New models for work performance

1. New Models of Work Performance and Their Implications for
Employment Relations
Arthur Poropat
Abstract
Employee performance is a central variable in employment relations but until recently has
received little attention (Austin & Villanova, 1992). Performance has often been confused
with activities over which employees have little control such as productivity and output when
it is better understood as referring to the behaviours which employees display which are val-
ued by their organisation (Campbell, McHenry, & Wise, 1990). Most research on perform-
ance has focused on variables relevant to particular occupations rather than identifying broad
dimensions of performance which would allow for greater generalisability of results and
cross-level inferences to be made. Several general models of performance are reviewed in
this article and evidence is presented which supports a two-factor model based on task and
citizenship performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Borman, Penner, Allen, & Mo-
towidlo, 2001). Task performance has traditionally been recognised within research and em-
ployment relations practice, but the value of citizenship performance has been relatively ne-
glected. Citizenship performance appears to contribute as much as task performance to
overall ratings of performance, and has substantial causal impacts on organisational outcomes
such as customer satisfaction and profitability. The practical and theoretical importance of
citizenship performance is reviewed and recommendations for employment relations practice
and research are provided.
Arthur Poropat
School of Management
Griffith University
Nathan Q 4111 Australia
Phone: (61)(7)3875 7757
Fax: (61)(7)3875 3887
E-mail: arthur.poropat@mailbox.gu.edu.au
Individual employee performance has been a central variable in much research in em-
ployment relations (Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000; Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996) but as
a construct has until recently received comparatively little attention when compared with
other relevant variables (Austin & Villanova, 1992). In part this has been because of an em-
phasis on wider systemic issues in attempting to understand organisational performance
(Addison & Belfield, 2001; Michie & Sheehan-Quinn, 2001), but possibly it is also because
researchers tend to emphasise independent variables, and the measurement of performance as
a variable tends to be controlled by people other than the researcher (Campbell, McCloy, Op-
pler, & Sager, 1993).
One of the consequences of this neglect has been that the concept of performance has often
been operationalised by measures over which an individual has limited control (eg productiv-
ity and efficiency confound organisational constraints) and that therefore confuse the relation-
ship between predictor variables and criteria (Campbell et al., 1993). Output is one example
of a measure which has been used for individual performance but which is in fact a reflection

2. of many factors apart from the individual worker’s efforts such as the work environment,
availability and standard of equipment and resources, support provided and other systemic
issues as pointed out by the Total Quality Management literature (Waldman, 1994a, 1994b).
Performance can be distinguished from such measures because it refers to the behaviours
which an individual displays whereas concepts like output and effectiveness reflect the out-
comes of those behaviours, which may or may not be within the control of the individual
(Campbell, McHenry, & Wise, 1990).
In the past ten years or so more attention has been paid to the definition and exploration of
work performance at least from the perspective of organisational behaviour research. Much
of this work has been either directed or inspired by the United States Army Selection and
Classification Project overseen by John Campbell and his colleagues (Campbell, 1990, 1999;
Campbell, Gasser, & Oswald, 1996; Campbell et al., 1993; Campbell et al., 1990). From
their perspective individual performance is seen as actual behaviour that can be scaled and
measured in terms of proficiency, rather than the outcomes which the employing organisation
derives from that performance, a definition which avoids the construct confusion referred to
previously (Campbell et al., 1993). Thus job performance includes work behaviours which
are: relevant to organisational goals; within the individual’s control; and measurable ie ob-
servable, scorable etc (Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000).
The measurement of job performance is also complicated by the fact that what counts for
job performance is itself complex, changes over time and situation, and consists of multiple
dimensions (Hough & Oswald, 2001). In whatever way it is defined job performance remains
an abstract concept which is socially constructed, and there are many judgement calls required
when it is being operationalised even when it relies on apparently ‘objective’ measures such
as behavioural counting, organisational records and the like (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995).
Models of Performance
In response to this complexity researchers have adopted a range of approaches for dealing
with the complexity of job performance. In a review of models of job performance Viswes-
varan and Ones (2000) used ideas developed by Binning and Barrett (1989) to analyse the
approaches for handling the complexity of performance used by various writers. For these
writers performance dimensions have been either designed for specific jobs or related to work
generally, and have been either developed as stand-alone measures or as a set of dimensions
intended to cover a large proportion of the total performance variance of employees. Stand-
alone measures for specific jobs are exceedingly numerous and this represents one of the dif-
ficulties in understanding performance generally; what is considered a central aspect of per-
formance in one line of work can be totally ignored in another because of the requirements of
individual jobs or occupations. This can be a problem even when more comprehensive sets
of dimensions are used. Although clearly useful within their context, it is difficult for exam-
ple to generalise from entry-level performance criteria (Hunt, 1996) to managerial perform-
ance measures (Borman & Brush, 1993) and vice-versa.
This lack of comparability of performance dimensions from one occupation to another is
not a problem if there is no need to generalise to other positions, such as when job incumbents
remain in similar positions and thus there is no need to predict their performance in a new set-
ting, or when researchers and practitioners are uninterested in making connections between
individual and organisational performance. Yet the nature of work has been changing over
the last few decades with a move towards more flexible definitions of work roles to accom-
modate more dynamic and interchangeable jobs, as well as cross-functional tasks and skills in
response to the increasing rate of change in economic and organisational conditions (Arvey &
Murphy, 1998; Cascio, 1995; Hough & Oswald, 2001). These changes have required more
ability to generalise performance from occupation to occupation. Research on the links be-

