The document outlines an introductory module on Python programming, focusing on object-oriented programming concepts, such as classes, objects, and attributes. It explains creating programmer-defined types, the concept of instances, and how to work with mutable objects, including copying techniques. Additionally, it covers debugging methods and handling exceptions related to object attributes.

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Introduction to Python Programming
BPLCK205B
COURS E INS T RUCTOR:
MRS. MANASA S M
ASST. PROF., DEPT. OF ISE.
JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA
MODULE- V

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MODULE- V SYLLABUS
CHAPTER - 15
• Classes and Objects
• Programmer-defined types
• Attributes
• Rectangles
• Instances as return values
• Objects are mutable
• Copying
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CHAPTER - 16
• Classes and Functions
• Time
• Pure functions
• Modifiers
• Prototyping versus Planning
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CHAPTER - 17
• Classes and Methods
• Object-oriented features
• Printing objects
• Another example
• A more complicated example
• The init method
• The __str__ method
• Operator overloading
• Type-based dispatch
• Polymorphism
• Interface and Implementation
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Classes and Objects
• Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a method of structuring a program by
bundling related properties and behaviors into individual objects.
• Objects are like the components of a system.
• An object is any entity that has attributes and behaviors.
For example, a parrot is an object. It has:
 attributes - name, age, color, etc.
 behavior - dancing, singing, etc.
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Classes and Objects
• We have used many of Python’s built-in types; now we are going to define a new
type.
• We will create a type called Point that represents a point in two-dimensional
space.
For example,
 (0, 0) represents the origin
 (x, y) represents the point x units to the right and y units up from the origin
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Programmer-defined types

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Classes and Objects
• There are several ways we might represent points in Python:
 We could store the coordinates separately in two variables, x and y.
 We could store the coordinates as elements in a list or tuple.
 We could create a new type to represent points as objects.
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Programmer-defined types

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Classes and Objects
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Programmer-defined types

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Classes and Objects
• A programmer-defined type is also called a class. A class definition looks like this:
class Point:
"""Represents a point in 2-D space."""
• The header indicates that the new class is called Point.
• The body is a Python documentation strings (docstring) that explains what the class
is for.
• We can define variables and methods inside a class definition.
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Programmer-defined types
Object Diagram

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Classes and Objects
• Creating a new object is called instantiation, and the object is an instance of the
class.
• When we print an instance, Python tells us what class it belongs to and where it
is stored in memory.
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Programmer-defined types
Attributes
• We can assign values to an instance using dot notation:
 blank.x = 3.0
 blank.y = 4.0

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Classes and Objects
• This syntax is similar to the syntax for selecting a variable from a module, such
as math.pi or string.whitespace.
• A state diagram that shows an object and its
attributes is called an Object Diagram.
• The variable blank refers to a Point object, which contains two attributes. Each
attribute refers to a floating-point number.
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Programmer-defined types
 blank.x = 3.0
 blank.y = 4.0

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Classes and Objects
• The expression blank.x means, “Go to the object blank refers to and get the value
of x.”
• In the example, we assign that value to a variable named x. There is no conflict
between the variable x and the attribute x.
Programmer-defined types

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Classes and Objects
• The docstring lists the attributes: width and height are numbers; corner is a
Point object that specifies the lower-left corner.
• There are at least two possibilities:
• We could specify one corner of the rectangle (or the center), the width, and
the height.
• We could specify two opposing corners.
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Rectangles

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Classes and Objects
• To represent a rectangle, you have to instantiate a Rectangle object and assign
values to the attributes:
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Rectangles
• The expression box.corner.x means, “Go to the object box refers to
and select the attribute named corner; then go to that object and
select the attribute named x.”

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Classes and Objects
• Functions can return instances.
• For example, find_center takes a Rectangle as an argument and returns a Point
that contains the coordinates of the center of the Rectangle:
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Instances as Return Values

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Classes and Objects
• We can change the state of an object by making an assignment to one of its
attributes.
• For example, to change the size of a rectangle without changing its position, we
can modify the values of width and height:
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Objects are Mutable

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Classes and Objects
Objects are Mutable
• We can also write functions that modify objects.
• For example, grow_rectangle takes a Rectangle object and two numbers, dwidth
and dheight, and adds the numbers to the width and height of the rectangle:

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Classes and Objects
Copying
• Aliasing can make a program difficult to read because changes in one place
might have unexpected effects in another place.
• It is hard to keep track of all the variables that might refer to a given object.
• Copying an object is often an alternative to aliasing.
• The copy module contains a function called copy that can duplicate any object:
p1 and p2 contain the same data,
but they are not the same Point.

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Classes and Objects
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Copying
p1 and p2 contain the same data,
but they are not the same Point.
Object Diagram

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Classes and Objects
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Copying
• This operation is called a shallow copy because it copies the object and any
references it contains, but not the embedded objects.
• Fortunately, the copy module provides a method named deepcopy that copies not
only the object but also the objects it refers to, and the objects they refer to, and so
on. We will not be surprised to learn that this operation is called a deep copy.

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Classes and Objects
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Debugging
• When we start working with objects, we are likely to encounter some new
exceptions.
• If we try to access an attribute that doesn’t exist, we get an AttributeError:

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Classes and Objects
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Debugging
• If you are not sure what type an object is, we can ask:
>>> type(p)
<class '__main__.Point’>
• Also use isinstance to check whether an object is an instance of a class:
>>> isinstance(p, Point)
True

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Classes and Objects
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Debugging
• If you are not sure whether an object has a particular attribute, you can use the
built-in function hasattr:
>>> hasattr(p, 'x’)
True
>>> hasattr(p, 'z’)
False
• The first argument can be any object; the second argument is a string that
contains the name of the attribute.

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Classes and Objects
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Debugging
• We can also use a try statement to see if the object has the attributes we need: