Law of inheritance

1. Molecular Basis of Inheritance
1. The DNA
2. The Search for Genetic Material
3. RNA World
4. Replication
5. Transcription
6. Genetic Code
7. Translation
8. Regulation of Gene Expression
9. Human Genome project
10. DNA Fingerprinting

2. 2 nucleic acids
Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
most organisms.
messenger(mostly)
adapter
structural
catalytic molecule
living systems
Ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
Genetic material
some viruses
Genetic material
Other
functions also
÷ :
-

3. The DNA
long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides
bacteriophage ×174 5386 nucleotides
Bacteriophage lambda 48502 (bp)
Escherichia coli 4.6 x 10 bp
human DNA 3.3 x 10 bp (haploid)
human DNA
no. of nucleotides
Depends
6.6 x 10 bp (diploid)
v
a
=
,
: :

4. Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
Purines (Ade!ne, Gua!ne)
Pyri"dines (Cytosine, Thy"ne,
Uracil,)
De#yribose
DNA
RNA
Ribose RNA
DNA
RNA structure DNA structure
Nucleo$de
> ^
✓
sooooo -3gal

5. OH of 1'C
N-glycosidic linkage
Eg.
adenosine deoxyadenosine,
guanosine deoxyguanosine,
cytidine. deoxycytidine
uridine. deoxythymidine
OH of 5'C
phosphoester linkage
Nucleo$de
Nucleoside
RNA DNA
÷
✓
↓
,

6. Dinucleo$de 2 nucleotides linked
3'-5' phosphodiester linkage
gggggqg
→ "

7. More nucleotides
polynucleotide chain
polynucleotide chain formation
free phosphate moiety at 5'-end of sugar
free sugar OH of 3'C group
sugar + phosphates = backbone
nitrogenous bases
linked
✓
.
:

8. In RNA
every nucleotide (additional -OH group) at 2'-position
uracil in place of thymine
(5-methyl uracil, another
chemical name for thymine).
DNA
RNA

9. Friedrich Meischer (1869)
DNA acidic
Nucleus
'Nuclein'
Can’t isolate
DNA structure
unknown
James Watson & Francis Crick (1953)
X-ray diffraction data
Maurice Wilkins &
Rosalind Franklin
DNA structure
D%ble Hel& model
Based on
by
proposed
Hallmark
base pairing proposition b/w 2 strands of polynucleotide
↓
→
↳
I

10. Erwin Chargaff
Adenine & Thymine Guanine & Cytosine
b/w
Ratios ( constant & equals)
base pairing sequence base pairing sequence
1 strand
2nd strand
Known Predictable
complementary
Bcz
genetic implication became revolutionary
DNA bases proposition
No. Of purines = no. Of pyrimidine
V v
↓ ↓ ↓
↓
↓
↓
b

11. Parental DNA
"
As (template) Daughter DNA
identical (parental DNA)
synthesis
v

12. Figure 6.2 Double stranded polynucleotide chain
A=T
G C
T=A
C G

13. 1) 2 polynucleotide chains,( sugar,phosphate, bases)
2) anti-parallel polarity .one 5'->3', other 3'->5'.
3) hydrogen bond b/w bases
4) Two chains coiled right handed
pitch of helix (3.4 nm)
each turn (10 bp)
distance b/w bp (0.34 nm)
5) Stability of helical
H-bonds
one base pair
stacks over other
DNA salient features
.

14. Figure 6.3 DNA double helix

15. Francis Crick
Central dogma
proposed
(genetic information flows)
some viruses
reverse transcription (RNA to DNA)
:

16. length of DNA 1.36 mm,
No.of bp 4.6 x 10
E. coli
Packaging of DNA prokaryotes
No defined nucleus
DNA not scattered
DNA [-]with some proteins (+) as 'nucleoid'
DNA in nucleoid
large loops
by proteins
nucleoid
>
,
-6
Haqq
Mariana
Mok
Mama

17. packaging of DNA Eukaryotes
nucleus (10 m)
6.6 x 10 bp × 0.34 × 10 m/bp
total no. of bp distance b/w 2 bp
DNA
"
2.2 metres
2oo bp DNA [-] with histones octamer (+)
nucleosome
r
v
÷

