Romanticism, which situates Wordsworth in literary-historical and political discourses of Gothic through an analysis of his works like Salisbury Plain and The Convention of Cintra. It also mentions his current research project called "The Staring Nation" which explores a visually-oriented orientation in Romantic writing through technologies and institutions of viewing.
The document summarizes developments in England between 1660-1798, including:
1) The Restoration period after Charles II took the throne in 1660, which saw the Great Plague and Fire of London. Christopher Wren rebuilt many buildings.
2) The "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 established a Protestant monarchy and Bill of Rights, increasing parliamentary power over the monarch.
3) In the early 18th century, the beginnings of cabinet government emerged under Robert Walpole as the first de facto Prime Minister.
4) The Industrial Revolution transformed Britain's economy in the late 18th century through inventions and advances in industries like cotton and steel production.
History of Romantic Literature Presented by Legends Group Monir Hossen
This document provides short notes and summaries on topics related to the Romantic period in English literature, including the Industrial Revolution, French Revolution, Romantic movement, Romanticism, symbolism, and spontaneity. It was presented by several students and includes an introduction, definitions of key terms, discussions of related historical events and their impacts, and characteristics of Romantic poetry and ideals. The document serves to outline important concepts and provide foundational information on the Romantic era for students in an English literature course.
Presentation on the Romantic Period by Scholars Group Monir Hossen
This document provides short notes and summaries on topics related to the Romantic period in English literature, including the Industrial Revolution, French Revolution, Romantic movement, Romanticism, symbolism, and spontaneity. It was presented by several students and includes an introduction, definitions of key terms, discussions of related historical events and their impacts, and characteristics of Romantic poetry and ideals. The document serves to outline important concepts and provide foundational information on the Romantic era for further discussion.
William Shakespeare was an English playwright and poet born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He wrote mainly comedies and histories early in his career, then tragedies such as Hamlet, King Lear, and Macbeth. Shakespeare lived during the Elizabethan era and was influenced by the Renaissance, embracing humanism by creating complex, human characters rather than simplistic characters common before the Renaissance. He helped advance Renaissance ideals through his plays and was truly a Renaissance man.
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The early 17th century in England was a time of significant political, religious, literary, and social change. After Queen Elizabeth's death, King James VI of Scotland took the throne, reintroducing Catholicism and isolating Puritans, which contributed to a civil war. Meanwhile, writers like John Donne challenged existing ideas while scientists like Galileo and Bacon made new discoveries. Rapid urbanization led to overcrowding and disease outbreaks. Through plays like Macbeth, Shakespeare explored the human condition and established commercial theater. The execution of King Charles I after the civil war left Parliament in control and shaped political and religious literature of the time.
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Shakespeare and the Divine Feminine (Into to my book)Marianne Kimura
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BASIC CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT AND DIFFERENT CONSTITUTENET OF ENVIRONMENT
Poetic Underground Resistance to an Unstoppable Energy Transition: 31 search results for "coal" in all of Shakespeare's works
1. Poetic Underground Resistance to an
Unstoppable Energy Transition: the
31 search results for “coal” in all of
Shakespeare’s works
“A man may die, nations may rise and fall, but an idea lives forever”
―John F. Kennedy
Today it is commonplace to be conversant with fossil-fuel-related concepts such as “climate
change”, “carbon footprint”, and “non-renewable resources”. Furthermore, we may think that our
dependence on fossil fuels is, like these concepts, a relatively recent phenomenon that occurred with the
rise of the “automobile age” in the post-war era. For those with a longer view of history, the British
Industrial Revolution, which is usually dated to around 1800 is often seen as the ‘beginning’ of
dependence on fossil fuels. In any case, most people certainly don’t associate Shakespeare’s lifetime
(1564-1616) with fossil fuels.
