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A SATURDAY YOUTH ARTS PROGRAM:
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRESERVICE ART EDUCATION
by
Joy Topaz Smith
Copyright © Joy Topaz Smith 1996
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF ART
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
WITH A MAJOR IN ART EDUCATION
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1 9 9 6

UMI Number: 1383573
Copyright 1996 by
Smith, Joy Topaz
All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 1383573
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2
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements
for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the
University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the
Library.
Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special
permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made.
Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this
manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.
SIGNE
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
Dr. Lynn Galbraith Date
Associate Professor of Art Education

3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would first like to thank all of my friends who stood by me
throughout the researching and writing of this inquiry, especially Sara
Pakkala, who was always there to listen and encourage me. I also would like
to give a special thanks to the Manzanita ISR team: Gloria Hoyme, Andrea
Chadwick, Elizabeth McKindley, Char Cohen and Karen Hill who continually
bent over backwards to help me accomplish this goal.
Thank you to the wonderful teachers who participated in this study,
particularly Caryn Isom, who so graciously gave her time and effort to this
project. And to Lou Garard, thank you for trusting in my ability and for
sharing with me all of your best teaching secrets. I will use them wisely!
Thanks to Mary Jondrow, Colleen Nichols, James Lanier and Paige
Vladich for volunteering their time and their resources for this study.
I would also like to express my deep appreciation for my two
wonderful parents, Paul and Vicki Smith, for whom without none of this
would have been possible. Their undying love and support has given me the
strength to accomplish more than I ever though possible.
Finally, thank you to my committee: Dr. Lynn Galbraith, for her trust,
her insight and her constant encouragement; Dr. Elizabeth Garber for her
willingness to find time to talk, listen and advise, and Dr. Dwaine Greer, for
giving me so many opportunities to take on new challenges and for his
eternal words of wisdom.

4
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this work to the one person who has been there
day and night throughout this research endeavor. Robert, you have given
me endless hours of patience, countless words of encouragement, and six
long years of understanding. Thank you for all of your help these past
months and for continuing to love me in spite of it all.

5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................... 8
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................. 9
1. STATEMENT OF INQUIRY................................................................10
Introduction............................................................................................10
Combining Theory and Practice........................................................ 12
Wildcat Art: A Rationale for its Implementation........................ 13
Description of Inquiry...........................................................................15
Program Description................................................................ 15
Personal Involvement................................................................17
Statement of Inquiry.................................................................18
Study Design and Methodology..........................................................20
Significance of the Study..................................................................... 22
Limitations of the Study........................................................................22
Organization of Chapters.................................................................... 23
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................................................24
Organization of the Chapter............................................................... 24
Introduction........................................................................................... 24
Classroom M anagement..................................................................... 26
Preventive Techniques.............................................................. 28
Reactionary Techniques.......................................................... 31
Curriculum and Lesson Planning.......................................................32
How Should Preservice Art Teachers Plan?....................... 33
What Should Preservice Art Teachers Plan?..................... 33
Discipline-Based Art Education (DBAE).............................. 34
DBAE: Effects on Teacher Training.......................................36
Community Outreach............................................................................37
Saturday Art Schools................................................................. 37
Advocacy......................................................................................39
Organizational Skills..............................................................................40
Field Experiences....................................................................................43
Student Teaching...................................................................... 44
Reflective Teaching.............................................................................. 47
Strategies for Teaching Art ................................................................ 48
Aesthetics.....................................................................................49
Criticism.......................................................................................50
Art History...................................................................................51

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued
Essential Elements of Instruction (EEI)................................ 52
Summary of the Literature.................................................................52
3. THE 1995 WILDCAT ART EXPERIENCE..........................................55
Organization of the Chapter...............................................................55
Introduction...........................................................................................55
Methodology..........................................................................................56
Characteristics of the Site and Sample................................. 56
The Method.................................................................................57
Background............................................................................................59
Wildcat Art: A Detailed Description of Its Structure 59
Study Results.........................................................................................66
Pre-experience Questionnaires.............................................. 66
Post-experience Questionnaire.............................................. 69
Conclusions.............................................................................................71
4. CASE STUDY OF #4..............................................................................74
Organization of the Chapter............................................................... 74
Introduction...........................................................................................75
M ethodology..........................................................................................76
Characteristics of the Site and Sample................................. 76
The Method.................................................................................76
Interviews....................................................................................78
Study Limitations.....................................................................79
The Case Study......................................................................................80
Classroom M anagement.........................................................80
Curriculum and Lesson Planning...........................................84
Community Outreach................................................................85
Organizational Skills................................................................. 87
Conclusions.............................................................................................88
5. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............................. 90
Introduction...........................................................................................90
Im plications...........................................................................................91
Recommendations For Change.........................................................91
Topics for Discussion............................................................... 92
Mandatory Classroom Observations.................................... 93
Development of Committees...................................................94

7
TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued
Conclusion.............................................................................................96
6. APPENDIX A ...........................................................................................97
Questionnaire # 1 ......................................................................98
Questionnaire # 2 ......................................................................98
Questionnaire # 3 ......................................................................99
Questionnaire # 4 ....................................................................100
Pre-experience Interview...................................................... 102
Post-experience Interview...................................................... 106
Final Interview......................................................................... 108
Interview Release Form........................................................108
7. APPENDIX B..........................................................................................112
Public Relations Committee...................................................113
Wildcat Art Site Committee...................................................116
Advertising and Design Committee.................................... 118
Community Outreach and Staff Support Committee 120
8. APPENDIX C ..........................................................................................122
Planning A Discipline-Based Art Lesson............................ 123
Wildcat Art Observer Notes................................................. 127
Wildcat Art Discipline Contract.......................................... 130
Wildcat Art Emergency Form.............................................. 131
Wildcat Art Release Form.................................................... 132
1995 Wildcat Art Brochure................................................... 133
1995 Wildcat Art Flyer...........................................................135
1995 Wildcat Art Information Sheet.................................. 136
9. APPENDIX D..........................................................................................138
10. REFERENCES........................................................................................ 142

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 3.1, Completed Educational Requirements.......................68

9
ABSTRACT
A supplemental Saturday Youth Arts Program was examined to
determine whether or not its implementation into a preservice art education
program better prepared students for student teaching. This work presents
two case studies. Data from the first study, which looked at sixteen preservice
art teachers, found that (1) students lacked adequate knowledge on how to
write discipline-based lesson plans; (2) community outreach was undervalued
by students and (3) there was a lack of sufficient preparation time to take on
all the variables involved in operating the lab school. The second study
followed one of the students into her student teaching to look for
professional growth in four areas: (1) classroom management; (2)
curriculum and lesson planning; (3) community outreach and (4)
organizational skills. Findings indicated that students can achieve high
levels of professional growth as a result of this kind of experience, thus they
are better prepared for student teaching.

10
CHAPTER 1
STATEMENT OF INQUIRY
Introduction
The teaching of art is a multi-dimensional skill that requires the ability
to think and act quickly to the rapidly changing dynamics of the art room. In
its best form this includes the planning of sequential discipline-based (Clark,
Day & Greer, 1987; Greer, 1984), multicultural (Champlin, 1995; Chanda, 1992;
Stuhr, Petrovich-Mwaniki, & Wasson, 1992), age-appropriate (Eisner, 1987),
creative, novel, interdisciplinary (Champlin, 1995), collaborative (Champlin,
1995; Zimmerman, 1994a), community relevant (Baker, 1990; Day in
Goodwin, 1994) and evaluative (Clark, Day & Greer, 1987; Gentile, 1989; Greer,
1984) curriculum that can be modified to meet the needs of all learners in the
school. An art teacher must also possess the skills, knowledge and ability
needed to communicate curricular ideas and concepts to pupils in ways that
create meaningful art experiences. This requires the teacher to be an efficient
classroom manager who clearly outlines and reinforces expected behaviors
and outcomes for each activity in the lesson. He or she needs well-established
classroom procedures for everyday functions like the distribution and the
collection of supplies, and to be able to anticipate and prevent potential
problems before they start (Susi, 1989,1990a, 1990b, 1996).
Added on to these instructional and managerial demands are requests
that art teachers engage in: reflective thinking (Pultorak, 1993; Susi, 1995),
action-research (Galbraith, 1988; May, 1993) and leadership opportunities
(Gupton, 1995; Howey, 1988; Jeffers, 1995). Furthermore, they should be