18. basic proteins histones [+]
rich in basic amino acid residues
Figure 6.4b EM picture - 'Beads-on-String
lysine & arginine
✓
a

19. Repeated nucleosomes in
chromatin
chromatin, thread- like stained
Mmmmm
BppE•

20. (metaphase stage)
chromosomes
Euchr!a"n Heterochr!a"n
loosely packed densely packed
transcriptionally
active
transcriptionally
inactive
chromatin packaging at higher level
(NHC) proteins
requires
oak

21. The Search for Genetic Material
Meischer Mendel
discovery of
nuclein
principles of
inheritance
same !me
DNA (genetic material) took long discovered & proven
By 1926 genetic inheritance reached molecular level
narrowed search
chromosomes in
nucleus
Gregor Mendel,
Walter Sutton,
Thomas Hunt Morgan
& other scientists
Previous discoveries
:

22. Transforming Principle
Frederick Griffith, 1928 Streptococcus pneumonia

23. Oswald Avery, MacCleod, & McCarty
decided to find out
transforming principle
(something in S cells)
Can trans"rm
R cells into S cells
but WHAT IS IT?
(1933-44)
Thought protein (genetic material)
proteins, DNA, RNA, from heat-killed S cells
transform live R cells into S cells.
To see
°

24. They concluded DNA is hereditary material, but not all biologists convinced.

25. The Genetic Material is DNA
Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase (1952)
Bacteriophages
whether it protein or DNA from viruses entered bacteria ???………….
Experiment 1: Testing Proteins
Phage grown with
radioactive sulfur
Centrifuge
Radioactivity in
supernatant
No radioactivity
enters cells
Protein coats
radio labeled
C#clusi#: Proteins are not gene!c material
E.coli Bacteria
infected

26. Experiment 2: Testing DNA
Phage grown with
radioactive
phosphorus
Centrifuge Radioactivity in
Pellet
radioactivity
enters cells
Phage DNA
radio labeled
E.coli Bacteria
infected
C#clusi#: DNA gene!c material
Finally Debate ended
proteins DNA
Hershey-Chase experiment
:

27. Figure 6.5 The Hershey-Chase experiment

28. Properties of Genetic Material (DNA RNA)
RNA genetic material
(Eg, Tobacco Mosaic viruses, QB bacteriophage, etc.)
Also
As messenger & adapter etc
DNA predominant genetic material
DNA more stable storage of
RNA better transmission of
Genetic information
j

29. RNA
DNA
Genetic material
must fulfill
Replication
Yes Yes
stable chemically &
structurally
structurally more stable
chemically less reactive chemically More reactive
structurally less stable
2'-OH
thymine more stability uracil less stability
slow mutation for
evolution
faster rate
Slower rate
express in form of
'Mendelian Characters'
DNA RNA proteins RNA proteins
easily express
Depend on RNA
>

30. RNA World
RNA first genetic material
Evolved around RNA
metabolism, translation, splicing, etc.
RNA as catalyst
E$en!al Life proce$es
DNA
"
evolved from RNA
chemical modifications (more stable)
double stranded (resists changes)
evolving process of repair
with
A-

31. Replication
Watson & Crick
double helical structure for DNA
immediately
DNA replication
Figure 6.6 Watson-Crick model for semiconservative DNA replication
2 strands
separate
template
one parental &
2nd newly synthesised strand.
"It has not escaped our notice that the
specific pairing we have postulated
immediately suggests a possible copying
mechanism for the geneticmaterial"
(Watson and Crick, 1953).
Orginal Quote

32. The Experimental Proof
Matthew Meselson & Franklin Stahl (1958)
not radioac!ve isotope
Escherichia coli
as #ly %trogen s&rce "r many genera!#s
15N heavy
15NH4CL 14NH4Cl
Mahboob
÷

33. Meselson & Stahl's Experiment

34. similar experiments (radioactive thymidine)
Vicia faba (faba beans)
Taylor & colleagues (1958)
DNA in chromosomes also replicate semiconservatively
Proved

35. DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
The Machinery & the Enzymes
use DNA template
2000 bp
per sec
4.6× 10 bp
E. coli
fast &accurate
E. coli replication
18 min
Any mistake (mutations)
DNA
replication
DNA
At origin of
replication
¥hf↓µ→
•

36. Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates
( DNTP)
polymerisation reaction
energy
substrates
For
Gives
In eukaryotes
DNA replication cell division cycle
coordinated
If
failure
polyploidy
S-phase
A

37. Transcription
Replication
DNA DNA
DNA
Transcription
Single strand
RNA
D&ble strands
Copied
Copied
codes for 2
diff proteins
dsRNA
Can’t translate
Why not double strand ?
ATGC AUGC
v

38. Transcription Unit in DNA
1) Promoter
2) Structural gene
3) Terminator
DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
DNA
3'-ATGCATGCATGCATGCATGCATGC-5' Template Strand
5'-TACGTACGTACGTACGTACGTACG-3' Coding Strand
3'-end (downstream)
5'end (upstream)
Can you now write sequence of RNA transcribed from above DNA?
But no coding
.

39. Transcription Unit and the Gene
functional unit of inheritance
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
split
Unsplit
Segment of DNA
Gene
All cistron are proteins
Not all proteins are cistron
(Express RNA)
✓
i

40. Types of RNA and the process of Transcription
Provide template brings aminoacids &
reads genetic code
structural & catalytic role
during translation.
1 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
transcription
Bacteria
¥

41. RNA polymerases
elongation
initiation. Factor
termination Factor
associates transiently
catalysing
Only
Initiates
Terminates
uses
substrate
nucleoside triphosphates
As
v
f)
I >
j

42. many times translation
b4 mRNA fully transcribed.
begin
transcription & translation Same place
Bacteria

43. In eukaryotes
RNApolymerase 2
3 RNA polymerases in nucleus (+ other organelles)
clear divisi# of lab&r
RNA polymerase 1
RNApolymerase 3
Transcribes
rRNAs (28S, 18S, 5.8S)
precursor of mRNA,
(hnRNA).
tRNA, 5srRNA, & snRNAs
1st difference from prokaryotes

44. 2nd difference from prokaryotes
primary transcripts
non-functional.
splicing
introns removed
exons joined
nucleotide (methyl guanosine
triphosphate) added 5'-end
adenylate residues
(200-300) added 3'-end
mRNA
hnRNA
capping tailing
fully processed hnNA
Called
Out of nucleus
Translation
I
↓
i -
↓
"
↓
§

45. Fiqure 6.11 Process of Transcription in Eukaryotes

46. Genetic Code
Replication Transcription
nucleic acid nucleic acid
complementarity
Translation
amino acids
Not complementarity
change in
Genetic material
changes in proteins
Lead
to
DNA RNA Proteins
genetic code required
physicists,
organic chemists,
biochemists,
geneticists.
:

47. George Gamow, physicist
nucleotides.
1 Nucleotide - 4 combinations
2 Nucleotides - 16 combinations
3 Nucleotides - 64 combinations (Most suited for 20 amino acids)
1 codon 3 nucleotides
organized into codons
should be 20 codons For 20 amino acids
codon is triplet.

48. Har Gobind Khorana
Marshall Nirenberg's
homopolymers & copolymers
cell-free protein synthesis
Severo Ochoa
enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase)
template free ( enzymatic RNA synthesis )

49. Table 6.1: The Codons for the Various Amino Acids

50. salient features of gene!c code
stop codons
degenerate 1 amino acids coded by many codon
no punctuations read in contiguous fashion
universal bacteria to human UUU code for Phenylalanine
(phe).
Some exceptions
mitochondrial
some protozoans.
dual functions AUG codes for Methionine (met),
& also initiator codon.
UAA, UAG, UGA
stop terminator
codons.
do not code for any amino acids,
>
>
:
>

51. Mutations & Genetic Code
relationships b/w genes & DNA understood by mutation studies
Point muta!" Frame-shi# muta!"s
single base pair of DNA base pairs of DNA
changes changes
Eg. sickle cell anemia
Deletions & insertions Deletions & insertions

