This summary provides an overview of Barbara Fredrickson's contribution to the peak-end rule and duration neglect theory in 3 sentences:
Barbara Fredrickson collaborated on seminal papers in 1993 that introduced the ideas of the peak-end rule and duration neglect to explain violations of rational decision making. Her 2000 paper critiqued previous research for focusing on "how" decisions were made rather than "why" based on meaning, and argued that peaks and ends carry subjective meaning that influences evaluations. Subsequent studies both confirmed and challenged aspects of Fredrickson's theory, providing a more nuanced understanding of how positive and negative experiences are integrated and recalled over time.
A very basic introduction to peak-end design of user experiences, showing how to allocate people, processes and technology strategically to form memorable experiences. Based on the psychological work of Daniel Kahneman.
Chronic stress can negatively impact decision making abilities. It has been linked to poor issue interpretation, decreased alternative seeking, and implementing previously failed approaches. Researchers agree chronic stress leads to poor decision making. Those under chronic stress may exhibit risk taking behaviors due to altered reward processing. Additional variables like social pressure and rumination can further decrease decision making capabilities for those experiencing chronic stress. While some mixed results exist, chronic stress overall impairs cognitive processes involved in effective decision making.
Model of TreatmentEducation and its EvaluationProblem.docxhelzerpatrina
Model of Treatment/Education and its Evaluation
Problem(s)
Will Power +
Common Factors +
Any Specific Factor (any treatment model EBP or other) +
Feedback Informed Treatment + Deliberate Practice =
Effective Outcome
SPECIAL ARTICLE
How important are the common factors in
psychotherapy? An update
BRUCE E. WAMPOLD
Department of Counseling Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; Modum Bad Psychiatric Center, Vikersund, Norway
The common factors have a long history in the field of psychotherapy theory, research and practice. To understand the evidence supporting
them as important therapeutic elements, the contextual model of psychotherapy is outlined. Then the evidence, primarily from meta-
analyses, is presented for particular common factors, including alliance, empathy, expectations, cultural adaptation, and therapist differ-
ences. Then the evidence for four factors related to specificity, including treatment differences, specific ingredients, adherence, and compe-
tence, is presented. The evidence supports the conclusion that the common factors are important for producing the benefits of psychotherapy.
Key words: Common factors, contextual model, psychotherapy, alliance, empathy, expectations, cultural adaptation, therapist differences,
specific ingredients
(World Psychiatry 2015;14:270–277)
The so-called common factors have a long history in psy-
chiatry, originating with a seminal article by S. Rosenzweig
in 1936 (1) and popularized by J. Frank in the various
editions of his book Persuasion and Healing (2-4). During
this period, the common factors have been both embraced
and dismissed, creating some tension (5-9). The purpose of
this paper is not to review or discuss the debate, but to pro-
vide an update, summarizing the evidence related to these
factors.
To understand the evidence for the common factors, it is
important to keep in mind that these factors are more than a
set of therapeutic elements that are common to all or most
psychotherapies. They collectively shape a theoretical mod-
el about the mechanisms of change in psychotherapy.
A particular common factor model, called the contextual
model, has been recently proposed (8,10). Although there
are other common factor models (e.g., 4,11), based on differ-
ent theoretical propositions, the predictions made about the
importance of various common factors are similar and the
choice of the model does not affect conclusions about the
impact of these factors. The contextual model is presented
below, followed by a review of the evidence for the common
factors imbedded in the model.
THE CONTEXTUAL MODEL
The contextual model posits that there are three path-
ways through which psychotherapy produces benefits. That
is, psychotherapy does not have a unitary influence on
patients, but rather works through various mechanisms.
The mechanisms underlying the three pathways entail
evolved characteristics of humans as the ultimate social spe-
cies; as such.
Model of TreatmentEducation and its EvaluationProblem.docxroushhsiu
This document discusses the importance of common factors in psychotherapy. It outlines the contextual model of psychotherapy, which posits that there are three pathways through which psychotherapy produces benefits: 1) the real relationship between therapist and patient, 2) the creation of expectations through providing an explanatory model of the patient's difficulties, and 3) the enactment of health-promoting actions. It then reviews evidence from meta-analyses supporting several important common factors, finding large effects for the therapeutic alliance, goal consensus/collaboration, and empathy. The evidence supports the conclusion that common factors, as conceptualized in the contextual model, are important for producing the benefits of psychotherapy.
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Current perspectives in crime and psychology. Jury Decision MakingTeresa Gracia
This document summarizes research on minority influence in jury decision making. It discusses models of juror decision making and identifies three factors that can determine the influence of the minority position in a jury: 1) group characteristics, such as a consistent minority position disrupting norms and creating uncertainty; 2) individual member characteristics, such as a style of consistent, analytic thinking; and 3) situational characteristics, such as a flexible, compromising approach increasing perceived moderation. The minority influence model and theories of group decision making are applied to understand when and how a minority can influence a jury majority.
This document presents a coursework on the framing effect. It begins with an introduction describing the framing effect as how the way options are presented can influence people's decisions, even when the objective information is the same. It then describes the framing effect in more detail over several sections, including its history and phases. It also presents results from two experiments demonstrating the impact of framing - people are more motivated to avoid losses than gain equivalent gains. The document concludes that framing is a strong cognitive bias and outlines Kahneman's system 1 intuitive thinking that is more susceptible to framing effects.
This study examined how certain moderator variables (initial distress levels, gender, native language, and social behavior) influence the benefits of expressive writing interventions. The study had college students write about stressful events for several days and measured changes in mood and health. Results found that initial distress levels and gender may impact outcomes, with those with mild-moderate distress and males potentially benefiting more, but native language and social behavior did not influence outcomes. The study helps identify who may most benefit from expressive writing interventions based on individual characteristics.
A very basic introduction to peak-end design of user experiences, showing how to allocate people, processes and technology strategically to form memorable experiences. Based on the psychological work of Daniel Kahneman.
Chronic stress can negatively impact decision making abilities. It has been linked to poor issue interpretation, decreased alternative seeking, and implementing previously failed approaches. Researchers agree chronic stress leads to poor decision making. Those under chronic stress may exhibit risk taking behaviors due to altered reward processing. Additional variables like social pressure and rumination can further decrease decision making capabilities for those experiencing chronic stress. While some mixed results exist, chronic stress overall impairs cognitive processes involved in effective decision making.
Model of TreatmentEducation and its EvaluationProblem.docxhelzerpatrina
Model of Treatment/Education and its Evaluation
Problem(s)
Will Power +
Common Factors +
Any Specific Factor (any treatment model EBP or other) +
Feedback Informed Treatment + Deliberate Practice =
Effective Outcome
SPECIAL ARTICLE
How important are the common factors in
psychotherapy? An update
BRUCE E. WAMPOLD
Department of Counseling Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; Modum Bad Psychiatric Center, Vikersund, Norway
The common factors have a long history in the field of psychotherapy theory, research and practice. To understand the evidence supporting
them as important therapeutic elements, the contextual model of psychotherapy is outlined. Then the evidence, primarily from meta-
analyses, is presented for particular common factors, including alliance, empathy, expectations, cultural adaptation, and therapist differ-
ences. Then the evidence for four factors related to specificity, including treatment differences, specific ingredients, adherence, and compe-
tence, is presented. The evidence supports the conclusion that the common factors are important for producing the benefits of psychotherapy.
Key words: Common factors, contextual model, psychotherapy, alliance, empathy, expectations, cultural adaptation, therapist differences,
specific ingredients
(World Psychiatry 2015;14:270–277)
The so-called common factors have a long history in psy-
chiatry, originating with a seminal article by S. Rosenzweig
in 1936 (1) and popularized by J. Frank in the various
editions of his book Persuasion and Healing (2-4). During
this period, the common factors have been both embraced
and dismissed, creating some tension (5-9). The purpose of
this paper is not to review or discuss the debate, but to pro-
vide an update, summarizing the evidence related to these
factors.
To understand the evidence for the common factors, it is
important to keep in mind that these factors are more than a
set of therapeutic elements that are common to all or most
psychotherapies. They collectively shape a theoretical mod-
el about the mechanisms of change in psychotherapy.
A particular common factor model, called the contextual
model, has been recently proposed (8,10). Although there
are other common factor models (e.g., 4,11), based on differ-
ent theoretical propositions, the predictions made about the
importance of various common factors are similar and the
choice of the model does not affect conclusions about the
impact of these factors. The contextual model is presented
below, followed by a review of the evidence for the common
factors imbedded in the model.