11
advocates for the arts in their community through workshops, presentations
and regular art exhibitions. Efland asserts that in order to remain at the top of
their field, art educators must be life-long learners, continually keeping
abreast of national trends in art education (in Goodwin, 1993).
Art teachers also take on various other roles which require highly
developed interpersonal skills. An art teacher is constantly working
interactively and collaboratively with a variety of people in school settings
during activities like district and site committee meetings, faculty
presentations, bus duty, parent-teacher conferences, open house, talent shows,
plays and other school events. In addition they often become set designers for
plays, display coordinators for the library or office bulletin boards, the resident
artist who comes into the classroom to help with special projects, and the
school’s interior designer. Participation in these kinds of miscellaneous
school activities are often perceived as the "what goes without saying" job
requirements of art teachers.
The expectations that befall art teachers on a daily basis raise many
questions about the nature of preservice art teacher education. How can we
better prepare preservice art teachers to take on the disparate responsibilities
of professionals in our field? Do we provide our preservice students adequate
opportunities to integrate university dictated theory with professional
practice? More specifically, how do we give them the skills, knowledge,
values and attitudes needed to teach art effectively? Questions like these
reflect a growing interest in the field on the nature of preservice art teacher
preparation programs (Galbraith, 1990, 1995b; Zimmerman, 1994a).
"Although there is a long and excellent tradition of research in art education,

12
limited studies exist specifically on preservice art education" (Galbraith, 1990,
p. 51). Therefore, comprehensive inquiries into the nature of our preservice
programs seem long overdue.
In partial response to the request of the National Art Education
Association (NAEA) task force on teacher education which calls for research
in preservice laboratory and clinical experiences (Galbraith, 1995a), this paper
describes the preservice art education program offered at The University of
Arizona in Tucson. While degree requirements and general descriptions of
course work are discussed, this inquiry looks specifically at a Saturday Youth
Arts Program. It was initiated in response to reform trends in preservice
teacher education research as well as to satisfy the College of Fine Arts' desire
to create outreach programs that help the university build more interactive
partnerships with the Tucson community. The Saturday Youth Arts
Program, hereafter referred to as Wildcat Art, has since become a vital
component of our preservice program. Demonstrated through the findings
of this inquiry, the Wildcat Art program helps preservice students begin to
form clearer pictures of what art teaching involves and provides them a
much needed opportunity to put theory into practice.
Combining Theory and Practice
Providing meaningful experiences where theory and practice meld in
the minds of preservice art teachers is difficult at best. There is however, a
common belief that the two can and do interact with one another in the day
to day lives of in-service art teachers. Knowing this, how can the interaction
between theory and practice best be shown in preservice art programs? Is it

13
possible to create more field-based opportunities in the university where
theory and practice work together in a mutually interactive relationship?
Nadaner (1983) suggests that "teacher education in the university begins with
the recognition that practice is always permeated by some theoretical
assumptions and that a more deliberate, reflective application of theory can
only improve practice" (p. 66).
In a program like Wildcat Art, students can begin to see connections
between theory and practice when thinking reflectively about their own
teaching of lessons or their observed lessons of peers. "Students thus, have
the opportunity... to articulate meanings and questions that have immediate
significance for them. These questions can then be related in the university
to treatments of the same questions by art educators and philosophers"
(Nadaner, 1983, p. 68). This is how the Wildcat Art program approaches the
unavoidable collision between the relevancy of university-based theory and
the everyday realities of art teaching in practice.
Wildcat Art: A Rationale for its Implementation
Since preservice teachers learn to teach from their experiences of
actually being there to watch, interact, and make decisions in the classroom, it
seems imperative to provide them these kinds of opportunities during their
preservice education (Britzman, cited in Galbraith, 1995b). Realizing this, the
University of Arizona, like other institutions1 began the Wildcat Art
program. Wildcat Art was designed with the premise that preservice
1 Buffalo State College, City University of New York, East Carolina University, Indiana
University, Purdue University, Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, Penn State & the
University of the Pacific, for example, all have either Saturday Art programs or Summer Art
programs in place.

14
teachers in art education needed more hands-on interaction with youth and
expanded opportunities to put theory into practice. Its goals are to:
(1) Provide expanded field-based opportunities that meet the needs
of our preservice art education students.
(2) Make valuable connections between the university, the schools
and the community. These connections will provide
communication that may educate, inform and inspire
community members to support art education in the public
schools.
(3) Provide an opportunity for youth from differing backgrounds
and socio-economic status to come together to share creative
ideas and artistic concepts.
(4) Cultivate the youths' knowledge in the visual arts, including
study in each of the four art disciplines of criticism, aesthetics, art
history and studio. The hope is that through this broad, multi-
media approach, students will deepen their understanding and
appreciation of the arts.
Because The University of Arizona's Art Education Department is
separate from the College of Education, field experiences are difficult to
provide for students. Currently, students working toward their B.F.A. in art
education have their only required field experience2 through course work
taken in the college of education. These experiences are almost exclusively in
secondary schools and are not geared toward the specific needs of the
preservice art education student receiving certification in grades K-12.
Created in the Spring of 1994, Wildcat Art has operated as a three unit
class3 offered to both undergraduate and graduate students seeking their
teaching certification in art. The class takes students through the process of
setting up a lab school including advertising and recruiting youth, finding
2 One semester, consisting of thirty hours of observation at one school site.
3 Wildcat Art is listed in the University of Arizona's general catalogue as ARE 338L:
Secondary School Art, and is convened with the graduate course ARE 558L: Theories of
Curriculum and Instruction in Art.

15
adequate space to house art classes on The University of Arizona campus,
ordering, inventorying and distributing supplies, writing age appropriate
curriculum and comprehensive discipline-based lesson plans, establishing
fair and consistent classroom management plans for each age level and
finally, working collaboratively with their peers in teams to create, teach and
evaluate their lessons.
University students are expected to take the course as a culmination of
their preservice course work. This ensures that they have taken the
minimum of nine credits of secondary education course work which
provides a basic knowledge of general teaching pedagogy, basic classroom
management techniques, lesson and unit planning, as well as educational
psychology and the nature and functions of schools in society.4 In addition,
they are expected to have completed most of their studio requirements and
nearly twenty credits in art education.
Description of Inquiry
Program Description
The program is led and coordinated by a master teacher who has been
an art specialist in the Tucson area for fifteen years. She has designed the
course content from its inception and has worked in collaboration with the
faculty of the Art Education Department to develop a community outreach
program that meets the needs of the College of Fine Arts, the Art Education
Department's faculty and students, Tucson area youth and the greater Tucson
4 These courses are offered in the college of education and are listed in the course catalog as TTE
300: Classroom Processes and Instruction, EDP 310: Learning in Schools and EDUC 350:
Schooling in America.

16
community. It has continued to grow, and in its third year became a money
making endeavor for the department.
Wildcat Art offers its patrons comprehensive discipline-based
instruction in the visual arts using a variety of two-dimensional and three-
dimensional media. Every lesson taught has instructional time allocated for
each of the four disciplines of art history, criticism, aesthetics and studio. The
youth are broken up into three age groups for instruction. These groups are
referred to as being either Primary (grades 1-3), Intermediate (grades 4-7), or
Secondary (grades 8-12). Each age group has a separate curriculum to allow
for the differing needs of those who are more mature or more highly skilled.
The program, currently offered only during the Spring semester,
consists of 11 two and one-half hour lessons on Saturday mornings. This
permits each grade level 4 five hour lessons and 2 shorter two and one-half
hour lessons. One of the two short lessons is placed in the middle of spring
semester during the University's spring break, and the other is located at the
end of the program. This provides the preservice teachers one off weekend
for spring break. The final Saturday is reserved for a student art exhibition
which displays all the artwork produced in the ten weeks of Wildcat Art.
The classes are instructed by approximately twenty preservice art
teachers. During the planning of the program near the beginning of the
spring semester, the preservice students break up into smaller groups of three
to form teaching teams. These teams work collaboratively to develop and
teach three art lessons; one art lesson to each of the three grade levels. On
Saturdays when teams are not teaching, they are required to observe, evaluate
and assist their peers teach their lessons. This concentration of preservice