52. RAM HAS RED CAP
RAM HAS BRE DCA P
RAM HAS BIR EDC AP
RAM HAS BIG RED CAP
insert B
insert I
insert G
letter deletion
letter addtion
RAM HAS EDC AP
RAM HAS DCA P
RAM HAS CAP
Must be triplet word as codon
Delete D
Delete E
RAM HAS RED CAP
Delete R
:
:
:

53. tRNA- the Adapter Molecule
Mechanism read code & link to amino acids
tRNA
read code
bind to specific
amino acids
As (soluble RNA)
Later adapter molecule
Francis Crick
First
complementary
amino acid acceptor end
Actual inverted [ L ]
amino acid specific
initiator
no (stop codons)
tRNA
looks like clover-leaf
Bcz can’t read
^
>
A V
¥

54. Translation
polymerisation of amino acids to polypeptide
mRNA bases
sequence
amino acids
sequence
peptide bond
polypeptide
requires energy
Activation of
amino acids
aminoacylation
of tRNA
Ribosome
structural RNAs 80 different
inactive proteins
>
↓
>
<
a

55. protein translation begins
1st site 2nd site
a$no acids binding Pep!de %rma!"
In bacteria (23S rRNA
ribozyme)
ribosome as catalyst
Complementary
↓ ↓ T
L
←

56. start codon (AUG)
stop codon
codes for polypeptide
UTRs ( untranslated regions)
5'-end (before
start codon)
3'-end (after
stop codon)
UTR UTR
translational unit in mRNA
ADAM Go

57. ribosome binds mRNA
start codon (AUG)
Ppolypeptide chain elongates by
adding amino acids
stop codon
polypeptide Release
ribosome dissociates
Initiation Elongation termination

58. Regulation of Gene Expression
metabolic,
physiological
environmental conditions
By
embryo adult organisms
genes expression regulation
E. coli beta- galactosidase lactose
galactose
glucose
synthesis
If no lactose No need to synthesised
7

59. Regulation of Gene Expression in prokaryotes
Each operon
specific operator
specific repressor.

60. Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes

61. The Lac operon
Geneticist, Francois Jacob
Biochemist, Jacque Monod.
first transcriptionally
regulated system
lac operon
Examples
lac operon
trp operon
ara operon
hisoperon
val operon, etc.
common promoter & regulatory genes
polycistronic
structural gene
Bacteria operon
regulated
by
t

62. Lac operon ; off
Lac operon ; On
lactose
galactose
glucose
increases cell permeability
negative regulation
Lactose
v
↓
↓ .

63. Human Genome Project
launched 1990
mega project.
3 x 10 bp
$ 3 per bp
Total [ 9 billion US ]
1 book 1000 letters 1000 pages ,
Cost
!
Storage
Total =3300 books
single human cell.
Time 13 years
9
>
>
:

64. data storage
retrieval,
analysis.
high speed
computational
devices
Bioinformatics
Goals of HGP
Identify all
20,000-25,000 genes
in human DNA
"
Determine sequences
of 3 billion chemical
base pairs Store information
in databases
Improve tools for data
analysis Transfer technologies to
other sectors, eg.
industries
Address the ethical,
legal, social issues
(ELSI) may arise from
project.
¥ } →
.
iii. ÷

65. by U.S. Department of Energy & National Institute of Health.
Welcome Trust (U.K.) major partner
additional contributions by
DNA variations effects
revolutionary new ways
diagnose
treat
someday prevent thousands of disorders
Human Genome Project
Japan,
France,
Germany,
China
others.
completed in 2003.
chromosome { 1 } in May
2006
Last
>
>

66. health care,
agriculture,
energy production,
environmental remediation
Many non-human model organisms,
bacteria,
yeast,
Caenorhabditis elegans
Drosophila
plants (rice & Arabidopsis)
DNA sequences solving challenges in
polymorphism of restriction endonuclease recognition sites,
microsatellites
genetic & physical maps on genome
By using
v

67. Methodologies
Expressed Sequence Tags
(ESTs).
Sequence Annotation
Only genes
"
expressed as RNA
blind approach
sequencing whole set of genome
hosts yeast,
bacteria
vectors BAC
YAC
Frederick Sanger. sequenced using
automated DNA
sequencers
÷
:
.