However, the first country in the world to actually transition from an economy based primarily on
solar energy (i.e. wood) to an economy based primarily on fossil fuels was Britain and it had completed
this transition by 1603 (Freese, 30)1, the last year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I; Shakespeare was 39
years old, still a relatively young man. The fossil fuel in question was coal, a resource which was
plentiful in the northern part of Britain. J.U. Nef, in The Rise of the British Coal Industry, calls the
second half of the sixteenth century “an industrial revolution” (Weiman, 164) and historical data
confirm that this period was indeed an early industrial revolution:
coal mining alone developed so rapidly that deliveries to London increased
more than three-fold between 1580 and 1591(1580:11,000 tons);
1591-2:35,000 tons). Shipments of coal from Newcastle grew from 33,000 tons
in 1563-4 to 163,000 tons in 1597-98. On the eve of the Civil War, Britain was
mining three times as much coal as the rest of Europe put together. (Weiman,
164)
Despite coal becoming more and more ubiquitous and economically necessary as London’s
population doubled between 1550 and 1600 (reaching 200,000) (Freese, 33), coal suffered from a bad
image (much as fossil fuels still have a negative image today) because of its thick polluting smoke, and
1 “Before the end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign in 1603 coalhad replaced wood as the primary fuel in
England.” (Freese 33)
2. in 1578 Queen Elizabeth herself found herself “’greatly grieved and annoyed with the taste and smoke
of sea-coles’”, arising from nearby breweries using coal to make beer. (Freese, 24) In 1603, the year
before Shakespeare wrote Measure for Measure and Othello, coal pollution in London was so
horrendous that a man named “Hugh Platt, the son of a wealthy London brewer, tried to help the city out
with a book titled A new cheape, and delicate Fire of Cole-balles, wherein Seacole is by mixture of other
combustible bodies both sweetened and multiplied.(Freese 34) In Cole-balles:
He noted that coal smoke was already damaging the buildings and plants of
London and he does not treat the problem as a particularly new one. His
patented technique…involved making briquettes of coal and soil, which he
thought, inexplicably, would make the smoke less problematic. (Freese 34)
That Platt doesn’t view the problem of coal smoke as new is “in line with the fact that the use of
coal had been increasing, among the poor at east, for some time. It would seem that the acceptance of
the fuel by the nobility merely followed a change that was well underway in the bulk of the population. ”
(Brimblecombe 31) In Shakespeare’s era, therefore, coal was largely a fuel for the steadily rising
numbers of people who could not afford wood:
The rich in London tried to avoid using coal, still despised for its smoke, as
long as they could. It was said in 1630 that thirty years earlier ‘the nice dames
of London would not come into any house or room where sea coals were
burned, nor willingly at of the meat that was either sod or roasted with sea coal
fire’. Within a few years, though, the nice dames and nice gents had succumbed.
By the second decade of the 1600s, coal was widely used in the homes of the
rich as well as of the poor. (Freese, 33)2
However, despite the ever increasing dependence on coal during Shakespeare’s London (to the point
that it had superseded wood as the number one fuel for the nation by the time he was 39 years old), and
despite widespread public dislike of its smoke, his works are not commonly associated with coal or
industrialization. After all, in his plays, some famous settings such as the Scottish heath or the forest of
Arden are obviously places in nature where coal mining and industry would have no place. Other
settings, such as Verona, Venice, Illyria, and Elsinore are presented as spaces which are the preserves of
wealthy elites, whose fanciful concerns, however tragic or comical, never include worrying about the
offensive smell and taste of coal smoke or the high price of wood. Moreover, he just doesn’t seem to
address coal overtly in his plays.
Yet it would be a huge error to assume that just because Shakespeare doesn’t overtly address coal in
his works that therefore he doesn’t address it at all. He may be addressing it covertly, for one. But why
would he do such a thing?
2 “the nice dames….” quotation is from A History of Coal Mining in Great Britain. 1882, by Robert
Galloway.
3. There is a link between cultural values and energy sources, hinted at above by the fact that “fine
dames” would not enter houses which were heated by coal in 1600, but accepted coal fires in their own
houses widely by 1630. This implies that an artist who openly ‘fights’ a new powerful energy source
would get nowhere fast since “a qualitative estimate of the cultural values that must be adopted or
abandoned is seldom articulated as such” when “societies are formulating strategies as they consider
their options for energy sources” (Lord, 5). This aspect of a society to not to ‘articulate’ or comment on
the passing of cultural values that must fall by the wayside as useful new energy sources are embraced
(out of desperation) is hinted at again in the remark that “The history of energy is the secret history of
industrialization” (Rolf Sieferle quoted in Lord, 5, my emphasis). Yet energy transitions profoundly
impact culture and may have had a deep impact on Shakespeare too, possibly sending his true
allegiances underground. Barry Lord, in Art & Energy: How Culture Changes, notes that “the effects of
energy transition on aesthetic culture is…diverse. While in some cases, it may directly affect the content
of the works of art or design, changes in our energy sources also bring with them cultural values that
must be prioritized and others suppressed”. (Lord, 6) Instead of suppression, Shakespeare may have
opted for camouflage, which appears like suppression.
The possibility exists that Shakespeare recognized that the new cultural and social values linked to
the energy transition from the sun to coal occurring during his lifetime were to be one day supplanted by
other ones as coal, a mined, non-renewable fuel source, would be one day supplanted by the more
durable and long-lasting sun. Thus, though he doesn’t mention an energy transition directly, Michael
Bristol points to the way that Shakespeare’s works “articulate values more durable than those which
circulate in current markets”:
Shakespeare’s authority is linked to the capacity of his works to
represent the complexity of social time and value in successor cultures
of early modern England. One of the crucial features of these successor
cultures is the way that individuals and institutions must constantly
adapt to the exigencies of a market economy. Our extended dialogue
with Shakespeare’s works has been one of the important ways to
articulate values more durable than those which circulate in current
markets. (Bristol, xii) (emphasis mine)
Coal may have been one of the main reasons for the birth of market economy in the first place. In
the background is the notion that though, certainly, energy is an industry, “it is not an industry like all
the others” (Lord, 1):
Energy is fundamental because it is the industry that produces
the capacity for all other industries to do their work. That is why the
cultural values that come with each source of energy affect all of us,
4. wherever we are and whatever we do. Without energy, neither our
industries nor our cultures can continue” (Lord, 2).
With its special and fundamental place in society, then, energy can be expected to be a sort of
powerful ‘king’ which can command silence even from its enemies, or as Lord puts it “the values that
accompany our adoption of alternate energy sources become inherent in our cultures, usually without
acknowledgement or debate” (Lord, 5). But the Elizabethan popular theater, a threshold or liminal place
on the edge of the city was a bohemian space of subversion, where addressing a forbidden issue could
be done if it was disguised somewhat. And theater was the perfect place for disguises.
But this paper is not about the real possibility that Shakespeare addressed coal covertly. Instead, in
this paper, my intention is to examine the 31 instances3 in Shakespeare’s works where the word “coal”
is used overtly. We know that Shakespeare was living and working in London during a time of coal
smoke pollution, in an era when people such as Hugh Platt were trying and failing to mitigate the
pollution from coal smoke even as coal production and consumption both boomed. Then, as indeed now,
it was a controversial fuel and looking at places where it occurs within Shakespeare’s works may bring
us some historical perspective on his feelings or associations with the issue of coal. Thirty-one instances
is not an insignificant amount. (“Shoe” also appears 31 times; “deer” appears 40 times; “sky” appears 60
times, to give some reference points. Opensourceshakespeare.com was used for all text searches.) The
related word “collier” is used three times in his works and I will discuss these instances too.
In Shakespeare’s works, coal is usually, but not always, presented as a figurative image, not as a
concrete object available to the characters to use or burn for heat. A study of these images is highly
instructive as they show a prevailing tendency on the part of Shakespeare to use coal as metaphor for
burning hatred, lust, enmity, wars and death; the vast majority of the instances have extremely negative
connotations or denotations.
The 31 SearchResults for“coal”
Starting off with Act IV of Coriolanus (1607-8), Menenius’ speech in scene vi is extremely
interesting:
Menenius: Here come the clusters
And is Aufidius with him? You are they
That made the air unwholesome, when you cast
Your stinking greasy caps in hooting at
Coriolanus’ exile. Now he’s coming,
3 I’m only leaving out three that are in Titus Andronicus since scholars think that
Shakespeare didn’t write Titus Andronicus by himself.
5. And not a hair upon a soldier’s head
Which will not prove a whip. As many coxcombs
As you threw caps will tumble down,
And pay you for your voices. ‘Tis no matter;
If he could burn us all into one coal, we have deserv’d it. (IV.vi.128-38)
Menenius is addressing a “troop of Citizens” in the above speech. Notably, seven lines before the
word “coal” there is a reference to “unwholesome air” and even an accusation: “You are they that made
the air unwholesome…” The action that brought about this ‘unwholesome air’ is a group action to
release something smelly and greasy (in a way similar therefore to coal smoke and soot) into the air. The
whole mood is sour, accusatory and even conveys the impression of self-hatred.
Also earlier in Coriolanus, we see another use of the word ‘coal’; this time Coriolanus is addressing
a group of “mutinous citizens”:
Caius Martius: He that will give good words to thee will flatter beneath abhorring.
What would you have, you curs, that like neither peace nor war? The one affrights
you,
The other makes you proud. He that trusts to you,
Where he should find you lions, finds you hares;
Where foxes, geese. You are no surer, no
Than is the coal of fire upon the ice… (I.i.167-173)
This speech is haughty, negative, and disdainful. The use of the word “coal” is an anachronism.
Therefore, it could be expected to ‘stick out’ a bit in performance. The coal here gives a sense of
vulnerability and weakness.