THE CONTEXTUAL MODEL
The contextual model posits that there are three path-
ways through which psychotherapy produces benefits. That
is, psychotherapy does not have a unitary influence on
patients, but rather works through various mechanisms.
The mechanisms underlying the three pathways entail
evolved characteristics of humans as the ultimate social spe-
cies; as such.
Model of TreatmentEducation and its EvaluationProblem.docxroushhsiu
This document discusses the importance of common factors in psychotherapy. It outlines the contextual model of psychotherapy, which posits that there are three pathways through which psychotherapy produces benefits: 1) the real relationship between therapist and patient, 2) the creation of expectations through providing an explanatory model of the patient's difficulties, and 3) the enactment of health-promoting actions. It then reviews evidence from meta-analyses supporting several important common factors, finding large effects for the therapeutic alliance, goal consensus/collaboration, and empathy. The evidence supports the conclusion that common factors, as conceptualized in the contextual model, are important for producing the benefits of psychotherapy.
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Current perspectives in crime and psychology. Jury Decision MakingTeresa Gracia
This document summarizes research on minority influence in jury decision making. It discusses models of juror decision making and identifies three factors that can determine the influence of the minority position in a jury: 1) group characteristics, such as a consistent minority position disrupting norms and creating uncertainty; 2) individual member characteristics, such as a style of consistent, analytic thinking; and 3) situational characteristics, such as a flexible, compromising approach increasing perceived moderation. The minority influence model and theories of group decision making are applied to understand when and how a minority can influence a jury majority.
This document presents a coursework on the framing effect. It begins with an introduction describing the framing effect as how the way options are presented can influence people's decisions, even when the objective information is the same. It then describes the framing effect in more detail over several sections, including its history and phases. It also presents results from two experiments demonstrating the impact of framing - people are more motivated to avoid losses than gain equivalent gains. The document concludes that framing is a strong cognitive bias and outlines Kahneman's system 1 intuitive thinking that is more susceptible to framing effects.
This study examined how certain moderator variables (initial distress levels, gender, native language, and social behavior) influence the benefits of expressive writing interventions. The study had college students write about stressful events for several days and measured changes in mood and health. Results found that initial distress levels and gender may impact outcomes, with those with mild-moderate distress and males potentially benefiting more, but native language and social behavior did not influence outcomes. The study helps identify who may most benefit from expressive writing interventions based on individual characteristics.
Dissonance and Discomfort Does a Simple Cognitive InconsistenDustiBuckner14
Dissonance and Discomfort: Does a Simple Cognitive Inconsistency
Evoke a Negative Affective State?
Nicholas Levy, Cindy Harmon-Jones, and Eddie Harmon-Jones
The University of New South Wales
Festinger (1957) described cognitive dissonance as psychological discomfort that
resulted from a cognitive inconsistency. Discussion of dissonance for the past 60 years
has focused on the classic paradigms and the motivation to reduce dissonance, but some
have noted that this represents a narrow application of Festinger’s ideas (Gawronski &
Brannon, in press). Recent research has suggested, but not demonstrated, that simple
cognitive inconsistencies may also evoke the affective and motivational state of
dissonance (e.g., E. Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones, & Levy, 2015). In the current
experiments, participants read sentences that ended with incongruent or congruent final
words. In Study 1, sentences with incongruent endings led to more negative implicit
affect than did sentences with congruent endings. Study 2 replicated this finding, with
the addition of self-report and facial electromyography. These findings indicate that
simple inconsistencies can evoke dissonance.
Keywords: dissonance, consistency, emotion processing, implicit measures, affect
Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance the-
ory revolutionized the understanding of the re-
lationships between cognitive, motivational,
and affective processes. According to the orig-
inal theory, “In the presence of an inconsistency
there is psychological discomfort” (Festinger,
1957, p. 2). Inconsistency here refers to “non-
fitting relations between cognitions” (Festinger,
1957, p. 3). Festinger, (1957) speculated that
If a person were standing in the rain and yet could see
no evidence that he was getting wet, these two cogni-
tions would be dissonant with one another because he
knows from experience that getting wet follows from
being out in the rain. (p. 14)
It is interesting to note that Festinger did not
distinguish between dissonance as a relation
between cognitions and dissonance as a moti-
vational state of discomfort: “nonfitting rela-
tions among cognitions [are] a motivating factor
in [their] own right.” (Festinger, 1957, p. 3). In
this light, Festinger’s example suggests even
simple inconsistencies would cause dissonance
discomfort. Although this theory and evidence
(see below) suggest that a simple cognitive in-
consistency should evoke psychological dis-
comfort, no prior research has tested this di-
rectly. Thus, the current research examined
whether a simple cognitive inconsistency could
evoke the psychological discomfort of disso-
nance.
Models of affect recognize that affective
states are characterized by psychophysiological
dimensions (e.g., Bradley, Greenwald, Petry, &
Lang, 1992; Russell, 1980), including, but not
limited to, affective valence (how pleasant or
unpleasant an affective state is; E. Harmon-
Jones, Harmon-Jones, Amodio, & Gable, 2011)
and arousal (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2 ...
Daniel Kahneman summarizes his research on intuitive judgment and choice with Amos Tversky. They explored heuristics of judgment, risky choice, and framing effects. Kahneman distinguishes between an intuitive mode of thinking that is fast and automatic versus a controlled mode that is deliberate and slower. He introduces the concept of accessibility - how easily thoughts come to mind. High accessibility thoughts feel intuitive. Kahneman discusses factors like salience, attention, and priming that determine accessibility. Highly accessible thoughts strongly influence judgment and choice.
· Describe strategies to build rapport with inmates and offenders .docxgerardkortney
· Describe strategies to build rapport with inmates and offenders in a correctional treatment or supervision program.
· Describe the effect of group dynamics on facilitating programs.
· Describe techniques for establishing a therapeutic environment.
Generalist Case Management
Woodside and McClam
https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/books/9781483342047/pageid/44
https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781323128800
https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781483342047
https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781133795247
https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/#/books/1259760413
Use book and two outside sources.
At least 100 words per question
THANKS
1 The Role of the Correctional Counselor CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 1. Identify the functions and parameters of the counseling process. 2. Discuss the competing interests between security and counseling in the correctional counseling process. 3. Know common terms and concerns associated with custodial corrections. 4. Understand the role of the counselor as facilitator. 5. Identify the various personal characteristics associated with effective counselors. 6. Be aware of the impact that burnout can have on a counselor’s professional performance. 7. Identify the various means of training and supervision associated with counseling. PART ONE: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING AND CORRECTIONS There are many myths concerning the concept of counseling. Although the image of the counseling field has changed dramatically over the past two or three decades, much of society still views counseling and therapy as a mystic process reserved for those who lack the ability to handle life issues effectively. While the concept of counseling is often misunderstood, the problem is exacerbated when attempting to introduce the idea of correctional counseling. Therefore, the primary goal of this chapter is to provide a working definition of correctional counseling that includes descriptions of how and when it is carried out. In order to understand the concept of correctional counseling, however, the two words that derive the concept must first be defined: “corrections” and “counseling.” In addition, a concerted effort is made to identify the myriad of legal and ethical issues that pertain to counselors working with offenders. It is very difficult to identify a single starting point for the counseling profession. In essence, there were various movements occurring simultaneously that later evolved into what we now describe as counseling. One of the earliest connections to the origins of counseling took place in Europe during the Middle Ages (Brown & Srebalus, 2003). The primary objective was assisting individuals with career choices. This type of counseling service is usually described by the concept of “guidance.” In the late 1800s Wilhelm Wundt and G. Stanley Hall created two of the first known psychological laboratories aimed at studying and treating individuals with psychological and e.
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky developed prospect theory in 1979 as a psychologically realistic alternative to expected utility theory to describe how people make choices involving risk. Prospect theory incorporates cognitive biases like loss aversion and probability weighting to account for behaviors that contradict economic models' assumptions. Kahneman later explored hedonic psychology and found people's remembered well-being differs from their actual experienced well-being over time. His work established the foundations for behavioral economics by revealing unconscious errors in human judgment.
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful periods like caring for a dying loved one.
- Recent studies support the proposition that positive emotions broaden thinking and behaviors, replenish resources, and are related to better health outcomes independently of negative emotions.
- The revised stress and coping model incorporates positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that can generate positive emotions, even during unresolved stressful periods. This helps address the imbalance of prior research only examining negative emotions and expands understanding of coping and adaptation.