3. tween employment relations practices and overall firm performance (Addison & Belfield,
2001; Michie & Sheehan-Quinn, 2001; Ramsay, Scholarios, & Harley, 2000) would likewise
benefit from models of performance which allow generalisations from individual to organisa-
tional levels of analysis, something which necessitates more general models of individual per-
formance.
Fortunately Viswesvaran and Ones (2000) also highlighted a growing number of studies
aimed at developing more widely applicable models of performance which address these
needs for generalisability of findings and cross-level analyses of performance. Two of the
more comprehensive models are those presented by Campbell et al (1996) and Viswesvaran
et al (1996). The Campbell et al model is based on a review of the job performance literature
and extensive confirmatory research conducted in United States military settings. On the ba-
sis of this research they settled on eight components of job performance which are:
• Job-Specific Task Proficiency
• Non-Job-Specific Task Proficiency
• Written And Oral Communication Task Proficiency
• Demonstration Of Effort
• Maintenance Of Personal Discipline
• Facilitation Of Peer And Team Performance
• Supervision/Leadership
• Management/Administration
Campbell et al (1996) explicitly deny that these represent orthogonal factors of job per-
formance and state that they are not necessarily present in every job and are definitely not the
last word in defining the performance domain. However they do suggest that these compo-
nents account for most of the variation in performance assessments. They also present evi-
dence that suggests that the various components are relatively independent and are relevant
for performance research.
The Viswesvaran et al (1996) model is derived from an application of the lexical hypothe-
sis (Goldberg, 1990) which suggests that all practically significant variation in performance
will have been identified and labelled at some point by someone in the employment relations
or organisational behaviour literature. Their ten dimensions of performance were identified
using content analysis and conceptual grouping and are as follows:
• Productivity
• Effort
• Job Knowledge
• Interpersonal competence
• Administrative competence
• Quality
• Communication competence
• Leadership
• Compliance with authority
• Overall performance
There are significant differences between these lists: Productivity and Quality for example
appear on the Viswesvaran et al list but not among the Campbell et al dimensions, whereas
there seems to be no equivalent for Non-Job-Specific Task Proficiency in the Viswesvaran et
al list. However the overlap between the lists is substantial. On the down-side these categori-
sations, because of their extensiveness, include variables some of which are not present in all
positions ie their structure may be sufficient in a general sense for describing the broad range
of job performance, but not necessary (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994), consequently add-
ing needless levels of complexity when searching for a general understanding of performance.