17
teachers in each grade level's class provides pupils enrolled in Wildcat Art a
low student-teacher ratio; roughly 6:1.
Personal Involvement
I became involved with Wildcat Art as an undergraduate in the
program’s first year. I felt that as a result of the Wildcat Art experience, I went
into student teaching with six fully developed lesson plans which included
visual displays, supply lists, notes on the design and layout of supply
distribution, charts for time management and activity sequencing, and I had
the experience of having already pre-taught the lessons. In addition, I had an
image of the nature and demands of teaching art and through reflection upon
my early teaching experiences, I knew specific areas I wanted to develop and
refine while student teaching.
When I came back to the department the next year as a graduate
student, I again became involved with the Wildcat Art program. The second
year I worked closely with the instructor as the Assistant Director of Wildcat
Art. From this position, I took on a variety of responsibilities which
included, but were not limited to: (1) facilitating classroom discussions; (2)
evaluating teaching using Madeline Hunter's Essential Elements of
Instruction (EEI); (3) providing comprehensive feedback of lessons taught; (4)
giving emotional support to students enrolled in the course; (5) designing the
Wildcat Art logo and distribution materials and (6) supervising and
overseeing the daily operations of the lab school including student drop-off
and pick-up, the health room, staff lounge, three classrooms and a
culminating student art exhibition. Other components of my role as

18
Assistant Director involved assisting preservice teachers with discipline
issues, addressing parental questions and concerns and brainstorming with
teaching teams to find solutions for logistical problems with space, supplies
an d /o r technology.
Statement of Inquiry
My appreciation of the skills and practical knowledge I learned as a
result of Wildcat Art inspired me to further investigate its installation in our
art education program. Did it help to better prepare preservice students for
their student teaching experience; If so, how? Did it aid in the translation of
theory into practice by providing preservice teachers an image of discipline-
based art teaching? Or was it only a means through which preservice teachers
gained practical experience? What skills, if any, did it develop in preservice
art education students? Specifically, did Wildcat Art increase preservice
teachers' professional knowledge and competence in the areas of: (1)
Classroom Management; (2) Curriculum and Lesson Planning; (3)
Community Involvement and (4) Organizational Skills? If relative
professional growth in the four areas occurred, did that growth continue or
retard during student teaching? Finally, has the installation of the Wildcat
Art field-experience into our preservice art teacher education program
resulted in better prepared, more competent, and highly skilled professionals?
As beginning art teachers, are our graduates more likely to reach higher levels
of professional development (Kagan, 1992) earlier than they might have
otherwise?

19
In choosing to focus my research around the areas of: (1) Classroom
Management; (2) Curriculum and Lesson Planning; (3) Community
Involvement and (4) Organizational Skills, I discovered more questions
which served to further define each area of inquiry. A brief list of questions
for each area is listed below. Often, answers to the questions in any category
could provide insight into the other three areas:
Classroom Management
Was the organization of the lesson and the supplies conducive to
creating an environment that discouraged discipline problems? What
kind of motivation was used to engage pupils in the content or ideas
being taught? Did art education students develop their own
management style?
Curriculum and Lesson Planning
Did lessons build upon prior learning? Were lessons discipline-based?
Were activities and discussions relevant to the lesson’s objectives? Did
pupils have an understanding of what it was that they were learning?
Were lessons based on an established curriculum? How did individual
lessons fit within a larger curriculum?
Community Involvement
In what ways did preservice students communicate with parents to
share ideas, inform them of the lesson objectives an d /o r discuss
discipline issues? Has Wildcat Art helped to foster a better relationship
between The University of Arizona's preservice art teachers and the
community?

20
Organizational Skills
Was time used effectively? How much time was given to each of the
particular disciplines? Were transitions between activities in the
lesson smooth and efficient? How prepared was the teacher to teach
the lesson?
Seeking answers to these and other questions helped to create an accurate
image of Wildcat Art's place in our preservice art teacher preparation
program and how effective it has been in preparing art teachers to meet the
many demands of public school art education.
Study Design and Methodology
To attain some basic information about the students in the class, I
distributed a series of three pre-experience questionnaires and one final post
experience questionnaire to the class enrolled in the Spring of 1995 (see
Appendix A for questionnaires). These helped me to better assess the
preservice students’ diverse interests and learning experiences. After
spending four weeks with the students, I selected5 four of the seven
traditional undergraduate students in which to observe and measure
professional growth in the each four areas discussed earlier: (1) Classroom
Management, (2) Organizational Skills, (3) Community Involvement and (4)
Organizational Skills. For each subject of study, #1, #2, #3 and # 4 ,1gathered
materials that would enable me to construct a clear picture of their
pedagogical knowledge, teaching experience and preconceived beliefs of
effective art education in practice. My data consisted of each subject's class
5 The subjects were selected based on my personal assessment of their commitment to the
program and willingness to participate in a research study.

21
notes and required journals,6 my own personal notes made while observing
the subjects teaching in each of the three grade levels, the observation notes
of the program Director and the required evaluation forms of peers who
viewed the lesson. I then collected from each subject the lesson plan and
related instructional materials for each lesson observed.
In addition, I set up informal pre- and post-experience interviews7 to
more thoroughly investigate my four areas of interest. The pre-experience
interview attempted to assess their preconceptions about the experience, their
ideas about DBAE, their level of education and their individual teaching
philosophies. The post-experience interview asked the subjects to reflect on
the experience and to look for change in their beliefs or ideologies.
From the four case studies, I selected one student, hereafter referred to
as #4, to follow through her student teaching experience.8 I observed her four
times during her student teaching and on the final visit to the site, a video
cassette recording of her instruction was made. To support the data collected
on her teaching in the classroom, I was given copies of her lesson plans and
her personal notes. Contact was made with the university student teacher
supervisor who, upon request, made notes during observations with special
attention to #4's skills in each of the four study areas. I also sat in on one
post-observational feedback session between the university supervisor and #4
in which #4 was asked reflective questions concerning her perceived teaching
strengths and possible areas for refinement. The issues from the prior
6Journals were kept as a part of course requirements up through the ninth week of classes, when
the instructor no longer thought they were an essential component to the art education student's
education.
7 Interview questions can be found in Appendix B.
8 #4 conducted the student teaching component of her certification requirements in the Spring of
1996.

22
W ildcat Art experience and the student teaching experience were brought
together in a final interview conducted immediately after the completion of
#4's student teaching assignment. I asked questions that looked for relative
professional growth and changes in her beliefs, attitudes and preconceptions
in each of the four areas of interest.
Significance of the Study
Inquiries into the nature of Saturday Youth Arts Programs are rare.
An investigation of their possible benefits to students and departments could
help pave the way for more universities to provide lab school experiences for
their students. Specifically, it provides The University of Arizona's Art
Education Department insight into how the Wildcat Art program functions
w ithin its larger art education curriculum, and provides an opportunity to
further refine its overall program. An examination such as this addresses
several questions: Can a supplemental program aid in the development of
the professional growth in preservice art teachers? Are students better
prepared for their student teaching experience as a result of the Wildcat Art
program? Does the program effectively provide university students the
opportunity to put theory into practice? Why or why not? W hat areas of the
program need refinement? Answers to these questions will provide a variety
of implications for art teacher preparation.
Limitations of the Study
The study is limited in its generalizations. It has been conducted at one
southwestern university and discusses only two case studies which cannot be

23
considered inclusive of all students attending this university or any
university since no two experiences can be considered the same. In addition,
there is the possibility of my own bias. My close affiliation with the program
may have altered my objectivity when reviewing the data. It is possible that
another researcher might have interpreted the same information differently
than what is presented here. However, I made an effort to collect data from a
variety of sources so that my personal notes were not the only place from
which assumptions and generalizations were made.
Organization of Chapters
Chapter 2 reviews the current literature in the areas of: Classroom
Management, Curriculum and Lesson Planning, Community Outreach,
Organizational Skills, Field Experiences, Reflective Teaching and Strategies
for Teaching Art. Chapter 3 further describes the Wildcat Art program and
analyzes the research conducted through four questionnaires distributed to
the Spring 1995 participants. Chapter 4 presents the case study of #4 and
analyzes data collected during both her Wildcat Art and student teaching
experiences. Chapter 5 discusses the implications of the findings in Chapters
3 and 4 on preservice teacher education and makes recommendations for
change in the implementation and execution of future Wildcat Art sessions.