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful events like caring for a dying loved one.
- Further research confirmed positive and negative emotions frequently co-occur during stress. Positive emotions broaden thinking and build resources like social support.
- The author's stress and coping model was revised in 1997 to incorporate positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that generate positive emotions, like benefit finding.
- Subsequent research provides evidence supporting the revised model, showing positive emotions buffer stress responses and help find meaning, contributing to resilience and health.
This document presents an analysis of the concept of mutuality. It aims to clarify the meaning of mutuality and examine its application to nursing practice and research. Mutuality is defined as the quality or condition of being interdependent or mutually reliant on each other. Key attributes that define mutuality include mutualism, teamwork, alliance, and correlation. The analysis presents a model case example and alternative cases to demonstrate attributes of mutuality. It also discusses antecedents, consequences, and empirical referents of the concept.
This document discusses different types of triangulation that can be used in research to increase validity and credibility. It defines triangulation as using multiple methods, data sources, investigators, theories or research contexts to check results. Specifically, it outlines data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, methodological triangulation and environmental triangulation. For each type, it provides an example of how it could be applied in practice to strengthen research findings.
The document proposes a study to investigate how framing and social stress influence financial decision-making. Specifically, it hypothesizes that stress will increase risk-seeking behavior for decisions framed as losses, but not for decisions framed as gains. Undergraduate students will be randomly assigned to stress or no-stress conditions before making hypothetical choices between sure and probabilistic options framed as gains or losses. Results are expected to show that stress enhances risk-seeking for loss frames due to impaired decision-making under stress.
Correctional CounselingRobert HanserScott Mire20111 The .docxvoversbyobersby
This document provides definitions and context for correctional counseling. It begins by defining corrections as the component of the criminal justice system responsible for offenders after conviction. Correctional counseling is then defined as a process where trained counselors help offenders improve behaviors and reduce criminal involvement. The document discusses the origins of counseling in guidance and psychotherapy. It also addresses criticisms of past definitions of correctional counseling and the importance of evaluating it scientifically.
This is the other book link.Any questions please contact via[e.docxglennf2
This is the other book link.
Any questions please contact via
[email protected]
https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/books/9781483342047/pageid/15
ChaeArvie
NewBaby17 or
NewBaby17!!
Correctional Counseling
Robert Hanser
Scott Mire
2011
1 The Role of the Correctional Counselor
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
· 1. Identify the functions and parameters of the counseling process.
· 2. Discuss the competing interests between security and counseling in the correctional counseling process.
· 3. Know common terms and concerns associated with custodial corrections.
· 4. Understand the role of the counselor as facilitator.
· 5. Identify the various personal characteristics associated with effective counselors.
· 6. Be aware of the impact that burnout can have on a counselor’s professional performance.
· 7. Identify the various means of training and supervision associated with counseling.
PART ONE: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING AND CORRECTIONS
There are many myths concerning the concept of counseling. Although the image of the counseling field has changed dramatically over the past two or three decades, much of society still views counseling and therapy as a mystic process reserved for those who lack the ability to handle life issues effectively. While the concept of counseling is often misunderstood, the problem is exacerbated when attempting to introduce the idea of correctional counseling. Therefore, the primary goal of this chapter is to provide a working definition of correctional counseling that includes descriptions of how and when it is carried out. In order to understand the concept of correctional counseling, however, the two words that derive the concept must first be defined: “corrections” and “counseling.” In addition, a concerted effort is made to identify the myriad of legal and ethical issues that pertain to counselors working with offenders.
It is very difficult to identify a single starting point for the counseling profession. In essence, there were various movements occurring simultaneously that later evolved into what we now describe as counseling. One of the earliest connections to the origins of counseling took place in Europe during the Middle Ages (Brown & Srebalus, 2003). The primary objective was assisting individuals with career choices. This type of counseling service is usually described by the concept of “guidance.” In the late 1800s Wilhelm Wundt and G. Stanley Hall created two of the first known psychological laboratories aimed at studying and treating individuals with psychological and emotional problems (Brown & Srebalus, 2003). Around the same time (1890), Sigmund Freud began treating mental patients with his patented technique of psychoanalysis. As a result, the origins of counseling can be traced to two different but simultaneous movements: (1) guidance and (2) psychotherapy.
Guidance
Guidance has been used as a concept to describe the process of helping individuals identify and .
This study tested the hypothesis that positive emotions build personal resources over time through loving-kindness meditation. Researchers randomly assigned 139 working adults to either begin a loving-kindness meditation practice or a control group. Those who meditated experienced increases in daily positive emotions, which led to gains in personal resources like mindfulness, life satisfaction, and social support. In turn, increased resources predicted improved well-being, as shown by less depressive symptoms. The findings provide experimental evidence that positive emotions generated through meditation can accumulate over time to strengthen important personal qualities and relationships.
This study examined how perceptions of fairness or unfairness (procedural justice and distributive justice) influence people's willingness to engage in mild or severe unethical decision-making aimed at achieving retributive justice. The study presented scenarios to employees of an electric company in Venezuela and MBA students describing either fair or unfair treatment. It was hypothesized that unfair treatment would make people more likely to choose mild unethical decisions when only one type of injustice was present, but more likely to choose severe unethical decisions when both procedural and distributive injustice were present. The results did not support the hypotheses but surprisingly found employees were more willing to make mild unethical decisions under conditions of complete fairness than partial fairness
This document discusses different types of prevention and enhancement in psychology. It defines:
1) Primary prevention as actions taken to reduce the likelihood of future problems by targeting populations not yet experiencing issues. This can be universal or selective.
2) Secondary prevention as psychotherapy interventions aimed at eliminating or reducing problems once they appear.
3) Primary enhancement as efforts to establish optimal functioning and satisfaction, either through pleasure/needs or effective goal pursuit.
4) Secondary enhancement as augmenting positive levels to reach ultimate performance and satisfaction, such as through meaning in life.
Why have the artists created these works and what are they.docxphilipnelson29183
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 1 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
High Renaissance
Raphael, School of Athens, 1509-10. Fresco, 200 x 300 “.
Photorealism
Chuck Close, Big Self-Portrait, 1967-68.
Acrylic on canvas. 107 ½“x 83 1/2”.
*
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 2 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
Boticelli
Birth of Venus, 1486. Tempera on canvas, 67.9 × 109.6 ”
Kees Van Dongen
Femme Fatale. Oil on canvas, 32 X 24”.
German Expressionism, 1905
*
Integrative and Biopsychosocial Approaches in Contemporary Clinical Psychology
Chapter Objective
· To highlight and outline how contemporary clinical psychology integrates the major theoretical models using a biopsychosocial approach.
Chapter Outline
· The Call to Integration
· Biopsychosocial Integration
· Synthesizing Biological, Psychological, and Social Factors in Contemporary Integration
· Highlight of a Contemporary Clinical Psychologist: Stephanie Pinder-Amaker, PhD
· Application of the Biopsychosocial Perspective to Contemporary Clinical Psychology Problems
· Conclusion
Having now reviewed the four major theoretical and historical models in psychology in Chapter 5, this chapter illustrates how integration is achieved in the actual science and practice of clinical psychology. In addition to psychological perspectives per se, a full integration of human functioning demands a synthesis of psychological factors with both biological and social elements. This combination of biological, psychological, and social factors comprises an example of contemporary integration in the form of the biopsychosocial perspective. This chapter describes the evolution of individual psychological perspectives into a more comprehensive biopsychosocial synthesis, perhaps first touched upon 2,500 years ago by the Greeks.
The Call to Integration
While there are over 400 different types of approaches to psychotherapy and other professional services offered by clinical psychologists (Karasu, 1986), the major schools of thought reviewed and illustrated in Chapter 5 have emerged during the past century as the primary perspectives in clinical psychology. As mentioned, these include the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family s.
1. The document explores how social identity processes may play an important role in cognitive appraisal of stress. A survey was administered to 163 students measuring personality, coping strategies, social support, and gender. Students rated scenarios as more stressful if they were student-specific versus general.
2. Females and those reporting higher levels of emotion-focused coping rated scenarios as more stressful, regardless of whether the scenarios were student-specific or general. No other relationships were found between the predictor variables and ratings of stressfulness.