In Act 5 of the same play, Menenius addresses Sicinius and Brutus with these sarcastic, caustic
lines, which are also an accusation:
Menenius: Why so; you have made good work!
A pair of tribunes that have wrack’d for Rome
To make coals cheap! A noble memory! (V.i.15-7)
Here, “to make coals cheap” is a metaphor for “appease the crowd”, since Brutus and Sicinius have
worked against Coriolanus on behalf of the plebeians. These lines are bitter, harsh and full of
recriminations.
Moving on to Act Five from 2 King Henry VI (1591):
Young Clifford: Shame and confusion! All is on the rout,
6. Fear frames disorder, and disorder wounds
Where it should guard. O war, thou son of hell
Whom angry heavens do make their minister,
Throw in the frozen bosoms of our part
Hot coals of vengeance! (V.iii.31-36)
Young Clifford will, a few lines later, spot the body of his dead father and vow revenge on the House of
York. The mood of the whole speech is one of enormous rage. The coal is burning hot, reflecting the
speaker’s hatred.
The same play has another instance of the word “coal” in Act II when Simpcox is exposed for
falsely claiming that his congenital blindness has been miraculously healed at St. Albans.
Duke of Gloucester: Why, that's well said. What colour is my gown of?
Simpcox: Black, forsooth: coal-black as jet.
Henry VI: Why, then, thou know'st what colour jet is of? (II.i.109-11)
His knowledge of “jet” belies his claim to have been born blind (and later his lies are exposed beyond a
doubt), so the word “forsooth” that comes before “coal-black” is a bit ironic as the man is a liar.
Next, let’s look at King John (1594-6):
Lewis: …..Your breath first kindled the dead coal of wars
Between this chastis’d kingdom and myself,
And brought in matter that should feed this fire;
And now ‘tis far too huge to be blown out…(V.ii.78-86)
The mood here is sad, resigned, and also a bit ominous. ‘Coal’ is placed near the words ‘dead’ and wars’,
for a particularly heavy, negative effect.
King John has one more instance:
Arthur: No, in good sooth; the fire is dead with grief,
Being create for comfort, to be us’d
In undeserv’d extremes. See else yourself,
There is no malice in this burning coal;
The breath of heaven hath blown his spirit out,
And strewn repentant ashes on his head. (V.ii.105-110)
In this case, the coal is a real object, not a figurative one. The mood is one of danger since Arthur’s
life hangs in the balance throughout the scene. Phrases such as ‘dead with grief’, ‘blown his spirit out’
7. and ‘repentant ashes’ contribute to the somber tone.
Next, in Richard II (1595):
King Richard: ….
Tell thou the lamentable tale of me
And send the hearers weeping to their beds:
For why, the senseless brands will sympathize
The heavy accent of thy moving tongue
And in compassion weep the fire out;
And some will mourn in ashes, some coal-black,
For the deposing of a rightful king. (V.i.35-50)
The mood is sad and resigned. Words like “lamentable”, “griefs”, “woeful” and many others
contribute to the palpable sadness.
In a speech by Richard in 3 Henry VI (1590-1):
Richard: I cannot weep; for all my body's moisture
Scarce serves to quench my furnace-burning heart:
Nor can my tongue unload my heart's great burthen;
For selfsame wind that I should speak withal
Is kindling coals that fires all my breast,
And burns me up with flames that tears would quench.
To weep is to make less the depth of grief:
Tears then for babes; blows and revenge for me
Richard, I bear thy name; I'll venge thy death,
Or die renowned by attempting it. (II.i.79-88)
Once again, we see a mood of anger, with the speaker vowing revenge.
In the same play, another instance of the word “coal” occurs:
King Edward: Sail how thou canst, have wind and tide thy friend,
This hand wound around thy coal-black hair,
Shall, whiles they head is warm and new cut-off,
Write in the dust this sentence with thy blood:
“Wind-changing Warwick now can change no more!” (V.i.53-7)
This time, the mood is threatening and ominous with the image of the “new cut-off” head adding a
macabre touch.
8. In Henry VIII (1612-3), Queen Katherine first reproaches Cardinal Wolsey for moving against her at
the court: “for it is you/ Have blown this coal betwixt my lord and me―which God’s dew quench!”
(II.iv.78-80) then Wolsey uses the same expression to refute her accusation: “You charge me that I have
blown this coal. I do deny it.” (II.iv.93-4) Here the mood is contentious and argumentative.