24
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF CURRENT LITERATURE
Organization of Chapter
This chapter is intended to provide a comprehensive look into the
research and literature that most directly relates to, influences or supports the
concerns of this inquiry into Saturday school art programs. The chapter
begins with a discussion on reform efforts for art teacher education. It then
presents a literature review in each of the four areas central to this inquiry.
These are: (1) Classroom Management; (2) Curriculum and Lesson Planning;
(3) Community Outreach and (4) Organizational Skills. Since this inquiry
focuses on the benefits of implementing a Saturday Youth Arts Program to
better prepare student teachers, a separate review was done on field
experiences. Finally, this review would not be complete if it did not also
discuss reflective teaching practices and various strategies for teaching art.
Through an examination of the research conducted in these areas, a better
understanding of the interests and concerns of this inquiry will be achieved.
Introduction
One goal of art education departments who are involved in teacher
training is to more effectively prepare their preservice teachers for the student
teaching component of their education. To ensure the quality of teacher
preparation programs, demands for reform have been voiced. Recently,
Hutchens (1995) organized a set of four propositions for improving teacher
preparation. These were: (1) the creation of a national association of

25
discipline-based art education programs; (2) stronger support for art education
in our university governing boards and our state departments of education
through "building a national corporate and governmental constituency for
art education reform efforts" (Hutchens, 1995, p. 15); (3) more field-based
research by faculty and doctoral students and (4) abolishment of departmental
elitism in Colleges of Fine Arts so that faculty from art education, art history
and studio collaborate, rather than isolate, their efforts to better prepare
preservice art teachers. Meeting these goals will position art teacher
preparation programs as a united front and help to overcome current
deficiencies in individual universities.
At a local level, art teacher educators within the institutions need to
develop collaborative relationships with in-service professionals in their
communities. These community-based relationships combined with
improved communication between faculty in the College of Fine Arts and the
College of Education could create expanded educational opportunities for
preservice art teachers. However, before beneficial changes can occur, all
those involved in the preparation of preservice art teachers need to come to a
consensus on "...whether or not the 'education' in art education is as
important as the 'art' in art education" (Champlin, 1995, p. 17). I believe
faculty members who educate, train and encourage our preservice teachers,
should bear in mind that "...teacher and education go hand-in-hand" when
making their decision (Champlin, 1995; p. 17).
Considering these requests for change, one role for art teacher
educators could be to provide students opportunities to combine their
knowledge in both art and education through course work offered specifically

26
in the practical application of educational theory. This does not mean to
imply that the addition of one or two methods courses into the curriculum
can solely accomplish all the challenges set forth in calls for reform.
However, supplemental courses, like Wildcat Art, can act as agents for change
in art teacher preparation programs.
To understand Wildcat Art's complex orientation and potential
rewards to The University of Arizona's preservice art education program, I
looked to the literature to discover what had been done in related areas. Due
to the relatively limited resource base in art education, I had to expand my
investigation to include literature in general education. This proved to be an
adequate source of information for my inquiry since many interests in
general education research are broad-based and inclusive of teaching in the
visual arts.
In this review I use research in general literature to provide
background and support in each content area, yet focus more specifically on
art education research when possible. As listed earlier, the seven subjects of
this review are: (1) Classroom Management; (2) Curriculum and Lesson
Planning; (3) Community Outreach; (4) Organizational Skills; (5) Field
Experiences; (6) Teacher Evaluation and (7) Strategies for Teaching Art.
While the literature often overlaps from one area to another, I emphasize
each as a separate unit in order to present a cohesive body of research.
Classroom Management
Many challenges present themselves to beginning teachers like those
enrolled in Wildcat Art, but their greatest is classroom management (Arends,

27
1991; Good and Brophy, 1987; Jones & Vesilind, 1995). This is because the
classroom environment is made up of a variety of complicated, immediate
and simultaneous interactions between the teacher, the students and
instructional materials in the room. The complexity of teaching is often
overwhelming for beginning teachers since their success and reputation as
teachers depends on their ability to control their environment (Jones &
Vesilind, 1995).
A study conducted by Ellingson (1991) examined how teacher educators
prepare their preservice teachers to meet the managerial demands of
teaching. Through her research, Ellingson determined that educating
preservice teachers about classroom management from a generic frame of
reference, rather than one that was discipline specific, did not make a
significant difference in their application of classroom management strategies
during student teaching.
In a related study, Stockrodd (1990) looked at six middle-school art
teachers to determine what kind of instruction dominated art education at
that level. While there were disparities among the teachers in the amount of
time they spent in managerial, appraisal and substantive instruction,
Stockrocki found that all six engaged in appraisal instruction the most.
Appraisal instruction is defined as a process of monitoring student
performance and give encouragement or suggestions for improvement
(Sevigny, in Stockrocki, 1990). The second highest form of instruction was
managerial in which teachers control both class functions and student
behavior (Stockrocki, 1990). Finally, the teaching of art content, substantive
instruction, was used the least.

28
While vast amounts of research have been conducted on classroom
management in general education, there is considerably less which is specific
to art education. However, many of the strategies and suggestions m ade in
general education are easily transferred to the specific needs of art teachers.
This section is focused on a discussion of both preventative techniques
teachers can employ to limit discipline issues in the classroom and proven
strategies for how to stop discipline issues once they have begun.
Preventive Techniques
Concerns about classroom management have prompted research on
how effective art educators organize their lessons and environments to limit
management issues (Araca, 1990; Susi, 1989,1990a, 1990b, 1996). Susi (1989,
1990a, 1990b, 1996) has focused his research on the physical setting of the
classroom. He (1990a) argued that because classroom environments are so
familiar they are often overlooked as a resource that is easily manipulated to
prevent potential problems. His studies on effective teachers' use of
classroom space found that effective teachers use their space to encourage
time on-task behavior. They did this by carefully planning their
environment, reviewing their expectations and reinforcing correct
procedures (Evertson, Emmer & Anderson; Evertson & Emmer in Susi, 1989).
When planning the organization of a classroom space, Susi (1990a)
encourages teachers to keep in mind that
much like the creation of a work of art, the layout of a classroom for a
given instructional function will most likely result from a process of
experimentation that involves an awareness of the environmental
variables involved, the behavior patterns of the students, and the
nature of the activity taking place.... Well planned classroom spaces

29
tend to be dynamic, fluid environments that move and change in
patterns that reflect the characteristics of a lesson (pp. 95 & 97).
However, no single layout will meet the needs of all aspects of an art lesson
(Susi, 1990a, 1990b). The teacher must find one that best meets his or her
instructional needs.
In a later work, Susi (1996) outlined six categories for improving
student behavior and overall classroom management. These were: (1)
thorough preparation for the school year; (2) careful planning of the
classroom space; (3) constant monitoring of student behavior; (4) catching
disruptions before they begin; (5) quickly eliminating disruptions when they
occur and (6) using a pre-planned approach when dealing with misbehavior.
Adherence to these guidelines can create behavior-minded teachers that
anticipate potential problems and stop them before they start (Susi, 1996).
General education research adds to this work on classroom space by
presenting preventive strategies that effective teachers use during instruction.
Preservice art teachers at The University of Arizona use the Arends (1991) text
Learning to Teach to learn about basic classroom management strategies and
research. Therefore, it seems pertinent to use this resource to identify the
preventive techniques Wildcat Art participants were familiar with and
knowledgeable about. Arends describes the following preventive strategies:
(1) Establish rules and procedures for student movement, student talk and
downtime; (2) teach the rules and make them routine; (3) pace lessons
appropriately and maintain momentum; (4) plan for the opening and closing
of class as well as transitions between activities; (5) use a cue or signaling

30
system to alert students of any changes in the activity and (6) promote student
accountability.9
Other issues that affect classroom discipline are consistent use of
positive reinforcement (Brophy & Good, 1987, Johnson, 1988a; Quick, 1993)
and motivation (Arends, 1991; Brophy & Good, 1987; Johnson, 1988a). Each
has its own set of strategies that when used correctly set up preventive
environments. Through recognizing and reinforcing students for their good
behavior, success on assignments and appropriate contributions to class
discussions, teachers can set up positive classroom climates where students
receive attention for their accomplishments rather than their inappropriate
"attention-getting" behaviors (Brophy & Good, 1987). However, Brophy and
Good warn that not all students are motivated by praise and that too much
positive reinforcement can create situations in which children are motivated
only if external rewards are promised. Another factor in the creation of
preventive environments relies on how teachers motivate their students to
engage in learning. Teachers can motivate students by creating activities that
ensure student success (Brophy & Good, 1987), varying the instructional
format or teaching environment (Brophy & Good, 1987; Quick, 1993) or
making the learning meaningful to students by relating it to their daily lives
(Brophy & Good, 1987; Johnson, 1988a).
Teacher attitudes can also create atmospheres that discourage
inappropriate behavior. To create preventive environments teachers must:
(1) respect and care for their students; (2) be consistent in their behavior so
that students see them as credible; (3) assume responsibility for their students’
9 For further definition of each strategy see Arends (1991), pp. 164-170.