3. The findings suggest that social identity may not impact cognitive appraisal of stress as expected based on self-categorization theory. Gender and emotion-focused coping were the only significant predictors of perceived
Momentary Assessment of Interpersonal Process in Psychotherapy.docxgilpinleeanna
Momentary Assessment of Interpersonal Process in Psychotherapy
Katherine M. Thomas and Christopher J. Hopwood
Michigan State University
Erik Woody and Nicole Ethier
University of Waterloo
Pamela Sadler
Wilfrid Laurier University
To demonstrate how a novel computer joystick coding method can illuminate the study of interpersonal
processes in psychotherapy sessions, we applied it to Shostrom’s (1966) well-known films in which a
client, Gloria, had sessions with 3 prominent psychotherapists. The joystick method, which records
interpersonal behavior as nearly continuous flows on the plane defined by the interpersonal dimensions
of control and affiliation, provides an excellent sampling of variability in each person’s interpersonal
behavior across the session. More important, it yields extensive information about the temporal dynamics
that interrelate clients’ and therapists’ behaviors. Gloria’s 3 psychotherapy sessions were characterized
using time-series statistical indices and graphical representations. Results demonstrated that patterns of
within-person variability tended to be markedly asymmetric, with a predominant, set-point-like inter-
personal style from which deviations mostly occurred in just 1 direction (e.g., occasional submissive
departures from a modal dominant style). In addition, across each session, the therapist and client showed
strongly cyclical variations in both control and affiliation, and these oscillations were entrained to
different extents depending on the therapist. We interpreted different patterns of moment-to-moment
complementarity of interpersonal behavior in terms of different therapeutic goals, such as fostering a
positive alliance versus disconfirming the client’s interpersonal expectations. We also showed how this
method can be used to provide a more detailed analysis of specific shorter segments from each of the
sessions. Finally, we compared our approach to alternative techniques, such as act-to-act lagged relations
and dynamic systems and pointed to a variety of possible research and training applications.
Keywords: psychotherapy, process, momentary assessment, spectral analysis, interpersonal circumplex
The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how a novel method
for the study of moment-to-moment interpersonal processes can be
applied to psychotherapy sessions and to illustrate how this
method could enhance understanding of psychotherapy process.
To depict the value of this method, we apply it to Shostrom’s
(1966) well-known films in which a client, Gloria, met with three
prominent psychotherapists with differing theoretical orienta-
tions—Albert Ellis (rational– emotive), Frederick Perls (gestalt),
and Carl Rogers (client-centered). These filmed therapy sessions
are useful for our purpose because they are widely familiar (e.g.,
Reilly & Jacobus, 2008; Weinrach, 1990) and because we can
contrast our novel approach with previous research applying a
more conventional measurement approach to these s ...
Visual journaling can provide benefits through various theoretical frameworks including disclosure, positive psychology, art therapy, and stress/coping theories. It allows people to express and process emotions in a creative way through writing or visual art. Studies show emotional disclosure through writing about stressful events can improve both psychological and physical health by reducing stress hormones, strengthening immune function, and changing how people think about negative experiences. Visual journaling incorporates elements of positive psychology like appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, humor, and spirituality to help people transcend daily struggles and find meaning. Research indicates cultivating gratitude, optimism, and mindfulness through activities like visual journaling can enhance well-being and happiness.
Dissonance and Discomfort Does a Simple Cognitive InconsistenDustiBuckner14
Dissonance and Discomfort: Does a Simple Cognitive Inconsistency
Evoke a Negative Affective State?
Nicholas Levy, Cindy Harmon-Jones, and Eddie Harmon-Jones
The University of New South Wales
Festinger (1957) described cognitive dissonance as psychological discomfort that
resulted from a cognitive inconsistency. Discussion of dissonance for the past 60 years
has focused on the classic paradigms and the motivation to reduce dissonance, but some
have noted that this represents a narrow application of Festinger’s ideas (Gawronski &
Brannon, in press). Recent research has suggested, but not demonstrated, that simple
cognitive inconsistencies may also evoke the affective and motivational state of
dissonance (e.g., E. Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones, & Levy, 2015). In the current
experiments, participants read sentences that ended with incongruent or congruent final
words. In Study 1, sentences with incongruent endings led to more negative implicit
affect than did sentences with congruent endings. Study 2 replicated this finding, with
the addition of self-report and facial electromyography. These findings indicate that
simple inconsistencies can evoke dissonance.
Keywords: dissonance, consistency, emotion processing, implicit measures, affect
Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance the-
ory revolutionized the understanding of the re-
lationships between cognitive, motivational,
and affective processes. According to the orig-
inal theory, “In the presence of an inconsistency
there is psychological discomfort” (Festinger,
1957, p. 2). Inconsistency here refers to “non-
fitting relations between cognitions” (Festinger,
1957, p. 3). Festinger, (1957) speculated that
If a person were standing in the rain and yet could see
no evidence that he was getting wet, these two cogni-
tions would be dissonant with one another because he
knows from experience that getting wet follows from
being out in the rain. (p. 14)
It is interesting to note that Festinger did not
distinguish between dissonance as a relation
between cognitions and dissonance as a moti-
vational state of discomfort: “nonfitting rela-
tions among cognitions [are] a motivating factor
in [their] own right.” (Festinger, 1957, p. 3). In
this light, Festinger’s example suggests even
simple inconsistencies would cause dissonance
discomfort. Although this theory and evidence
(see below) suggest that a simple cognitive in-
consistency should evoke psychological dis-
comfort, no prior research has tested this di-
rectly. Thus, the current research examined
whether a simple cognitive inconsistency could
evoke the psychological discomfort of disso-
nance.
Models of affect recognize that affective
states are characterized by psychophysiological
dimensions (e.g., Bradley, Greenwald, Petry, &
Lang, 1992; Russell, 1980), including, but not
limited to, affective valence (how pleasant or
unpleasant an affective state is; E. Harmon-
Jones, Harmon-Jones, Amodio, & Gable, 2011)
and arousal (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2 ...
Daniel Kahneman summarizes his research on intuitive judgment and choice with Amos Tversky. They explored heuristics of judgment, risky choice, and framing effects. Kahneman distinguishes between an intuitive mode of thinking that is fast and automatic versus a controlled mode that is deliberate and slower. He introduces the concept of accessibility - how easily thoughts come to mind. High accessibility thoughts feel intuitive. Kahneman discusses factors like salience, attention, and priming that determine accessibility. Highly accessible thoughts strongly influence judgment and choice.
· Describe strategies to build rapport with inmates and offenders .docxgerardkortney
· Describe strategies to build rapport with inmates and offenders in a correctional treatment or supervision program.
· Describe the effect of group dynamics on facilitating programs.
· Describe techniques for establishing a therapeutic environment.
Generalist Case Management
Woodside and McClam
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Use book and two outside sources.
At least 100 words per question
THANKS
1 The Role of the Correctional Counselor CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 1. Identify the functions and parameters of the counseling process. 2. Discuss the competing interests between security and counseling in the correctional counseling process. 3. Know common terms and concerns associated with custodial corrections. 4. Understand the role of the counselor as facilitator. 5. Identify the various personal characteristics associated with effective counselors. 6. Be aware of the impact that burnout can have on a counselor’s professional performance. 7. Identify the various means of training and supervision associated with counseling. PART ONE: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING AND CORRECTIONS There are many myths concerning the concept of counseling. Although the image of the counseling field has changed dramatically over the past two or three decades, much of society still views counseling and therapy as a mystic process reserved for those who lack the ability to handle life issues effectively. While the concept of counseling is often misunderstood, the problem is exacerbated when attempting to introduce the idea of correctional counseling. Therefore, the primary goal of this chapter is to provide a working definition of correctional counseling that includes descriptions of how and when it is carried out. In order to understand the concept of correctional counseling, however, the two words that derive the concept must first be defined: “corrections” and “counseling.” In addition, a concerted effort is made to identify the myriad of legal and ethical issues that pertain to counselors working with offenders. It is very difficult to identify a single starting point for the counseling profession. In essence, there were various movements occurring simultaneously that later evolved into what we now describe as counseling. One of the earliest connections to the origins of counseling took place in Europe during the Middle Ages (Brown & Srebalus, 2003). The primary objective was assisting individuals with career choices. This type of counseling service is usually described by the concept of “guidance.” In the late 1800s Wilhelm Wundt and G. Stanley Hall created two of the first known psychological laboratories aimed at studying and treating individuals with psychological and e.
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky developed prospect theory in 1979 as a psychologically realistic alternative to expected utility theory to describe how people make choices involving risk. Prospect theory incorporates cognitive biases like loss aversion and probability weighting to account for behaviors that contradict economic models' assumptions. Kahneman later explored hedonic psychology and found people's remembered well-being differs from their actual experienced well-being over time. His work established the foundations for behavioral economics by revealing unconscious errors in human judgment.