The phrase ‘carry coals’ appears in Romeo and Juliet (1595-6) and Henry V (1599). In Romeo and
Juliet, the first line of the first scene of the first act is “Gregory, on my word, we won’t carry coals”. In
Henry V, the boy says "Nym and Bardolph are sworn brothers in filching, and in Calais they stole a
fire-shovel: I knew by that piece of service the men would carry coals" (III.ii.44-7) To ‘carry coals’
means ‘to put up with insults’, owing to the fact that carrying coals was low-status work. The boy has a
low opinion of Nym and Bardolph, and accuses them of “villainy”. Meanwhile, in Romeo and Juliet, the
first scene of the first act contains a tense fight.
In Henry V, Bardolph gets linked to coals again in Act III scene iv:
Fluellen: The perdition of the adversary hath been very great,
reasonable great. Marry, for my part, I think the Duke hath never lost a
man, but one that is to be executed for robbing a church, one Bardolph,
if you Mejesty know the man. His face is all bubukles, and whelks,
and knobs and flames ‘a fire, and his lips blow at his nose, and it is
like a coal of fire, sometimes plue and sometimes red, but his nose is
executed and his fire’s out. (III.vi.98-106)
Here, the word “coal” appears in a passage that conveys the sad news about Bardolph’s execution.
The only ‘festive comedy’ to contain the word “coal” is The Merchant of Venice (1596-7):
Jessica: I shall be sav’d by my husband, he hath made me a Christian!
Launcelot: Truly, the more to blame he; we were Christians enow before,
e’en as many as could well live one by another. This making of Christians
will raise the price of hogs. If we all grow to be pork eaters, we shall not
shortly have a rasher on the coals for money. (III.v.19-26)
Whereas Jessica’s lines imply a starry-eyed attitude towards her religious conversion, Launcelot, a
fool figure, undercuts her idealism with a joke about the price of pork going up in the face of mass
conversions. As this play is a comedy, his lines can just be taken lightly, but since fool figures are
licensed to tell the truth disguised as nonsense, we can also peer down more deeply into his material
concerns and see some heavier issues raised by the specter of fossil fuels: over-population, resource
shortages, and market disruptions and discontinuities, issues still with us as we are still very dependent
on fossil fuels.
In The Winter’s Tale (1610-1), coal is mentioned once:
9. Leontes: Stars, stars
And all eyes else dead coals! Fear thou no wife;
I’ll have no wife, Paulina.
Here the mood is somber and penitent. In light of the fact that the word “coal” appears in proximity
to topics of death, executions, funerals, mourning, a dead body, and so forth in other passages with the
word “coal”, is interesting that the word “dead” appears beside the word “coals”.
Troilus and Cressida (1601-2) is the only other Shakespearean comedy (besides The Merchant of
Venice and The Merry Wives of Windsor) in which the word “coals” appears. In this scene, Ulysses is
bitterly complaining about Achilles’ arrogant behavior:
Ulysses: O Agamemnon, let it not be so!
We'll consecrate the steps that Ajax makes
When they go from Achilles: shall the proud lord
That bastes his arrogance with his own seam
…….As amply titled as Achilles is,
By going to Achilles:
That were to enlard his fat-already pride
And add more coals to Cancer when he burns
….(II.iii.182-199)
Ulysses harshly criticizes Achilles and it’s interesting that the image of fat appears twice: “Shall the
proud lord that bastes his arrogance with his own seam” (seam=fat, lard) and “enlard his fat-already
pride”. The image of fat cooking (“bastes”) plus “more coals” being “added” makes a highly unpleasant
possible image of sputtering fat cooking and burning. The image of fat or lard is, in any case, viscerally
unpleasant. The whole mood is bitter and contemptuous, with Achilles’ behavior represented by Ulysses
as reprehensible.
Next, let’s look at The Rape of Lucrece (1593-4):
But some untimely thought did instigate
His all-too-timeless speed, if none of those:
His honour, his affairs, his friends, his state,
Neglected all, with swift intent he goes
To quench the coal which in his liver glows.
O rash false heat, wrapp'd in repentant cold,
Thy hasty spring still blasts, and ne'er grows old! (43-9)
The image of “the coal” glowing in Tarquin’s liver is truly horrifying, technically an image of a
disease but of course, it is meant to be taken metaphorically as a sign of a mental or a ‘mind-body’ issue,
which is making him systemically unable to choose a better way than raping Lucrece. Besides this
10. appalling image of a disease, there are many words with negative or bad connotations: “untimely”,
“neglected”, “rash”, “false”, “repentant”, and “hasty” and “blasts”. In addition, the coal’s “rash false
heat” is compared to a “hasty spring” that, though it “still blasts”, dismayingly, “never grows old”. This
is truly a horror scene featuring a hint or aspect of the undead, better known as a ‘zombie’.