31
knowledge acquisition; (4) value education and expect their students to feel
the same way and (5) communicate these beliefs to their students and model
them in their behavior (Brophy & Good, 1987).
Reactionary Strategies
Little has been written in art education regarding reactionary strategies
to managerial issues.10 Therefore, I shall rely on what I found in general
education research. Arends (1991) tackled issues of classroom management by
presenting a variety of research findings on effective teaching. "This line of
research [recitation] supports the image of the teacher as 'ringmaster' (Smith
& Geoffrey, 1968), involved in monitoring classes through the exhibition of
behaviors such as withitness [and] overlapping" (Jones & Vesilind, 1995, p.
314).11 Other reactionary strategies described by Arends (1991) are quick
response time to inappropriate behavior (Quick, 1993) and the enforcement of
logical consequences (Dreikurs in Arends, 1991). Arends also advocates
Evertson and Emmer's guidelines for managing inappropriate behavior: (1)
maintain eye contact with student until mis-behavior stops and appropriate
behavior returns; (2) remind the student of the correct behavior or rule and
have the student identify it as well and (3) impose the necessary consequences
consistently.
10 Reactionary is defined as teacher responses to behavior once it has begun.
11 In 1970, Kounin (cited in Arends) defined eight different variables that teachers exhibited
while managing groups. Two of these were: (1) withitness—the teacher's awareness of his or
her environment to the extent that he or she is able to catch misbehavior quickly and correctly
and (2) overlapping—the teacher’s ability to do more than one thing at a time (e.g. stopping
misbehavior without disrupting the lesson's momentum). For more information on Kounin’s
studies see: Kounin, J.S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

32
Brophy & Good (1987) recommend ignoring minor misbehavior. If it
becomes impossible to do so, then a teacher should maintain eye contact with
misbehaving student until he or she has understood the message. Another
strategy Brophy & Good advocate is touching the disruptive student's
shoulder and gesturing the appropriate behavior. Physical proximity is also
known to be effective in eliminating minor misbehavior, as is use of a
disruptive student's name during instruction to regain their attention
(Brophy & Good, 1987; Quick, 1993). Additionally, Quick (1993) warrants the
use of time-out and making a lesson out of the behavior as potential
solutions for minor problems.
In light of this research it is important to remember that while
preservice students may have knowledge of these studies and their finding,
they may not be able to recall them immediately. They need opportunities
which enable them to try different techniques in order to determine those
that work best for them (Quick, 1993). As the preservice art teachers in
Wildcat Art went through the program, their managerial repertoire grew
with their experience teaching and evaluating lessons.
Curriculum and Lesson Planning
The planning process as described in general education literature
focused on how to plan effective lessons, while research in art education
looked specifically at what to plan. Therefore, the review first looks broadly at
general education findings then narrows its focus to discipline-based art
education and its influence on instructional planning.

33
How Should Preservice Art Teachers Plan?
In the 1970’s Taylor12 (in Good & Brophy, 1987) found that when
experienced teachers planned their lessons they focused first on the lesson's
subject matter, then on the corresponding activities. Often their plans
neglected to include specific objectives or tools for evaluation. In a later
study, Borko and Niles (in Brophy & Good, 1987) found that preservice
teachers could learn from Taylor's findings. Borko and Niles concluded that
while experienced teachers may not need to, beginning teachers should write
comprehensive lesson plans which include thoughtful objectives and
multiple evaluation procedures in addition to content and related activities.
Comprehensive planning for inexperienced teachers has also been
recommended by Brophy and Good (1987). They found that initial planning
helps beginning teachers identify their goals and examine their thought
processes (Brophy and Good, 1987). Brophy and Good (1987) argue that over
planning is necessary since it provides preservice teachers a feeling of
confidence and builds a solid foundation for instruction.
What Should Preservice Art Teachers Plan?
Bemey (1990) stated that an art curriculum should reflect "the
importance of the fine arts to learning, the centrality of art to the
development of an individual's uniqueness within a unified society and the
disciplinary nature of the study of art" (Parrott dted in Bemey, 1990, p. 31).
These ideas correspond to the prevailing theory in art education known as
discipline-based art education or DBAE.
12 Taylor's studies also discovered that most teacher's planned around their pupil’s needs,
interests and abilities (cited in Good & Brophy, 1987).

34
Discipline-Based Art Education (DBAE)
In 1979, the National Art Education Association (NAEA) defined a
quality art teacher preparation program as one that stresses an appreciative
component, including criticism, a studio component and an art history
component (Rogers & Brogdon, 1990). These guidelines organized ideas that
had been surfacing in art education literature since the sixties. Five years after
the NAEA came out with its report, Greer (1984) wrote Discipline-Based Art
Education: Approaching Art as a Subject of Study. It was in this landm ark
work that Greer brought together art education's disparate ideas into a
coherent theory he titled discipline-based art education (DBAE).
A discipline-based approach to the organization of a visual arts
curriculum includes content from the disciplines of aesthetics, criticism, art
history, and production (Clark, Day and Greer, 1987; Greer, 1984). In a
discipline-based approach, "...the four disciplines are taught interactively to
build an increasingly developed understanding and enlightened appreciation
of works of art" (Greer, 1987, p. 227). As its premise,
discipline-based art education, as a part of general education, aims to
develop mature students who are comfortable and familiar with major
aspects of the disciplines of art and who are able to express ideas with
art media, who read about and criticize art, who are aware of art
history, and who have a basic understanding of issues in aesthetics.
The general goal of DBAE is a developed understanding of the visual
arts for all students (Clark, Day, & Greer, 1987, p. 138).
In a later article Greer (1987) briefly defined each discipline. He wrote
that study in aesthetics leads students to reflect on their "experiences and
understandings of art" (Greer, 1987, p. 229), while criticism examines the
meaning of works of art and makes value judgments based on those

35
conclusions. Art historical investigations encourage pupils to relate works of
art to larger historical, social and cultural phenomena. Finally, activities in
production allow students to develop their expressive skill in the various art
media.
Despite its accepted integration into preservice preparation programs
and professional practice, DBAE has met considerable resistance from scholars
in the field. Moorman (1989) summarized many of these criticisms in her
article The Great Art Education Debate, but specifically she raised questions
regarding DBAE's exclusion of non-western, decorative and folk arts and its
decidedly male outlook. In addition, Moorman brought forth an argument
originated by Philip Yenawine against aesthetic scanning, a largely advocated
approach to teaching the discipline of art criticism. Yenawine argued that
"you can scan a Constable, but you can't scan Islamic art—or any of the
decorative traditions. And a term like 'expressive qualities' is not very useful
if you're talking about a Botticelli or any art which has nothing to do with
personal expression" (dted in Moorman, 1989, p. 130).
In response to these and other attacks aimed at DBAE, its original
premise has altered considerably since its first definition by Greer (1984).
DBAE now: seems to define art more broadly, includes art of other
cultures, seems to no longer promote only the 100 canons of art made
by dead white Euro-American makes, seems to embrace the 'popular
arts' as worthy of serious consideration, no longer equates aesthetics
with aesthetic experiences and responses, realizes the limitations of
aesthetic scanning, acknowledges that art has social content as well as
form, and is tolerant of contributions of feminist scholars.
(Greer, 1987, p. 94).