68. Salient Features of Human Genome
Total 3164.7 million bp.
Avg. gene of 3000
bases
total no, of genes at 30,000-
much lower than previous of
80,000 to 1,40,000 genes.
unknown functions 50
% discovered genes.
< 2 % genome codes for
proteins
Repeated sequences
make up large portion
Almost (99.9 per
cent) nucleotide bases
same in all people.
dystrophin at
2.4 million bases. Chromosome 1 most
genes (2968),
& Y fewest (231).
Repetitive sequences 100 to
1000 times.
(no direct coding function)
1.4 million locations
('snips')
^
÷
↓

69. Applications and Future Challenges
past, researchers studied one or a few genes at a time.
study all genes in genome,
how 10s of 1000s genes & proteins work together
tissue
organ
tumor,
all transcripts
F

70. DNA Fingerprinting
HGP
99.9% Bulk DNA Same in all
0.1% Satellite DNA
DNA fingerprinting very quick
Satellite DNA 0.1%
AT / GC
Length
Repeating unit
micro-satellites mini-satellites
On basis of
Alec Jeffreys
:
¥

72. Main band
Satellite DNA

73. hybridisation using
labelled VNTR probe autoradiography.
digestion of DNA by restriction
endonucleases,
separation of DNA fragments by
electrophoresis,
transferring (blotting) to
synthetic membranes,
(nitrocellulose or nylon)
The technique involved Southern blot hybridisation using radiolabelled VNTR as a
probe
L

74. usatellite DNA shows very high degree of polymorphism
inheritable mutation in population at high frequency
DNA polymorphism
It differs from individual to individual in population except monozygotic
(identical) twins.
useful tool in forensic applications.
paternity testing
Crime scene etc
from every tissue
blood, hair-follicle,
skin, bone,
saliva, sperm etc
DNA individual show same degree of polymorphism
genetic mapping of human genome
, )→

75. Figure 6.16 Schematic representation of DNA fingerprinting: Few representative chromosomes have been shown to contain
different copy number of VNTR. For the sake of understanding different colour schemes have been used to trace the origin of
each band in the gel. The two alleles (paternal and maternal) of a chromosome also contain different copy numbers of VNTR.
It is clear that the banding pattern of DNA from crime scene matches with individual B, and not with A

76. pro
,÷É^+ e ⇐ e = e
Primary
Transcript
cytoplasm
-
Nucleus L splicing
-
Mitochondria
-
Chloroplast e e e mRNA
41¢ a
M Proteins
n 92
Requirement
-
-
DNA
Template
-
RNA
polymerase
-
Ribonucleotide
triphosphate
-
ATBGTP,
UTP
,
CTP
-
Mg
"
,
Must ,
-
lsigma.gl/Rho)

77. promoter Transcription Start
Terminator
31€95 /
⑤ site .
5
'
II 31
¥•%tMctwdgene 5
/
Template
f 31 Non
Template
g.
'
LAKKI mRNA
↳ a
&
?;÷
.am?i?jEiFi*eF'
transcription
-
Never transcribe
stop
=
T.EE?:- osigma
Template
-
%÷g•→
Noncoding
Anti -
sense seuseStoa

78. Promoter →
Coneys
conserved
PROKARTOT -
* - T
o Eukaryote
-
Psribmow Box * -20
-
TATA AT TATA BOX
TATAAAT
* -35
Recognition seq
* -
70 and -
do
CAAT Box
TTG ACA
GGCCAA_T
& -
Go and -100
Gcrihseq

79. P
T
3
'
5
/
Template
Dixit
Promoter
5
'
z
'
Nou
Template
L - w
Leader L L
µ Traitor
→ VTR
a
CodingRegion Untranslated
L Shine-
Dalgarno ✓ Transcribed
Region
Traitor (D) seq ✗ Translated
de
de Initiation
51
AM UAA
31 RNA
of ii.
Terminator . -
! i
translate leader
"
/ i
dirailor
Start
stoplodot
Codon

80. RNA_
Ge Nozomi
-
Hiv
#d
-
RSV
rRNA mRNA tRNA
-
TMV
-
-
Kuntz Jacob
& crick
-
QB
Bacteriophage Monod
RNA →
genetic
-
smaller .
Largest smallest
Materia
-
Joy .
54 151.
- Most short
stable lifespan
stable