The next instance features the word “coal-black” with coal modifying the color black:
'The crow may bathe his coal-black wings in mire,
And unperceived fly with the filth away;
But if the like the snow-white swan desire,
The stain upon his silver down will stay.
Poor grooms are sightless night, kings glorious day:
Gnats are unnoted wheresoe'er they fly,
But eagles gazed upon with every eye. (1009-1015)
Once again, there are many words in the stanza with negative connotations: “mire”, “filth”, “stain”,
“poor”, and “sightless”. By placing such negative words in the same stanza as the word “coal”, the word
coal becomes associated with these negative qualities.
The next example is particularly interesting because it partially echoes The Winter’s Tale:
A thousand lamentable objects there,
In scorn of nature, art gave lifeless life:
Many a dry drop seem'd a weeping tear,
Shed for the slaughter'd husband by the wife:
The red blood reek'd, to show the painter's strife;
And dying eyes gleam'd forth their ashy lights,
Like dying coals burnt out in tedious nights.
Again, the mood is very negative, with many words in proximity that have sad meanings:
“lamentable”, “lifeless”, “weeping”, “slaughter’d”, “reek’d”, “dying”, “burnt out”, “tedious”. The
images of corpses, suggested by the red blood and dying eyes, are truly ghastly.
Venus and Adonis (1592-3) has four instances of the word “coal”. The first one occurs in the sixth
stanza:
Over one arm the lusty courser's rein,
Under her other was the tender boy,
Who blush'd and pouted in a dull disdain,
With leaden appetite, unapt to toy;
She red and hot as coals of glowing fire,
He red for shame, but frosty in desire. (31-36)
11. The image of Venus violently kidnapping Adonis and taking him away on her horse is a selfish and
lustful act. “Dull disdain”, “leaden appetite”, “red for shame”, “frosty in desire” are all phrases that
appear in proximity to “coals” and each one carries its own very negative connotation.
The next stanza to contain “coal” appears about one-fourth of the way into the poem:
He sees her coming, and begins to glow,
Even as a dying coal revives with wind,
And with his bonnet hides his angry brow;
Looks on the dull earth with disturbed mind,
Taking no notice that she is so nigh,
For all askance he holds her in his eye. (337-342)
Here, Adonis only wants Venus to leave him alone. Once again, many words with sad meanings are
seen in this stanza: “dying”, “angry”, “dull”, “disturbed”, and “askance”.
The next stanza to contain “coal” appears eight stanzas later:
Thus she replies: 'Thy palfrey, as he should,
Welcomes the warm approach of sweet desire:
Affection is a coal that must be cool'd;
Else, suffer'd, it will set the heart on fire:
The sea hath bounds, but deep desire hath none;
Therefore no marvel though thy horse be gone. (385-390)
Venus is asking Adonis to behave more like an animal, only interested in copulation, and less like a
human being, with more complex emotions. Coal therefore could be seen to be associated with the ‘base’
and animalistic qualities of human beings. Furthermore, Venus’ warning to Adonis has the air of a veiled
threat.
The final stanza with the word “coal” occurs near the middle of the poem:
'Look, the world's comforter, with weary gait,
His day's hot task hath ended in the west;
The owl, night's herald, shrieks, 'Tis very late;'
The sheep are gone to fold, birds to their nest,
And coal-black clouds that shadow heaven's light
Do summon us to part and bid good night. (529-534)
The sun (“the world’s comforter”) sets and finally, as night sets in, the stage is set for the sexual
consummation of the coercive relationship between Venus and Adonis. Words like “weary”, “ended”,
12. “shrieks”, and “shadow” set a dire mood of resignation and gloom.
The next two instances are not just “coal”, but the hyphenated word “sea-coal”, which was another
word used for coal. Initially, the name was given “because the North Sea actually carved coal from
exposed outcrops and yielded it up onto the beaches with sand” (Freese, 21). However, by the 13th
century, these easily accessible sources were mostly exhausted, and underground extraction by mining
became necessary.4 By the time of Henry VIII, it was understood that the term “sea-coal” was due to the
fact that coal was shipped to London by sea.5 Freese makes the point that before 1600 “coal” was a
term generally applied to ‘charcoal’ (made from wood): “what we call ‘coal’ the English knew as
‘seacoal’, a surprising label for such a deeply terrestrial product, and one that stuck until the 1600s.”