36
DBAE: Effects on Teacher Training
With the development of a new paradigm for art education, the former
philosophy for teaching art has gradually disbanded. Over the past ten years,
DBAE has established itself as the dominant theory in the field. This has
persuaded colleges and universities to re-evaluate their teacher preparation
curriculum to include the tenets of DBAE (Feinstein, 1989; Rogers & Brogdon,
1990). They have had to add courses in aesthetics and criticism, as well as
expand their art history and studio offerings to ensure that their preservice
teachers will have the knowledge necessary to enforce a discipline-based
curriculum in their schools.
A discipline-based curriculum in higher education has proved to be a
duel challenge for institutions in that (1) colleges and universities must re
structure their programs to find time, funding, and knowledgeable faculty to
teach courses in each of the four disciplines and (2) those courses must offer
both content and teaching strategies specific to that discipline. Feinstein
(1989) best describes the complexities of the latter in her statement "we cannot
presume that students can take a course in aesthetics, for example, and by
themselves figure out how to teach it to youngsters" (p. 8).
If we assume that institutions can meet these conditions, then it seems
necessary to provide students an opportunity to put their knowledge into
practice. Even though the discipline-based theory is well established in
higher education, it has yet to become the dominant practice in public
schools. Part of this problem may lie in preservice teachers' assumptions
about what art looks like in the classroom. Another contributor may be that
up until the current decade the curriculum of most fine art departments was

37
dictated by a "creative self-expression" approach to art education (Clark, Day &
Greer, 1987). This theory, fueled by modernist ideology, placed its emphasis
on activities which develop a child's assumed inherent creativity (Clark, Day
& Greer, 1987).
The remnants of a creative self-expression based curriculum can still
be seen in that many preservice programs in art education focus the bulk of
certification and degree requirements on broad based studio experiences with
intense study in two or three studio areas. With much of their own art
education from a creative self-expression model, many preservice teachers
attain their assumptions of how to teach art based on their experiences
learning art (Hutchens, 1995). These assumed ideals remain intact even after
courses in art education theory and pedagogical practices. To meet this
challenge, Galbraith (1995b) suggests that institutions find ways to develop
within preservice teachers an image of what art teaching looks like.
Implementation of a program like Wildcat Art into the curriculum may be a
viable solution.
Community Outreach
Saturday Art Schools
Saturday art schools have a substantial history. Their early origins
began in Canada with Arthur Lismer’s Halifax Saturday School of the 1880’s
and the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design which conducted Saturday
Morning Art Classes for Children from 1932 through the present day (Pearse
& Soucy, 1987). Traditionally, Saturday arts schools served two purposes,

38
these were: (1) to provide art programs for children and (2) to create an
opportunity for preservice teachers to practice teaching (Pearse & Soucy, 1987).
In fitting with tradition, contemporary Saturday schools provide
specific benefits not only to the community members involved, but also to
the art education students that teach them. First, they help university
students ’'become familiar with the challenges of teaching art in the public
schools" through dialogue with peers and careful observation (Arnold, 1994,
p. 50). Secondly, they enable preservice art teachers to recognize that children
are "unique beings" who respond to situations in a variety of ways (Ryder,
1994). Finally, working with the community encourages preservice teachers
to "bridge the gap between the schools [the university] and the community at
large by finding, restoring and using those bridges that are there" (Boyer, cited
in Arnold, 1994, p. 51).
While many universities claim Saturday arts programs in their
preservice art education curriculum (Zimmerman, 1994a), very little has been
written on how these programs are constructed within in their respective
communities. To meet community needs, Saturday schools seem to build
programs for one of three community populations: (1) disadvantaged or
educationally challenged students (Pisano, 1974; Ryder, 1994); (2) gifted and
talented youth (Clark & Zimmerman, 1987; Feldhusen & Sokol, 1982;
Gregory, 1982) or (3) a combination of the two (Arnold, 1994; Walker, 1980).
Wildcat Art best fits into the third category, though it could be argued that it is
oriented more towards a gifted and talented population than not.
Cooperative community relationships between students in university
and students in the public schools can also help build support for the arts as a

39
part of a basic education. Walker observed that "The joy of discovery and the
challenge of problem solving contributed effectively to [the youth's] overall
experiences and, if but for a little while, art was as im portant, involving and
as basic as any other subject available in the educational arena (Walker, 1980,
p. 69). If students leave supplemental programs with excitement and
renewed interests art learning, their parents may become inspired by their
child's wonder and curiosity and become advocates for arts in the schools. In-
service art specialists could potentially feed off of this excitement and use it to
promote community support for their own programs.
Advocacy
An omnipresent need in art education is one of public support for
visual arts education as a necessary component of our children's basic
education. Advocacy is considered to be the best weapon art teachers can use
to fight the marginality of the arts in education. As practicing art specialists,
preservice teachers will have to constantly battle a public who sees art
education as unnecessary or ornamental (Eisner, 1987). To face these
challenges and win, they need to be taught community building strategies
which will help them justify their programs to students, their parents and
community members. While those traditionally in the arts are usually
unwilling to lobby for change, McGoff (1988) argues that art teachers have a
professional responsibility to be vocal advocates for art education in the
schools.
Advocacy art education can be done in a variety of ways. Some small-
scale ideas involve the organization of student displays, participation in

40
community exhibitions, formulation of monthly art newsletters which
discuss program goals and the organization of a art support group that is
made up of interested parents who are willing to be educated about the visual
arts' role in education. These kinds of small-scale advocacy projects can
provide art specialists tremendous community support when it comes time
for the school board to determine what programs need to be cut or
substantially reduced. If art teachers work hard to involve students, parents
and the community into their programs, they are far less likely to be
eliminated when budgets are limited.
Colleges and universities need to prepare preservice art teachers for
these ongoing challenges by providing them the tools and the knowledge to
be leaders in their schools and school districts (Degge, 1987; Dunn, 1992). One
way to do this is to provide opportunities for them to work with and meet
parents and community members through outreach programs. These kinds
of experiences often prove to be beneficial for all involved. There is a large
demand in communities for art instruction (Degge, 1987). While much of the
need is for adult art instruction, there is significant community interest in
similar programs for youth. It was in response to both a community need
and an educational one that The University of Arizona organized and
implemented the Wildcat Art Saturday Youth Arts Program.
Organizational Skills
Time has become an increasing dilemma in art education (McGoff,
1988). Time, or more specifically, lack of time for teaching the visual arts is a
result of the diminutive value that is placed on it by society. Eisner (1987)

41
provided a possible reason for the minimal attention the arts receive in
general education when he stated that "intellect is regarded as something that
is best cultivated through subjects like mathematics and physics... since the
school's first obligations are to cultivate intellect, and since the arts are
believed to deal with emotions, the arts in this view are ornamental" (p. 11).
This results in the perception of art as "fun", and separate from those
activities which require cognitive exercise.
Because of the limited time art educators have to teach the visual arts
to their pupils, it should be viewed as a precious commodity and used
effectively. Time based research is complex in that it describes many items
ranging from student specific behaviors like engaged time or time-on-task, to
teacher controlled issues like planned time, procedural time, or allocated
time.13 Time effectiveness is directly related to issues of teacher effectiveness
in that the teacher must have a good grasp on the needs of his or her
students, be aware of environmental conditions which could effect the
lesson's outcomes, have sound management structures and utilize relevant
activities that engage students in their learning (Arends, 1991).
Specific research in art education on time organization and teaching
effectiveness confirmed that two out of the four variables that influence
quality of instruction are organizationally specific (Johnson, 1989). These
were the planning component and the presentation sequence. Johnson
described the planning component as the activity a teacher engages in when
focusing on the main concepts of the lesson. During this time they need to
find diverse ways to provide students explanations and invent innovative
13 For further description, please see Arends (1991), p. 70.

42
activities with which guide them through the new material. Similarly, the
planning component involved thought on how to help students construct
their own knowledge of the material. When sequencing lessons, Johnson
advocated that teachers revisit prior learning and relate its usefulness to the
acquisition of new knowledge or skills. Her research verified that careful
planning involves "the organization of information into a coherent
sequence, the use of an adequate number of illustrations or examples,
precision and concreteness of expression, keeping in touch with students'
comprehension and providing enough practice to ensure mastery" (Evertson,
Emmer, Clements, Sanford and Worsham, dted in Johnson, 1989, np).
Also important to this study is the organization of the curriculum
structure to include the four disciplines. Eisner (1987) presented four possible
curricular structures for the organization of discipline-based content in an
elementary classroom. These were: (1) setting aside a set time each week for
instruction in a particular discipline; (2) designing an integrated structure
which combines art with another subject; (3) creating areas in the school or
classroom where students can engage on independent projects which develop
their knowledge in art and (4) a combination of the first three structures.
Other possible structures for the organization of the disciplines have
been described by Erickson and Katter (1988). These were: (1) co-equity—each
discipline is taught separately from the others; (2) assimilation—components
lose their individual identity and become fragmented and (3) amalgamation
or consolidation—"components work together in a variety of emphases, all
the while maintaining their individual identities" (np).