81. "
É¥??I¥q¥¥I
6
polypeptides
a ☒ .
go.D.GG
② ②
Eutaryot
RNAPI RNAPI RNAPIII
-
Mucius NÑasm Nucleon
A - tRNA
-
rRNA
5. PSRRNA
do
-
5. SsRNA
Ids rRNA MR_A -
snRNA
a-
2ps - RNA
splicing

82. burnt DNA
5
'
3
'
bin RNA
÷÷÷÷ =
L splicing
¥
'
'
§ ÷PI mRNA=
Tail

83. 1%kAR
÷,
INlT1A_t
'
÷
ELONGATION

84. ⑥÷÷a f→ dependent
on ATP
=
-
EukAR Post-transcriptional
M-EAIIFRNA.la#3RNAI-PY-IIEpt
lapping
at
Tailing splicing
EII attend
5
'
end
cAP→ -
5
'
end
3
'
÷÷EE¥n

85. 3
'
GPPPA
Guanosine
Triphosphate
3
'
7mnGPPPA
t.me/seepm--am ↳
7m.Gpp@7metuylguanosiueliut.tr
.ee/seys-pabyItoipuospuaHgooyI
-
save RNA
from nuclease
-
start
translation
TAlLlNh② → Bend
A ppp/
%Y↳rd_adµ
Substrate → ATP
5
'ÑpApApApA
poly
ATail

86. RNA -
Elongating
SPLICINhs.FM#poyA7mGPPP
Spliceosome Congolese
÷
SnRNA Proteins
SnRNP Small nuclear
= Ribonucleic
& complex
RNA
ligase
→
join Eeous-_

87. Genetic Coote Relationship b/w a- a
&
L
nucleotide cDNA
/ RMA
)
① →
'
aay
genetic
code →
Toilet
G-
9.9 -
3 Nucleotide
d
CoD#
Singlet
→ 16dm A ,
V
,
G ,
C
d
L Base
No.
of codons
=
4
d
4a

88. Doubt lcodou → I Base AA
aa
-
-
UU
Edges 4×4=1--6
Cc
Aa →1b=
Triplet - Codons =
4×4×4
=
64 codon
Loan .
Scientist →
Approved
①Crick
② Ochoa
③
Nirenberg
①
Hargobind
Khorana
⑤ J H .
Maltuaei .

89. OCHI →
polynucleotide
→
RNA without
DNA
template
phosphorylase
Homo
polymers
→
AAAAA
Hargobind
Khorana
→
Copolymers
→
cucucu
Nigg
→
protein
-
in vitro
=
RNA_ →
Homopotymer → UUUUUUUUU
+
pdyu
""
+ ATD
,
ATD
,
Joan.
20 testa be +
Different
Radiatake
a⇐

90. L
Radioactivity
→ 1
test-bed
phenylalanine
UUUUUUUUU
singlet → a a. a.
Doublet → 4 a. 9 .
M TRIPLET
Toipkt→3a
UUU →
Phenylalanine
Holley ,
Nirenberg ,
Khorana
↳ Nobd_ Poise

91. Geneticcode ① TRIPLET
② START codon
/
Initiating
codon .
AUG_ →
Methionine
-
③ stop codon / Terminator codon
UAA → ochre
✗ a. 9
UAG → amber
van
.
→
opal Non-
Sense
-
61→fu
③ G-mmale.SI→ Continuous .
mRNA
i.
'
ai da
'
i' die
T
o # T
o

92. -
Non-overlapping →
mRNA
d '
al
'
a'
ALLLL
7 Codon
Ey -
No.
of overlapping
codon
=
N -
z
9- 2
except → Virus →
01×174
NON AMBIGUOUS
/ specific.
-
I. Codon → I a. a .
Uvu →
Phenylalanine

93. exception →
G# → Valine
51 3
'
Gua Gua
d- T
Methionine
valid
GUG →
Ambiguous
-
Polarity → a. a.
sequence
5
'
to 3
'
- Co -
linearity
→
- mRNA
00000
polypeptide
-
Universal → Same Rules
Human →
plant
→ II.us.