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful periods like caring for a dying loved one.
- Recent studies support the proposition that positive emotions broaden thinking and behaviors, replenish resources, and are related to better health outcomes independently of negative emotions.
- The revised stress and coping model incorporates positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that can generate positive emotions, even during unresolved stressful periods. This helps address the imbalance of prior research only examining negative emotions and expands understanding of coping and adaptation.
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful events like caring for a dying loved one.
- Further research confirmed positive and negative emotions frequently co-occur during stress. Positive emotions broaden thinking and build resources like social support.
- The author's stress and coping model was revised in 1997 to incorporate positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that generate positive emotions, like benefit finding.
- Subsequent research provides evidence supporting the revised model, showing positive emotions buffer stress responses and help find meaning, contributing to resilience and health.
This document presents an analysis of the concept of mutuality. It aims to clarify the meaning of mutuality and examine its application to nursing practice and research. Mutuality is defined as the quality or condition of being interdependent or mutually reliant on each other. Key attributes that define mutuality include mutualism, teamwork, alliance, and correlation. The analysis presents a model case example and alternative cases to demonstrate attributes of mutuality. It also discusses antecedents, consequences, and empirical referents of the concept.
This document discusses different types of triangulation that can be used in research to increase validity and credibility. It defines triangulation as using multiple methods, data sources, investigators, theories or research contexts to check results. Specifically, it outlines data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, methodological triangulation and environmental triangulation. For each type, it provides an example of how it could be applied in practice to strengthen research findings.
The document proposes a study to investigate how framing and social stress influence financial decision-making. Specifically, it hypothesizes that stress will increase risk-seeking behavior for decisions framed as losses, but not for decisions framed as gains. Undergraduate students will be randomly assigned to stress or no-stress conditions before making hypothetical choices between sure and probabilistic options framed as gains or losses. Results are expected to show that stress enhances risk-seeking for loss frames due to impaired decision-making under stress.
Correctional CounselingRobert HanserScott Mire20111 The .docxvoversbyobersby
This document provides definitions and context for correctional counseling. It begins by defining corrections as the component of the criminal justice system responsible for offenders after conviction. Correctional counseling is then defined as a process where trained counselors help offenders improve behaviors and reduce criminal involvement. The document discusses the origins of counseling in guidance and psychotherapy. It also addresses criticisms of past definitions of correctional counseling and the importance of evaluating it scientifically.
This is the other book link.Any questions please contact via[e.docxglennf2
This is the other book link.
Any questions please contact via
[email protected]
https://phoenix.vitalsource.com/books/9781483342047/pageid/15
ChaeArvie
NewBaby17 or
NewBaby17!!
Correctional Counseling
Robert Hanser
Scott Mire
2011
1 The Role of the Correctional Counselor
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
· 1. Identify the functions and parameters of the counseling process.
· 2. Discuss the competing interests between security and counseling in the correctional counseling process.
· 3. Know common terms and concerns associated with custodial corrections.
· 4. Understand the role of the counselor as facilitator.
· 5. Identify the various personal characteristics associated with effective counselors.
· 6. Be aware of the impact that burnout can have on a counselor’s professional performance.
· 7. Identify the various means of training and supervision associated with counseling.
PART ONE: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING AND CORRECTIONS
There are many myths concerning the concept of counseling. Although the image of the counseling field has changed dramatically over the past two or three decades, much of society still views counseling and therapy as a mystic process reserved for those who lack the ability to handle life issues effectively. While the concept of counseling is often misunderstood, the problem is exacerbated when attempting to introduce the idea of correctional counseling. Therefore, the primary goal of this chapter is to provide a working definition of correctional counseling that includes descriptions of how and when it is carried out. In order to understand the concept of correctional counseling, however, the two words that derive the concept must first be defined: “corrections” and “counseling.” In addition, a concerted effort is made to identify the myriad of legal and ethical issues that pertain to counselors working with offenders.
It is very difficult to identify a single starting point for the counseling profession. In essence, there were various movements occurring simultaneously that later evolved into what we now describe as counseling. One of the earliest connections to the origins of counseling took place in Europe during the Middle Ages (Brown & Srebalus, 2003). The primary objective was assisting individuals with career choices. This type of counseling service is usually described by the concept of “guidance.” In the late 1800s Wilhelm Wundt and G. Stanley Hall created two of the first known psychological laboratories aimed at studying and treating individuals with psychological and emotional problems (Brown & Srebalus, 2003). Around the same time (1890), Sigmund Freud began treating mental patients with his patented technique of psychoanalysis. As a result, the origins of counseling can be traced to two different but simultaneous movements: (1) guidance and (2) psychotherapy.
Guidance
Guidance has been used as a concept to describe the process of helping individuals identify and .
This study tested the hypothesis that positive emotions build personal resources over time through loving-kindness meditation. Researchers randomly assigned 139 working adults to either begin a loving-kindness meditation practice or a control group. Those who meditated experienced increases in daily positive emotions, which led to gains in personal resources like mindfulness, life satisfaction, and social support. In turn, increased resources predicted improved well-being, as shown by less depressive symptoms. The findings provide experimental evidence that positive emotions generated through meditation can accumulate over time to strengthen important personal qualities and relationships.
This study examined how perceptions of fairness or unfairness (procedural justice and distributive justice) influence people's willingness to engage in mild or severe unethical decision-making aimed at achieving retributive justice. The study presented scenarios to employees of an electric company in Venezuela and MBA students describing either fair or unfair treatment. It was hypothesized that unfair treatment would make people more likely to choose mild unethical decisions when only one type of injustice was present, but more likely to choose severe unethical decisions when both procedural and distributive injustice were present. The results did not support the hypotheses but surprisingly found employees were more willing to make mild unethical decisions under conditions of complete fairness than partial fairness
This document discusses different types of prevention and enhancement in psychology. It defines:
1) Primary prevention as actions taken to reduce the likelihood of future problems by targeting populations not yet experiencing issues. This can be universal or selective.
2) Secondary prevention as psychotherapy interventions aimed at eliminating or reducing problems once they appear.
3) Primary enhancement as efforts to establish optimal functioning and satisfaction, either through pleasure/needs or effective goal pursuit.
4) Secondary enhancement as augmenting positive levels to reach ultimate performance and satisfaction, such as through meaning in life.
Why have the artists created these works and what are they.docxphilipnelson29183
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 1 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
High Renaissance
Raphael, School of Athens, 1509-10. Fresco, 200 x 300 “.
Photorealism
Chuck Close, Big Self-Portrait, 1967-68.
Acrylic on canvas. 107 ½“x 83 1/2”.
*
Why have the artists created these works and what are they saying about their culture?
Explain how each artist has used the following to make that statement.visual elements (shape or form, line texture, light, value, color, space and movement) principles of design
(unity and variety, balance, focal point, scale, proportion, and rhythm) subject mattermaterials and techniques
Sample Essay 2 (25 points) Compare and contrast these works in terms of:
Boticelli
Birth of Venus, 1486. Tempera on canvas, 67.9 × 109.6 ”
Kees Van Dongen
Femme Fatale. Oil on canvas, 32 X 24”.
German Expressionism, 1905
*
Integrative and Biopsychosocial Approaches in Contemporary Clinical Psychology
Chapter Objective
· To highlight and outline how contemporary clinical psychology integrates the major theoretical models using a biopsychosocial approach.
Chapter Outline
· The Call to Integration
· Biopsychosocial Integration
· Synthesizing Biological, Psychological, and Social Factors in Contemporary Integration
· Highlight of a Contemporary Clinical Psychologist: Stephanie Pinder-Amaker, PhD
· Application of the Biopsychosocial Perspective to Contemporary Clinical Psychology Problems
· Conclusion
Having now reviewed the four major theoretical and historical models in psychology in Chapter 5, this chapter illustrates how integration is achieved in the actual science and practice of clinical psychology. In addition to psychological perspectives per se, a full integration of human functioning demands a synthesis of psychological factors with both biological and social elements. This combination of biological, psychological, and social factors comprises an example of contemporary integration in the form of the biopsychosocial perspective. This chapter describes the evolution of individual psychological perspectives into a more comprehensive biopsychosocial synthesis, perhaps first touched upon 2,500 years ago by the Greeks.