43
For most beginning teachers it is both a blessing and a curse that there
is no set recipe for discipline-based instruction. Decisions like how much
time to devote to each discipline, in which order should the disciplines be
taught, and how much emphasis to place on the disciplines at each grade
level is left up to the teacher's professional judgment (Eisner, 1987). Based on
my own experience, discipline-based instruction in the secondary schools is
most often organized in a structure similar to Erickson and Katter's
assimilation model (1988). It was also the most used organizational method
of the Wildcat Art participants at all three grade levels.
Field Experiences
Early field experiences of preservice art teachers at The University of
Arizona consisted of one semester of self-directed classroom observations as
well as "simulated field experiences" in the form of interactive video-discs14.
The Wildcat Art experience seeks to integrate theory with practical
experiences to "improve new teacher's understanding of themselves, their
role as educators and their understanding of classroom pedagogy and
children" (McDermott, Gormley, Rothenberg & Hammer, 1995, p. 185). It
attempts to foster growth in the preservice teachers' decision-making skills
and their reflective thought on those decisions, as well as help them make
the cognitive jump from student to teacher. Oppewal (1993) has suggested
that these kinds of early experiences develop preservice teachers' pedagogical
expertise before they enter student teaching.
14 See Galbraith (1993) for a full description of interactive video-disc instruction.

44
Research states that teacher education programs may be more beneficial
to preservice students if they integrate their methods courses with actual
classroom teaching (Goodlad; Holmes Group; Meade; in McDermott,
Gormley, Rothenberg & Hammer, 1995). Oppewal (1993) indicated that field
experiences where preservice students act as teachers may be more beneficial
to their development as teachers than those that are purely observational in
orientation. Likewise, Zimmerman (1994b) concluded that "preservice art
teachers are well served by engaging in concrete situations in which art
teaching and learning take place" (p. 65).
Student Teaching
While field experiences are accepted as beneficial to teacher preparation
programs, there is a deep rooted concern that the educational knowledge
provided in university course work becomes obsolete once students leave the
domain of their teacher training institutions. "The student teaching
experience, in many cases, most probably marks and represents not only the
physical separation of preservice teachers from their art teacher education, but
also their intellectual detachment as well" (Galbraith, 1993, p. 9).
The new influential factor in a preservice teacher’s education becomes
his or her cooperating teacher. Research indicates that student teachers
quickly match the behaviors, practices and expectations of their cooperating
teachers (Jeffers, 1993). Jeffers studied the "mimicking" tendencies of student
teachers and found that student teachers learn in one of two ways. The first
learning behavior, the conformist, occurs when students are limited in their
growth as teachers by external factors like school expectations. To conform,

45
student teachers accept the ideas and practices of their cooperating teachers as
truths and do not question or make professional observations about their
ideas or practices. Conformity, therefore, provides a narrowly developed
pedagogical knowledge. The second learning behavior, the imitative, is
similar to the first because mimicking behaviors are still apparent. However,
the student teachers do not blindly accepting their cooperating teachers’
beliefs and practices as perfect. Rather, they pride themselves in their ability
to fool themselves and others that they are actually teaching. The imitation
process allows them to step back away from their role-playing to analyze and
"make professional judgments about their practice as they make finer and
finer discriminations about what is real or essential and what is not" (Jeffers,
1993, p. 90).
Looking at these two models of learning to teach, it is easy to
understand why teacher educators would be concerned with their reduced
role in preservice teachers' development. If the preservice art teacher is
placed with a cooperating teacher who is not sympathetic to the goals of
discipline-based art education, as is often the case (Byrne, 1995), this situation
becomes even more disturbing. Thus, the question for teacher educators
becomes one that investigates how they can make their university classes
more meaningful to beginning teachers.
Winitzky and Kauchak (1995) proposed an intriguing and insightful
explanation for why this phenomenon occurs. They described a theory of
skill learning first originated by Anderson, entitled ACT* for Adaptive
Character of Thought (cited in Winitzky & Kauchak, 1995). The ACT* theory
is based on two kinds of knowledge: (1) declarative knowledge which

46
involves an understanding of facts and concepts and (2) procedural
knowledge which is composed of specific plans of action for performing
specific goal achieving skills.
"When confronted with a novel problem, the learner integrates
relevant declarative with procedural knowledge in a holding area
called working memory. The learner then executes some action, and
receives feedback on this action. This feedback is used to revise what is
stored in memory" (dted in Winitzky & Kauchak, 1995, p. 221).
This process occurs each time the learner encounters a new problem and thus
transforms knowledge into script that reads like an "if-then" statement. If a
certain situation occurs, then a specific action is executed.
As the learner develops his or her own procedural knowledge,
fragmented segments of declarative knowledge compile into a "single
production that does the work of the sequence" (cited in Winitzky &
Kauchak, 1995, p. 221). This becomes a defining factor as to why most
professionals contribute their learning development to their experiences in
the field. Winitzky and Kauchak use Anderson's theory to describe the
notion that students learn how to teach from solving problems in the field.
Because classroom problem-solving experiences lead to integrating
declarative knowledge into [procedures], it is no longer necessary to
consciously retrieve this information...Consequently teacher candidates
forget that they ever had this separate store of knowledge, and they
loose awareness of its import (cited in Winitzky & Kauchak, 1995, p.
223).
Declarative knowledge becomes subsumed into procedural knowledge
and becomes unconscious. Teachers literally don't remember ever having
learned it in the first place. This understanding of knowledge acquisition
provides a foundation for the expansion of field-based opportunities within

47
the university. If problem-solving experiences are combined with a feedback
component within the university classroom, teachers my come to value their
university education more highly.
Therefore, when evaluating our programs, it is essential to ask "do we
provide opportunities for our preservice clientele to think and act like art
teachers?" (Galbraith, 1990, p. 52). Field experiences can "lay the groundwork
for student teaching by providing opportunities for prospective teachers to
acquaint themselves with the classroom from a teacher's perspective, and to
begin to develop and integrate schemata for teaching by studying the teaching
of others" (Livingston & Borko, 1989, p. 41).
Reflective Teaching
An important aspect of the Wildcat Art program that has not before
been mentioned is that it attempts to teach preservice teachers to analyze
their own teaching and discover other alternatives to pedagogical problems.
This practice is called reflective teaching and has become somewhat of an
educational buzzword in recent years. While it is sometimes linked to
leadership (Zeichner & Liston, 1987) its purpose in the Wildcat Art program is
to help preservice teachers look "within themselves to clarify instructional
intentions, examine assumptions that underlie expectations, and consider the
personal sensitivities necessary for productive interaction with youngsters"
(Susi, 1995, p. 112).
Methods used to develop these characteristics in Wildcat Art's
preservice teachers were journal writing and post-observation conferences.
Reflective journals have been proven to help preservice art teachers learn

48
about "what they know, how they feel, what they do, and how they do it"
(Yinger & Clark in Zimmerman, 1994b, p. 60). The other technique used,
post-observational conferences, was conducted as soon after the teaching
experience as possible. While the conferences did use evaluative language
from Hunter's (1982) Mastery Teaching, they also focused on questions that
engaged students in reflective thought and self evaluation. In his research on
higher order reflection among novice teachers, Pultorak (1993) presented a list
of reflective analysis questions. These questions are good indicators of the
types of reflective questions asked during post-observational conferences:
(a) What were the essential strengths of the lesson? (b) What, if
anything, would you change about the lesson? (c) Do you think the
lesson was successful? Why?.... (f) Can you think of another way you
might have taught the lesson?... (h) Do you think the content covered
was important to the students? Why? (Pultorak, 1993, p. 290)
Through this kind of reflective discussion, Students examined their personal
behaviors, their solutions to instructional problems and their teaching
decisions (Susi, 1995).
Strategies for Teaching Art
My inquiry into this area focuses on the question "How do art teacher
teach their content effectively?" Since the skills and instructional models for
production are somewhat obvious, I have chosen to answer this question in
relation to the disciplines of aesthetics, criticism and art history. Presented
here are brief descriptions of what is important to teach for each of these
disciplines as well as strategies for teaching activities. I have also included a
brief section on Madeline Hunter's Essential Elements of Instruction for
effective teaching since this was the instructional method university students
used to evaluate teaching.