(Freese 21) Since Shakespeare’s works date to the 1590s, as the transition in the name was beginning to
occur, and extend into the 1600s, it is pretty certain that Shakespeare intended mineral coal all the way
through in his works. The “unwholesome air” reference in Coriolanus is another clue that he intended
mineral coal since charcoal “is a smokeless fuel” (Brimblecombe, 27), and in addition, the line “If he
could burn us all into one coal, we have deserv’d it” points to mineral coal, which comes in countable
chunks, as opposed to ‘pieces’ of wood charcoal, which originate from logs.
More evidence for the fact that Shakespeare means mineral coal comes from Peter Brimblecombe6,
who explained: “I thought a little on the idea of whether Shakespeare is talking about coal or charcoal
and the more I think in some instances, such as the opening lines of Romeo and Juliet it seems likely to
be coal. To carry charcoal makes less sense than to carry coal and links with Newcastle.”
Mistress Quickly (arguably she is the same character) uses the term “sea-coal” in two plays, 2
Henry IV (1598) and The Merry Wives of Windsor (1597):
In 2 Henry IV, Mistress Quickly is filing a formal complaint against Falstaff for not marrying her
though he has promised to do so:
Mistress Quickly: Marry, if thou wert an honest man, thyself and the too. Thou didst
swear to me upon a parcel-gilt goblet, my Dolphin chamber, at the round table, by a
sea-coal fire, Wednesday in Wheeson week, when the Prince broke thy head for liking
his father to singing-man of Windsor—thou didst swear me then, as I was washing thy
wound, to marry me and make me lady thy wife. Canst thou deny it? Did not goodwife
Keech, butcher's wife, come in then and call me gossip Quickly? coming in to borrow a
4 Britannica 2004: Coal mining: ancient use of outcropping coal, from Wikipedia, coal
5 Cantril, T. C. (1914). Coal Mining. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 3–10. OCLC 156716838. Quoted in Wikipedia “coal”
6 Private email correspondence dated May 9, 2017. “I thought a little on the idea of
whether Shakespeare is talking about coal or charcoal and the more I think in some
instances, such as the opening lines of Romeo and Juliet it seems likely to be coal. To
carry charcoal makes less sense than to carry coal and links with Newcastle.”
13. mess of vinegar, telling us she had a good prawns, whereby thou didst desire to eat
some, whereby I told thee they were ill for green wound? And didst thou not, when she
was gone down stairs, desire me to be no more so familiarity such poor people, saying
that ere long they should call me madam? And didst thou not kiss me, and bid me fetch
thee thirty shillings? I put thee now to thy book-oath. Deny it, if thou canst.
(II.1.85-103)
The mood is accusatory and sour as Mistress Quickly has given Falstaff 30 shillings and he has
promised to marry her but he has not kept his promise. Other flagrant lies of Falstaff are exposed in the
passage.
In The Merry Wives of Windsor, Mistress Quickly asks her servant, John Rugby, to go to the window
and see if Doctor Caius is coming. Mistress Quickly promises him a posset (a drink) as a reward if
Simple (a servant to Slender, who wants to marry Ann Page and who will shortly be hiding in Mistress
Quickly’s closet) is not found by Caius (who also wants to marry Ann Page):
Mistress Quickly: Go; and we'll have a posset for't soon at night, in
faith, at the latter end of a sea-coal fire. (Exit Rugby.) An honest, willing, kind fellow as
ever servant shall come in house withal ; and I warrant you, no tell-tale nor no
breed-bate. His worst fault is, that he is given to prayer; he is something peevish that
way; but no body but has his fault―but let that pass. Peter Simple, you say your name
is? (I.iv.8-16)
In this case a deception is taking place as Simple is being hidden by Mistress Quickly. In the
passage which contains the word “sea-coal” there is an overall mood of regret as Rugby is deemed to
have the fault of being “given to prayer”.
Finally, the last instance of “coal” occurs in Pericles (1607-8):
Gower: Now sleep y-slaked hath the rout;
No din but snores the house about,
Made louder by the o'er-fed breast
Of this most pompous marriage-feast.
The cat, with eyne of burning coal,
Now crouches fore the mouse's hole;
… (III. Prologue, 1-6)
The word “coal” is found in the line “The cat, with eyne of burning coal, /Now crouches fore the
mouse's hole”, which is rather a threatening, fearful image.
Almost all of the 31 instances of the word “coal” are negative: threatening, disgusting, horrifying,
bloody, violent, and so forth. It is possible that Shakespeare did not approve of mineral coal replacing
14. the sun (i.e. wood fuel) as Britain’s primary fuel. He did not approve of the smell of the smoke released
from burning mineral coal and he did not approve of its health effects or its pollution.