The Call to Integration
While there are over 400 different types of approaches to psychotherapy and other professional services offered by clinical psychologists (Karasu, 1986), the major schools of thought reviewed and illustrated in Chapter 5 have emerged during the past century as the primary perspectives in clinical psychology. As mentioned, these include the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family s.
1. The document explores how social identity processes may play an important role in cognitive appraisal of stress. A survey was administered to 163 students measuring personality, coping strategies, social support, and gender. Students rated scenarios as more stressful if they were student-specific versus general.
2. Females and those reporting higher levels of emotion-focused coping rated scenarios as more stressful, regardless of whether the scenarios were student-specific or general. No other relationships were found between the predictor variables and ratings of stressfulness.
3. The findings suggest that social identity may not impact cognitive appraisal of stress as expected based on self-categorization theory. Gender and emotion-focused coping were the only significant predictors of perceived
Momentary Assessment of Interpersonal Process in Psychotherapy.docxgilpinleeanna
Momentary Assessment of Interpersonal Process in Psychotherapy
Katherine M. Thomas and Christopher J. Hopwood
Michigan State University
Erik Woody and Nicole Ethier
University of Waterloo
Pamela Sadler
Wilfrid Laurier University
To demonstrate how a novel computer joystick coding method can illuminate the study of interpersonal
processes in psychotherapy sessions, we applied it to Shostrom’s (1966) well-known films in which a
client, Gloria, had sessions with 3 prominent psychotherapists. The joystick method, which records
interpersonal behavior as nearly continuous flows on the plane defined by the interpersonal dimensions
of control and affiliation, provides an excellent sampling of variability in each person’s interpersonal
behavior across the session. More important, it yields extensive information about the temporal dynamics
that interrelate clients’ and therapists’ behaviors. Gloria’s 3 psychotherapy sessions were characterized
using time-series statistical indices and graphical representations. Results demonstrated that patterns of
within-person variability tended to be markedly asymmetric, with a predominant, set-point-like inter-
personal style from which deviations mostly occurred in just 1 direction (e.g., occasional submissive
departures from a modal dominant style). In addition, across each session, the therapist and client showed
strongly cyclical variations in both control and affiliation, and these oscillations were entrained to
different extents depending on the therapist. We interpreted different patterns of moment-to-moment
complementarity of interpersonal behavior in terms of different therapeutic goals, such as fostering a
positive alliance versus disconfirming the client’s interpersonal expectations. We also showed how this
method can be used to provide a more detailed analysis of specific shorter segments from each of the
sessions. Finally, we compared our approach to alternative techniques, such as act-to-act lagged relations
and dynamic systems and pointed to a variety of possible research and training applications.
Keywords: psychotherapy, process, momentary assessment, spectral analysis, interpersonal circumplex
The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how a novel method
for the study of moment-to-moment interpersonal processes can be
applied to psychotherapy sessions and to illustrate how this
method could enhance understanding of psychotherapy process.
To depict the value of this method, we apply it to Shostrom’s
(1966) well-known films in which a client, Gloria, met with three
prominent psychotherapists with differing theoretical orienta-
tions—Albert Ellis (rational– emotive), Frederick Perls (gestalt),
and Carl Rogers (client-centered). These filmed therapy sessions
are useful for our purpose because they are widely familiar (e.g.,
Reilly & Jacobus, 2008; Weinrach, 1990) and because we can
contrast our novel approach with previous research applying a
more conventional measurement approach to these s ...
Visual journaling can provide benefits through various theoretical frameworks including disclosure, positive psychology, art therapy, and stress/coping theories. It allows people to express and process emotions in a creative way through writing or visual art. Studies show emotional disclosure through writing about stressful events can improve both psychological and physical health by reducing stress hormones, strengthening immune function, and changing how people think about negative experiences. Visual journaling incorporates elements of positive psychology like appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, humor, and spirituality to help people transcend daily struggles and find meaning. Research indicates cultivating gratitude, optimism, and mindfulness through activities like visual journaling can enhance well-being and happiness.
1. Peak-End Rule and Duration Neglect: An analysis of Barbara
Fredrickson’s contribution and related findings
John McCallie
The peak-end rule and notion of duration neglect has become a very robust tool for
examining violations to classical rational theory. Barbara Fredrickson served as one
of the more influential voices in this discovery, and therefore merits focus for her
contributions and influences on the topic. Hence, this paper is composed of two
parts: the first reviews Frederickson’s (2000) personal contribution to the
discussion on peak-end rule and duration neglect, and the second analyzes a
sampling of the empirical research on the topic since her article was published, and
the lack of expansion in areas she critiqued.
In 1993, Barbara Fredrickson collaborated with other researchers on two papers in which
they formulated the ideas of “peak-end rule” and “duration neglect” (Kahneman, Fredrickson,
Schrieber, & Redelmeier; Fredrickson and Kahneman). These two rules were used to explain
violations people make when making decisions that go against rational expectations. The peak-
end rule states that individuals, when evaluating past experiences, usually focus on the “peak”
and “end” moments of an interaction (Fredrickson 2000). To clarify, this means when a person is
in a situation, they do not evaluate the interaction in its entirety; rather, the subject will focus on
peak moments, the highs or lows, and how they felt when the moment ended. The basic
explanation for this is that most individuals cannot remember every moment they live through in
fine detail; therefore they must resort to heuristics and context clues in order to make
evaluations.
2. For example, a study was conducted in which a group of individuals were asked to
submerge their hands into cold water, inducing pain (Kahneman, Fredrickson, Schrieber, &
Redelmeier 1993). Participants were asked to submerge their hands in extremely cold water for
one minute, and then were asked to do the same test again, but for an additional 30 seconds, in
which the water’s temperature was slightly raised. The rational expectation is that individuals
would pick the shorter test, simply due to the total amount of discomfort being less (the water
temperature was only increased by one degree Celsius, meaning it was still a painful experience),
also known as “temporal monotonicity.” Yet, when asked to choose which trial they would want
to do for a third test, most chose the longer test, particularly those who reported a decrease in
discomfort after the temperature increase. Temporal monotonicity claims this is not possible. If
someone experiences pain for longer, even if the pain is less at the end than at the start, then their
total pain is higher than the shorter experience, and therefore they should always choose the short
test. The peak-end rule states this is not always the case, as individuals instead use markers, such
as peak moments and end moments, and evaluates the experience that way.
This study led to two conclusions: not only do people use peaks and ends of a
remembered experience to evaluate its desirability, but people also ignore the duration of the
event (duration neglect). This further tested in a more extreme manner by delaying the removal
of a colonoscopy device in some patients (Kahneman, Wakker, and Sarin 1997). After the
procedure was finished, instead of removing the tool, which is a painful experience, the scope
was left in for a minute, which is still painful, but much less than removal. This led to the curious
discovery that even though the pain was felt for a longer period of time, the procedures were
rated more desirable in evaluations at a later time. Fredrickson (2000) suggested that this finding
means “an intervention that improves the memory of a painful medical procedure---even if it
3. adds to the total experience of pain---might increase the patient’s willingness to undergo further
colonoscopies if needed” (p. 584). She also concludes that “[p]eoples global evaluations of their
past affective experiences, as well as their choices about the future, can often be well predicted
by a simply average of two moments: the most intense effective moment of that experience and
the affect experienced at the end” (p. 185).
Up to the publishing of Fredrickson’s critique in 2000, the peak-end rule and duration
neglect notion received more clarification by other researchers, such as how intensity of an
experience affects evaluation1 as well as duration not always being neglected2 (Fredrickson
2000, p. 586). But the main point of her article in 2000 is to ask why these things happen. Up to
that point, most of the studies cited have been trying to find out the “how” of violations to
temporal monotonicity, with little effort into explaining the behavior and factors that lead to
those choices. Thus, Fredrickson (2000) asks “[o]f all the moments people could select to
represent past affective experiences, why did they choose peaks and ends?” (p. 589). She argues
that there should be more empirical focus on meaning, to emphasize why peaks and ends hold
such weight in the decision makings of individuals. Therefore, the following section will be
focused on this part of Fredrickson’s (2000) article.