94. Exceptions
Universe Mi alcide
- 3 T
ermination
codon → UAA ,
UAG,
4 →
UAA ,
UAG,
AGA ,
Aaa
UGA
-
UGA → Terminator UGA →
Tryptophan
-
AGA,
Aaa -
stop today
↳
Arginine
DEGENERACY
# Sin
Édd by
71 Codon

95. ☒
2¥ - lot
;yµ
'
DHU
loop,
J L
ie
.p%&yp ¥§
a
Amino dvariable
acylsyuluel-as-ey.gg
3
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'

96. 3-1-3 -
kimkiag
Inverter
muffs
"
-
Anticodon
10¥
PROTEIN FACTORY
R-iBOFRNA-P-otee.us
-
INfpanks
70s 80s
T T

97. Pwkarpt 1*°
→
cytoplasm
feukaryot
Mitochondria 1-
Cundoplast
ER_
IOSRRNA -121
protein
RNA
>Protein
50s
60% 4-0^1.
nAt5ovA
+
34
protein

98. 2mA ☒
10s- RNA -1
33
proteins
285 rRNA -1 5 SsRNA
60% 40-1.
# +5.8s - RNA
+
↳
proteins
catalytic .
Site
IMI a-
-
Larger
subu-m.tl?ibo-y@
÷
on
:S
£÷RNA 28s -RNA

99. tŵşĞĐƹşóƛ͸óƣŇƣ͸ŵĸ͸UŪŁĞƛŇƱóŪĐĞ
DNA → RNA → Proteins
Metabolic
,
physiological Drotayft -
Env .
Condit
→ ① ⑨ Gene
d
DIAO
Transcriptional d)
huRNA
④ on
,
off
mRNA Translational
Regulation ofgeueeapressiou
✓③
① trans
! -
-
-
constitute GE.tt#NouCoustitutiveGene/
housekeeping /[ Luxury gene
d
Always ON Inducible
RepressorON
/ off
to d
Off → ON ON → off
Inducer
Repressors

100. Regulatory
Proteins
-
- .
REINER INDUCER
d-
Inhibit Initiate
Transcription.
Transcription
-
ve Control
of tvecoutoolof
gene Expression gene expression
t.me/seepmam/SeepPawjaBiotgy--

101. Genes
gene
]-
M
seg#
A
OPERON CONCEPT
②
operator _
-
③ Promotes
µ T
d
①
Regulatory
Str -
gene Regulatory gene
-
Jacob Monod ( 1961)
d
metabolism -
Model →
gene Regulation
.
d
cAtAB0usM0ffpROKARY0T@Typ_es.L
.ae?peiouLa-
→
galactose-19¥ ① Lac
operon
→ Lactose
catabolism Atp ②
top ,,
→
tryptophan
I ③ ara ,
→
aragonese
① his
→ Histidine
stagy
YY
⑤ val , → valid.

102. ☐ RNAI
p→ promoter
e. →
inhibitor P / i
/A / 0/2 / y / a
0 →
operator www.rnin-fmnnmRNA
d
2)
f)
a →
Stsgeue Repressor p
-
galactosidase /
protein Permease )
GJ°
↳ lactose
trausacetglasc
- -
Constitutive
Nouc÷sti+uH
¥0M Ortloff

103. B-galactosidase
Lactose →
galactose
+
glucose
CW
y
Permease ☒PM
Transfer acetylgroup
to
A
Trans
acetyla.se galactoside other than
lactose

104. PI i 1h10 / 2 I yl a
-
-1
CaseI_→
Absence of positive control of
Mediums
Lactosetglucos
Induce -
lactose presence
ofInducer
Clause) opere
i.
gene
→
Repressor
←¥ig± Activator
✓
CEDI Off
a.IT#gc;seRNAyPol-X
↳ lactose I
cAmp+cAp(¥¥¥¥s =
Transcription Behymer protein
to
ON__ D
②
Off
→
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Repressor
Repressorgo-peratnokl-cAMP-CAPG-uyereoff-%ca.EE.
-
veÑfo#ou
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ON
ope
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