The coal-related word “colliers” is also worth examining. A collier was a coal miner or deliverer of
coal (though it could have also been a person making charcoal). There are three instances of the word
“colliers”. The first one occurs in Love’s Labor Lost (1594-5), and importantly, it appears near the word
“chimney” (part of “chimney-sweepers”). It is worth noting that chimneys only became necessary in
London with coal burning:
Even in modest English homes, chimneys had become common by the
md-1500s. Some lamented this development, because they credited the wood
smoke that had filled homes in earlier years with both hardening the timbers
and protecting the health of the inhabitants. Nonetheless, chimney construction
and use spread, enabling people to switch from wood to coal when wood
became scarce. The fireplaces and chimneys had to be made much narrower for
coal fires than they had been for wood fires to provide the proper draw of air
(an architectural change that would promote the employment of very young
children as chimney sweeps). The widespread use of chimneys…forced the
energy in the coal to part ways from the attendant pollution―the warmth was
channeled into the house and the smoke was sent away to be suffered by the
world at large. (Freese, 33-4)
Making a connection to Shakespeare in his passage on the increase in the number of chimneys,
Brimblecombe similarly notes that:
The domestic acceptance of the fossil fuel (coal) is also reflected in the
increase in the number of chimneys in the city. Harrison, one of the
contributors to Hollinshed’s Chronicles, which Shakespeare drew upon so
heavily for his plays, wrote as a marginal note that the number of chimneys had
increased greatly since his youth (mid-sixteenth century). In those times, he
wrote, smoke indoors had been regarded as hardening the timbers of the house
and as a disinfectant to ward off disease. (Brimblecombe 35)
Shakespeare’s works include the word “chimney” a total of 12 times and because chimneys were
only used for coal burning, it is therefore extremely likely that mentions of colliers or coals in his works
are also related, like chimneys, to mineral coal rather than charcoal. In the passage below, the word
‘chimney-sweepers’ (they were only necessary once coal started to be burned) appears in proximity to
“colliers”, making it very likely that Shakespeare had “coal-miners” in mind:
15. Dumaine: To look like her are chimney-sweepers black.
Longaville: And since her time are colliers counted bright.
King: And Ethiops of their sweet complexion crack.
Dumaine: Dark needs no candles now for dark is light.
The result of the comparison is that coal dust and coal soot both become images intentionally
flashed into the consciousness of the audience.
The second instance of “collier” occurs in Romeo and Juliet:
Sampson: Gregory, on my word, we’ll not carry coals.
Gregory: No, for then we should be colliers.
Sampson: I mean, and we be in choler, we’ll draw. (I.i.1-3)
The association, through a pun, of “colliers” with “choler” (anger) makes the mood of the two men
appear irritable and ready for a fight.
The last instance of the word “collier” occurs in Twelfth Night (1601):
Sir Toby: Ay, biddy, come with me. What, man, ‘tis not for gravity to play at
cherry-pit with Satan. Hang him, foul collier! (III.iv.115-7)
In this interesting scene, Sir Toby is pretending to conduct an exorcism on Malvolio. The footnotes
in The Riverside Shakespeare explain the phrase “foul collier” like this: “foul coal-miner. Devils were
always represented as coal-black, and they worked in a hell-pit” (Evans, 428). This explanation, coupled
with the fact that the scene is a mock exorcism, ensure that the word “collier” is meant to be imbued
with negative associations.
Conclusion
Shakespeare watched the energy transition, from the sun to coal, occurring in Britain from the city
where this transition was most intense, London. It is likely that he understood that total dependence on
the fuel was to be a foregone conclusion and yet he decided to mount his own creative poetic
underground resistance. Therefore, he imbued the lines in proximity to the words “coal” and “collier”
with negative associations and a dark mood. Every time the word “coal” was heard on stage, there was
bound to be a character crying out in anger or in misery, and this could create a little ‘blot’ surrounding
the word ‘coal’. The inevitable energy transition, from solar energy to fossil fuels, that gathered steam
and then swept all other countries subsequently into the same heap, couldn’t be materially prevented,
but it could be artistically resisted.
16. References
Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke. (New York: Methuen & Co.) 1987.
Bristol, Michael. Big-Time Shakespeare. (Oxon: Routledge) 1996.
Freese, Barbara. Coal: A Human History. (New York: Penguin) 2003.
Lord, Barry. Art & Energy: How Culture Changes. (Washington, D.C.: American Alliance of Museums)
2014.
Weimann, Robert. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U.
Press) 1978.