Evaluation by Meaning
Fredrickson splits her discussion of meaning into two parts: peaks and end carry
meaning, and emotions carry meaning. She criticizes that the “dominant view of time in many
Western cultures… is objective, absolute, and homogenous” creates the faulty conclusion that
1 (Hsee and Abelson 1991; Hsee, Salovey and Abelson 1994; Ariely 1998)
2 (Ariely 1998; Fredrickson and Kahneman 1993; Varey and Kahneman 1992)
4. humans all hold the same understanding of time (p. 589-590). Instead, people have subjective
views on time; they do not all start their day at 12:01 a.m. People evaluate their experience based
on subjectively relevant moments, and that is why moments like peaks or ends will have more
meaning. Meaning is gained not through time as is measured by clocks or other formal methods,
but is gained by the events themselves. This can also work in the opposite fashion, like when
saying “time flies when you’re having fun.” People who engage in an activity they enjoy will
feel as though the time spent was shorter than if they did a boring activity for the same amount of
objective time.
So if meaning is gained from the experience themselves, what relevance do peaks and
ends have? According to Fredrickson, peaks help convey “capacity requirements” or how much a
person can tolerate or engaged in an event. For example, experiencing a rather trying moment,
like a death or a broken limb, will tell an individual how much capacity they need in order to
handle reliving that experience, or if they can at all. Its importance in telling someone how much
effort they will need to handle the situation explains why the peak affect is so important in
evaluation. Fredrickson refers to it as a coping mechanism; if someone has their coping resources
depleted, they might experience high peak affects when engaging disturbing stimulus (p. 591).
When evaluating a past experience, or considering a future action, peaks will give an individual
valuable information about how to rate it and if they would perform it again.
On the other side of the spectrum, endings provide a different importance. Fredrickson
uses “ends justify the means” as to explain the personal importance of end affects, in which
individuals may remember the overall experience in a more positive light if the end result makes
the entire experience worth it (p. 592). She cites endings as being the main aspect of experience
by humans (see Spiegel 1998), and this is what brings about the importance placed on the end
5. affect (p. 592). Also, endings make clear the peak moments of an experience, and therefore show
not only that you survived the experience, but now you can use it to discover your personal
capacity. This supposedly explains why people seek thrill-seeking activities; by surviving them,
they can discover limits about themselves. Frederickson concludes that both peaks and ends give
relevant information about the self, hence why they seem so important in decision making.
Besides the peak and end meanings, Fredrickson also looked at emotion as creating
meaning which will affect decisions and evaluations. In fact, she specifically criticizes how the
research up to this point (that she discussed) lacked virtually any focus on emotions and how
they affect decisions: “Affect, the measures used would imply, varies along a single bipolar
‘good-bad’ dimension” (p. 594). Measurement is seen as a crux, keeping researchers from
accurately rating a person’s feelings on something, or imposing a scale that does not truly reflect
the mindset of an individual. It also tends to ignore the multitude of feelings experience by
someone. While an subject participates in some sort of phenomena, their emotions are not
limited to a simple good or bad scale, but that scale is made up of a myriad of different emotions.
A classical researcher may see an experience as unavoidable because it will cause pain, and
therefore no individual should seek it out. But it also ignores other levels of affects that might
come into play, split into different levels. Fredrickson refers to these levels as high meaning and
low meaning affects, with things like love and interest being high meaning positive affects, and
anxiety and disgust as low meaning negative affects (p. 595).
In context of decision making, this helps explain why people would prefer to do
something painful or disgusting (negative), even though this might break rational expectations.
Fredrickson refers to horror movie-goers as a clear representation of this; the subsequent
enjoyment they receive from going to see the movie overrides the initial fear they have, leading
6. to them describing the overall experience as enjoyable and will seek it out again (p. 596). Her
argument can also be used to fortify the peak and end discussion earlier, in that people may
experience peak fears, which relay information about their tolerance for such situations, but they
also enjoy the feeling of proving their bravery, even if only to themselves. Their desire for a
higher meaning positive affect such as courage might override their anxiety, which might be seen
as a low meaning negative affect.
Hence Fredrickson’s critique of bipolar measures of meaning: if subject A enjoys the
rush from horror movies, more so than the dislikes the fear from it, they will rate the experience
as “good”, while subject B will rate it as “bad” because they do not enjoy the rush as much as
they dislike the fear. Their peaks and ends convey different meanings to themselves, leading to
different results on the bipolar evaluation. Furthermore, while Fredrickson does not explicitly
state this, the bipolar measurement tool is also based on the researcher’s decision. They assume
that horror movies are bad (they are scary and cause fear, which is assumed to cause universal
negative reactions), but completely ignores any other effect the movie might have that can lead
to a “good” evaluation. It also ignores the saliency of those affects, since not all individuals
experience the situation the same way. A peak moment will not be the same for subject A and B,
and the ends will mean different things to them: relief for subject B, but pride for subject A.
This leads to Fredrickson finding a fundamental flaw with how happiness and choices are
analyzed: the methodology gives little attention to the meaning associated with the affects. The
measurements for happiness and how meanings are scaled against each other provide issues for
evaluating by meaning, with most only looking at moments, and not remedying situations where
two different levels of meaning are measure equally (does a day with a child that gives +7 and is
described as love mean less than a tuna steak measured +10 described as pleasure?) (p. 601).
7. While this seems like an obvious error, there is little that had been done to address this issue,
mainly due to focus on evaluation by moments rather than meaning. But has subsequent research
since her article discovered anything new?
Subsequent Empirical Findings
In 2004, a study was conducted using two separate experiments to evaluate the effects of
mixing positive and negative affects together and seeing if starting and ending on different notes
will change the overall evaluation of the experience (Olsen and Pracejus). Each experiment
tested the effects of mood while listening to a radio ad, in which four versions were offered
(positive only, negative only, negative-positive, and positive-negative). Each segment had
matching verbal and audio cues, so that the music being played matched the tone of the
announcer. This study found that changing when information was presented, and in what way,
changed the overall evaluation of the ad. Interestingly, they found significant mood increases by
following negative affects with positive affects, as compared with an ad with just positive
affects. Following positive affects with negative ones were not significantly different than only
negative ads.
What also separates this study from others was their attention to ensuring the affects were
generally interpreted the same by all individuals, in order to avoid testing error in which
statements or types of music were misidentified with the wrong meaning. This differs
particularly from research cited by Fredrickson, who criticized that meaning interpreted from
individuals was largely ignored. It also considered multiple types of stimuli and the meanings
they convey (music versus spoken word) to evaluate the difference in responses they generate. In
their words, “this study presents the first investigation into the integration of oppositely valenced
8. affective stimuli” (p. 383). Their findings also reiterate the importance of different levels and
types of meanings as they pertain to the message, without changing the overall impact.
Therefore, assuming that negative and positive reactions will operate in the same way isn’t
always true, and careful attention should be paid when studying their effects.
Another study sought to determine if autobiographical events, in which persons keep
track of their happiness throughout, still obey the peak-end rule (Kemp, Burt and Furneaux
2008). The theory behind this was that few studies up to this point had looked at long-term
events and focused on short-term unpleasant ones, mainly due to practicality (p. 132). This study
also aimed to address the difference between day to day evaluations and recall evaluations at a
later date, to see if people remembered experiences differently than they actually occured
(signifying bias towards some events). Furthermore, there was an intent to see if the “peaks” held
the dominate effect in recollection, or if “troughs” also came into effect when remembering past
experiences. In other words, do negative events drive down evaluations of overall positive
events, or is the recollection one sided?
The results both confirmed and refuted Fredrickson’s findings and hypotheses. First of
all, this study reiterated that duration of experiences did not change overall levels of happiness,
so longer vacations were as enjoyable as shorter ones. Also, the data found that people do tend to
reconstruct events rather than remember them correctly as the memory gets older. Overall, the
study supports Kahneman and Fredrickson’s (1993) finding that memories consists of averaged
“stills”, rather than continuous recollections, mainly due to the limitations of the mind. This was
further supported by the fact that people had a hard time graphing their happiness day-by-day
after the vacation was over. Generally, people made guesses about how they felt at certain
9. moments rather than remembering exactly how they felt at a specific point, with accuracy
decreasing as time went on.
The study also found the peak-end rule to not be a perfect heuristic tool for individuals
when recalling memories. Rather, “overall happiness seems to be better predicted by end
happiness than by peak or trough happiness, and the comparative failure of the peak-end rule
appears to stem more from the peak than from the end” (p. 137). In fact, the peaks and troughs
were not any more well-remembered than other moments, and the ends were more often used to
recall overall happiness. The perceived intensity of these peaks decreased as time went on,
leading the researchers to suggest that, while peak and end experiences may be used in
evaluation, other candidates like beginning, unusual, and relevant memories might be more
likely recalled. These finding challenges the supremacy of the peak-end rule, but it does not
disprove it. In fact, it supports Fredrickson’s (2000) argument that other factors may come into
play when evaluating experiences. That, or the peak-end rule is too restrictive in what qualifies
as a “peak.”
Do, Rupert, and Wolford (2008) also attempted to determine how the peak-end rule
comes into play concerning positive experiences, using similar methods used in the ice-water
experiment. In one experiment, a group of participants were asked to choose a reward from two
sets of DVDS, with one set being highly rated movies (A) and the other being decently rated, but
not as high as the first set (b). Each person picked two movies from one or two lists. Five
possible combinations of movies were offered: Only offered A, only offered B, pick from A then
pick from B in a separate email, pick from B then pick from A in a separate email, and pick from
A then pick from A in a separate email. A second experiment did a similar test, except with
10. candy during trick-or-treating by children on Halloween night (only this time, there was no B
then A choice).
The results they obtained fell in line with previous findings cited in Fredrickson (2000).
Subjects rated their overall happiness higher when picking the A group second, than if they
picked the B group second. This reiterates the importance of ordering when offering gifts, or
otherwise seeking pleasurable experiences, and seems to be something inherent regardless of age
(both the adults with the DVDs and the kids with the candy acted the same behaviorally). While
this doesn’t add to the “why” Fredrickson is asking for, it is still important in that it upholds the
validity of her argument that the peak-end rule has a lot of influence in situational analysis, even
with an immediate recall. This competes with the previous study, meaning more intense research
is needed to fully clarify its validity in all cases.
A study conducted by Winterich and Haws (2011) set out to find if different types of
positive states leads to different consumption habits (particularly food). This addresses
Fredrickson’s (2000) criticism of the lack of research concerning different types of emotions and
meanings, which may lead to conflicting answers. This particular test seeks to see if different
temporal focuses will lead to different eating behaviors, such as the increased consumption of
unhealthy food (i.e. do emotions like hopefulness, which is future-oriented, lead to different
choices than emotions like happiness, which is present-oriented, even though they are both
positive?). The basis of this study is predicated on the past focus concerning “valence-based
mood states”, such as negative vs. positive, rather than specific emotions, as highlighted above.
Their findings suggest that not only do different emotions in the same positive valence
affect self-control (and possibly other behaviors) in unique ways, future-focused positive
emotions seem to be more impactful on self-control than other temporally focused versions. This
11. also supports Fredrickson’s hypothesis concerning differing meaning affects, albeit this one adds
a temporal element, which allows for more diversity in explaining behavior. In effect, not only
does their conclusion imply that positive meanings and emotions can improve self-control, but
it’s the temporal qualification of the emotion that really changes the behavior of the individual.
This challenges studies that only focus on the “good/bad”, bilateral measurement of experiences,
rather than a more nuanced, inter-valence examination. Such consideration should, theoretically,
better explain how people make decisions and evaluate phenomena.
Up to this point, little attention has been given specifically to duration neglect, partly
because Fredrickson’s focus in her 2000 article is on the peak-end rule. But the two are very
closely related, and Zhao and Tsai’s (2011) study offers keen insight on the role of duration in
personal evaluation. They tested how people’s evaluations would change if the subject had
knowledge of the duration of the test. First, they found that there was an additive effect to
intensity when a subject had duration knowledge, regardless if the duration conformed to
expectations or not. This means that a positive experience was more enjoyable with duration
knowledge, and negative experiences were more unenjoyable as well. This held regardless of
length of the experience or if actual duration violated expectation of length. However, the
researchers caution that the tested experiences were relatively mild, and so this might not be the
case for more extreme experiences (like childbirth).
They also found a reverse effect when those who had knowledge of duration focused on
the ending of the experience. This was attributed to a focus or attention effect; people thought
more about the end of the test than the test itself, and the overall impact was dulled. Yet there
was also the conclusion that people who knew exactly when the test ended paid more attention as
the end grew nearer, which increased the intensity of the experience. This gives slightly
12. contradictory results, because they are implying that, on average, the intensity drops, but it gains
an exponential increase as the ending nears. This gives no insight into which has a stronger
effect, or which is more likely to occur, so more research could possibly alleviate this.
Regardless of that contradiction, the study does still add a new, unexamined layer to duration and
its properties, and that knowledge may give power to duration on experience.
Conclusionand Remarks
Barbara Fredrickson, who helped initiate the discussion on peak-end effects and duration
neglect, alongside Kahneman and colleagues, seems to be left wanting for more adequate reasons
for why such rules exist. Her critique revolves around a general lack of understanding the
mechanisms of hedonistic heuristics, and infers that there must be other influences at play,
mainly focusing around meaning. For Fredrickson, meaning contains a lot of the power behind
why individuals commit seemingly irrational actions, but we have lacked the methodological
tools and interest in discovering these nuanced difference. Despite that, she hypothesizes that the
reason the peak-end rule, and in relation to that, duration neglect, hold so much influence in the
evaluation of experienced memories is due to the meaning those two moments hold. Peaks
convey a sense of personal capacity, giving an individual information about what kind of
situations they can endure, and how much effort or willpower or emotion they need in order to
survive or engage in the experience again. In relation, endings signify closure and goal-
accomplishment, and allow an individual to realize the peaks and use them to evaluate their
overall feelings about the experience, and whether or not they think the means were worth the
result. How this is done, and to what extent this rule holds, though, is something Fredrickson
feels is not adequately answered, and would welcome attempts to clarify those relations.
13. Since her article, various studies have been performed either to support or challenge the
peak-end rule and duration neglect, or expand upon the literature and discover new dynamics
previously untested. This paper is not nearly a full collection of the research following
Fredrickson’s article, as the peak-end rule in particular has garnered a lot of academic interest.
That said, the discussed research does highlight some of the important discoveries that have been
made since her analysis.
First, there is still some debate as to whether or not the peak-end rule is descriptive tool
for explaining how people evaluate past experiences. For example, Kemp, Burt and Furneaux
(2008) claimed that while the peak-end rule can sometimes explain the methods used by
individuals, when compared to moment-by-moment evaluations, other tools seem to be more
relevant when remembering the past. Do, Rupert, and Wolford’s (2008) findings, on the other
hand, seem to support the original theory, and apply it to positive experiences rather than
negative, which is more commonly analyzed. It is unknown if there are other possible effects,
such increased subject attention given to mood states in the first study, that might influence the
findings. Regardless, the rule still seems to hold significant power in the literature.
Second, a couple studies have sought out more refined answers to how time comes into
play concerning behavior and recollection. Winterich and Haws (2011) found that future-
oriented positive states are better at keeping someone from eating unhealthy, so time plays some
effect in decisions, just not in a way considered in-depth previously. This is related to
Fredrickson’s issue with unilateral or bilateral scales, that usually only look at something in a
valence manner (“good vs. bad”) or that fail to take in account other emotions that might affect
decisions (“I want to do things I like, but I want to avoid shame more”). Zhao and Tsai (2011)
found that duration does have an effect, not due to its length, but knowledge of length, which still
14. supports duration neglect. They discovered that those who had expectations or knew the duration
of an experience increased the intensity of the experience positively and negatively.
Finally, Olsen and Pracejus (2004) conducted a similar study which is relatable to the
previous studies. They showed that not only does ordering affect how something is perceived (a
well-researched phenomena, also addressed by Do, Rupert, and Wolford), but that different types
of the same affect will change the intensity and meaning associated with an experience (similar
to the findings by Winterich and Haws). This gives support to Fredrickson’s argument that not
all affects are the same, and individuals will associate different relevance and intensities to
affects that resonate more with their personal desires or behaviors.
While many of these findings and studies reveal a plethora of information that was either
ignored or unknown in the past, it is still not enough. There are too many unknowns about the
reasons why people behave the way they do, especially in an empirical sense, and there still
exists a deficiency in adequate ways to measure these hidden meanings. On top of that, while
more research exists concerning the peak-end rule, much of it still focuses on the moments rather
than expanding on the meanings (again, probably due to the lack of consistent measurements in
the discipline).
As Fredrickson said, the way to answer these questions may be daunting and taxing, and
the methods currently available lacking in descriptive power, but if we don’t pursue those
answers we may never really understand why people behave the way they do in a meaningful
way. But that is not said to discredit what work has been done in the last couple decades. I would
argue that due to work like Fredrickson, Kahneman, and all the researchers cited above, we have
a better understanding as to how people make decisions and make consumption choices. Without
15. them, we would still be stuck with the classic rational assumptions that would leave virtually
every human decision irrational or uninformed.
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