49
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is often considered to be the most difficult of the four
disciplines to teach because art teacher have little or no knowledge of it or
experiences with it (Hagaman, 1990). "Hamblen (1987) and others have noted,
it is unclear what sort of aesthetics is called for in a discipline-based approach
to art education. The term 'aesthetics' may refer to a variety of things..."
(Hagaman, 1988, p. 19). However, it is most often defined as the philosophy
of art which investigates its nature and values. Aesthetics is a necessary
component of students’ art education for three reasons:
(1) So that they will come to understand the nature of philosophical
inquiry as it relates to their own thinking and the thinking and
writing of others.
(2) So that they might learn the skills involved to engage in
philosophical inquiry.
(3) So that they might find pleasure and fulfillment in engaging in
philosophical inquiry and appreciate the value of philosophical
inquiry (Stewart, nd).
There are a variety of innovative techniques teachers can use to teach
aesthetics in the classroom. Hagaman (1990) presented inventive puzzles as a
way of engaging students in lively discussions about the nature of art.
Puzzles present cases where perplexing issues about the natures and values of
art are investigated through student discussion. An example is: "the Louvre
is on fire. You can save either the Mona Lisa or the guard who stands next to
it, but not both. What do you do?" (Hagaman, 1990, np). Another example
describes "Ruby, an elephant in the Phoenix zoo, who paints, creating colorful
abstract works of art (Lankford, 1988). Is Ruby an artist? Is w hat she makes
art?" (Hagaman, 1990, np).

50
To involve students in philosophical inquiry Stewart (nd)
recommends: encouraging students to ask aesthetic questions and write
about them in journals, designating class time for discussions about aesthetic
issues or engaging students in "great debates" where students argue a
situation from differing stances. Another activity is the In-Out-Maybe game
which requires students to determine if an object is art, is not art or might be
art. This enables students to examine their own assumptions about the
nature of art. All of these activities are starting points from which teachers
can develop their students' ability to think philosophically about art.
Criticism
Instruction in criticism can create within students an understanding of
the meaning and significance of works of art. Critical inquiry helps to
develop critical thinkers who are able to synthesize and analyze art concepts.
Tollifson (1990) described the four components of art criticism as: (1) a formal
description of the work; (2) an analysis of the way the properties are
organized; (3) an interpretation of the work's mood and meaning and (4) a
value judgment of the artwork. Often these are put together in an activity
described earlier, aesthetic scanning. This activity involves students in a
discussion about the art object's formal properties. It is a useful technique for
encouraging student talk about works of art. Other creative teaching
strategies for criticism are games like "three card draw, 20 questions, art bingo
and art on trial" (Tollifson, 1990, np).

51
Art History
Instruction in art history should be based on content in four areas:
"attribution (where, when, and by whom was a work made), iconography
(what symbols are present and what do they mean), provenance (what is the
history of the work itself) and function (the purpose for which the work was
made)" (Greer, 1987, p. 31). This information needs to be structured in a way
that makes it relevant to students (Dake 1995). To do this, Dake (1995)
suggested that teachers discuss the essence of works of art not their surface
qualities. Dake defines the essence of artworks as the political, economic and
social constructs within which the artist lived and created. This kind of
investigation and individualization of the artist and artworks can foster
within students lifelong relationships with art.
Parks (1994) outlined three approaches that teachers could use to
organize their lessons. These were: (1) the traditional or positivist approach
which requires objective observation of the artwork to produce facts; (2) the
idealist approach, including thematic, sociological and anthropological
approaches, which seeks to understand the contexts and meaning of art
objects and (3) the instrumentalist approach which uses art history as a tool
for studio. Rather than using only one of these methodologies, Parks
advocated a combination of all three. "Thematic approaches can be the
'hook' or motivation than grabs the interests of the students. Idealist
concerns like cultural or historical context, make the lessons meaningful,
while accompanying studio activities will reinforce the concepts being
taught" (Parks, 1994, p. 81). This kind of integrated approach can provide
comprehensive art historical experiences for students.

52
Essential Elements of Instruction (EEI)
Mastery Teaching or EEI was developed by Madeline Hunter as an
instructional format which identified a list of teaching behaviors that are
considered effective, It is based on "...the premise that the teacher can use the
principals of learning to accelerate student achievement, and that good
teaching consists of very specific teacher behavior" (Johnson, 1988a, np).
Hunter indicated four elements for effective instruction. These were: (1)
select an objective at the correct level of difficulty for students; (2) teach to the
objective; (3) use principals of learning to facilitate the learning of students
and (4) monitor the students and adjust the teaching.
Hunter and Gee (1988) stated that teachers should begin lessons with an
anticipatory set. This sets the stage for the learning. Secondly, the teacher
should deliver the content to be taught clearly and teachers should check
their students for understanding through either overt or covert active
participation. The teacher should then encourage the student to practice the
information taught to make sure the student can execute the task with a
degree of success. When this has happened, the student can engage in
independent practice which helps students "...to develop automaticity,
accuracy, and increasing creativity and artistry without the guidance of a
teacher" (Hunter & Gee, 1988, np).
Summary of the Literature
Preservice art teacher education had been under scrutiny since the
advent of DBAE. Questions have been raised as to how institutions can best
educate their students for their student teaching experiences as well as their

53
professional careers. The University of Arizona attempted to improve their
students' preservice education with the implementation of the Wildcat Art
Saturday Youth Arts Program. This investigation into the nature of that
program looked into the following areas of related literature: (1) Classroom
Management; (2) Curriculum and Lesson Planning; (3) Community
Outreach; (4) Organizational Skills; (5) Field Experiences; (6) Reflective
Teaching and (7) Strategies for Teaching Art.
One of preservice teachers' greatest challenges is classroom
management. Research has proven that a generic approach to classroom
management strategies is as effective as one that is discipline specific
(Ellingson, 1991). Further, preventive approaches to classroom management,
especially those dealing with spatial organization and preliminary and
extensive planning are more effective than reactionary techniques which
focus on stopping desist behavior once it has begun.
Preservice art teachers must include both clearly stated objectives and
outlined evaluation procedures in their lesson plans to have a solid
foundation for their instruction. In regard to content, curricula should
include sequential instruction in each of the four disciplines of aesthetics, art
history, criticism and studio. This discipline-based approach is necessary for
youth to develop a comprehensive understanding and appreciation of the
visual arts. Since there is no prescribed formula for how to teach a discipline-
based lesson, there are numerous theories for how the disciplines are best
taught. These options were discussed herein as well as possible strategies for
teaching the disciplines of aesthetics, art history and criticism.

54
Other attributes of effective teachers are their organizational
characteristics and the extent of their community outreach. Decisions on how
much time to devote to each discipline, in which order should the disciplines
be taught and how much emphasis to place on each one is left up to the
teacher's professional judgment (Eisner, 1987). To fight the marginality of art
in the general curriculum, both in-service and preservice art teachers must
accept their role as art advocates by instigating small-scale advocacy projects.
Preservice students need field experiences to form images of what
discipline-based art instruction looks like. Research shows that education
programs that combine methods courses with actual teaching are more
effective in preparing preservice teachers than those that do not. It has been
an issue in higher education that field experiences, specifically student
teaching are often considered to be more valuable by professionals than their
preservice course work. This may be attributed to Anderson’s ACT* theory
which describes the cognitive development necessary for teachers to gain
practical knowledge.
Finally, engaging preservice teachers in reflective thought can help
preservice teachers to analyze their own teaching and discover other
alternatives to pedagogical problems. When combined, these seven elements
contribute to provide a comprehensive look into the research and literature
that most directly relates to, influences or supports the concerns of this
inquiry into Saturday school art programs.

55
CHAPTER 3
THE 1995 WILDCAT ART EXPERIENCE
Organization of the Chapter
This chapter discusses the findings of research conducted on the
Wildcat Art participants during the Spring semester of 1995. This chapter first
describes my research methodology on this, the first of two studies I
conducted on the Wildcat Art program. It then describes the Wildcat Art
Saturday Youth Arts Program in detail, beginning with the preparatory
weeks, continuing into the daily running of the lab school and ending with
the final student art exhibition. While the description is an accurate record of
the activities of the 1995 program, it does not provide a complete record of all
that took place during the lab school.
The chapter then goes on to present information discovered through
four questionnaires distributed both prior to the experience and after the
program's completion. The general study, described here, discusses the
preconceptions, concerns and suggestions of the sixteen university students
enrolled in the program during that semester and offers conclusions based on
the collected data.
Introduction
Wildcat Art, currently preparing for its fourth year as a part of The
University of Arizona's Art Education program, has undergone a variety of
changes since its inception. Changes have occurred as a result of
recommendations made by the university students enrolled in the course at

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