4. These models have something else in common in that they both appear to reflect broader
and more fundamental structures of performance. Viswesvaran and Ones (2000) observed
that one general factor accounted for over 50% of variance across the different dimensions: a
p factor analogous to the g factor of intelligence (Arvey & Murphy, 1998). Although it is of-
ten necessary to form such a composite of performance measures for various personnel pur-
poses, and while it is too complex to use every possible criterion measure separately, general
dimensions derived from statistical techniques have not proved to be theoretically satisfying
(Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994) and are contrary to the observed multi-dimensional nature
of performance (Borman, Hanson, & Hedge, 1997). Campbell et al (1996) concluded from
their research that there were at least two general factors or major types of job performance:
aspects which are ‘job-specific’ and reflect technical and specific competencies, and ‘non-job-
specific’ aspects which are considered to be broadly similar for every job. Each category was
conceived as being multi-dimensional with the latter category including things such as team-
work, self-development, compliance with organisational norms and customs, perseverance etc
(Campbell et al., 1990).
Task and Citizenship Performance
These two factors are similar to the factors proposed by Borman and Motowidlo (1993)
and further developed by Borman, Penner, Allen and Motowidlo (2001) who developed a
model based on two types of performance – task or technical performance and contextual or
citizenship performance. Their distinction is somewhat reminiscent of the venerable distinc-
tion between task and maintenance processes in group research. Technical or task perform-
ance relates to what Borman and Motowidlo (1993) call the 'technical core' of the organisa-
tion or job, the activities directly or indirectly involved with transforming resources into
products for economic exchange. Technical or task activities vary considerably from job to
job and include two types of behaviours: transformation of raw materials into goods and ser-
vices produced by the organisation eg selling, machine operation, teaching, counter-service
etc; and activities which support the core eg supply, planning & coordination, maintenance,
development. That is to say that task performance is either directly related to the technical
core or it services the requirements of the technical core (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994).
Technical or task activities are dependent on knowledge, skills and abilities, and are role-
prescribed. These activities are commonly included within formal job descriptions and are
what is focused upon by most traditional forms of job analysis. Task performance is therefore
the degree to which employees demonstrate proficiency in activities which are formally rec-
ognised and which contribute to the organisation’s technical core either directly or indirectly
(Arvey & Murphy, 1998; Borman & Motowidlo, 1993).
Many activities are not included within the ambit of these task activities but have a sub-
stantial impact on organisational effectiveness. Contextual or citizenship performance in-
volves activities directed at maintaining the interpersonal and psychological environment that
needs to exist to allow the technical or task core to operate. As such citizenship activities are
common to most if not all jobs, are dependent upon motivational and predispositional vari-
ables such as personality, and are rarely role-prescribed. Examples of citizenship perform-
ance are activities such as:
"Volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of the job
Persisting with extra enthusiasm or effort when necessary to complete own task activities
successfully
Helping and cooperating with others
Following organizational rules and procedures even when personally inconvenient
Endorsing, supporting and defending organizational objectives" (Borman & Motowidlo,
1993: p 73).

5. Generally speaking task performance has been seen as role prescribed (Katz & Kahn,
1978) while citizenship performance has been considered discretionary. In comparison to
Campbell et al’s (1996) model task performance includes job-specific and non-job specific
task proficiency as well as aspects of written and oral communication, supervision and leader-
ship, as well as management and administration. Citizenship performance includes much of
the behaviour which makes up Campbell et al’s other dimensions (Motowidlo & Van Scotter,
1994). Both Borman and Motowidlo (1997) and Campbell et al (1996) freely acknowledge
the strengths of each other’s models and the limitations of their own and suggest that despite
their different origins these should be seen as complementary models rather than competitive
ones. Contextual or citizenship activities can be distinguished from task activities in that con-
textual activities support the context or environment within which the technical core of the
organisation must function, rather than supporting the technical core itself. The emphasis is
on the initiative, support and persistence shown rather than the technical proficiency demon-
strated.
Although Borman and Motowidlo (1993) originally referred to citizenship performance as
contextual performance, Borman et al (2001) changed the term to reflect the concept’s rela-
tionship to an earlier notion, organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB), which was initially
described as a category of performance by Smith, Organ and Near (1983). OCB was identi-
fied as reflecting one of three categories of essential employee behaviour identified by Katz
(1964), namely innovative and spontaneous behaviours which are not formally directed or
prescribed1
. OCB has been defined as ‘contributions [which are] not contractually rewarded
nor practically enforceable by supervision or a job description’ (Konovsky & Organ, 1996:
p253); in other words they are behaviours which do not form an official part of a job-role but
which are valued by the organisation nonetheless. However, although OCB’s have repeatedly
been identified as extra-role, both in theoretical discussions and in empirical research
(Barksdale & Werner, 2001; Williams & Anderson, 1991), Organ (1997) stated that it is of
little theoretical or predictive value to insist on this.
Smith et al (1983) and several other researchers (Organ & Konovsky, 1989; Shore &
Wayne, 1993) conceived of OCB as having two dimensions – altruism and conscientiousness
– although subsequent authors have identified as many as five sub-factors: altruism, courtesy,
sportsmanship, generalised compliance, and civic virtue (eg Konovsky & Organ, 1996). OCB
altruism has been equated with citizenship performance towards individuals and OCB consci-
entiousness as citizenship performance towards the organisation generally (Borman & Mo-
towidlo, 1993; Borman et al., 2001), although others have considered OCB conscientiousness
to more of a motivational or attitudinal variable (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Similar dimensions
have been used in research conducted under the banner of contextual performance, namely
interpersonal facilitation and job dedication (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). Interpersonal
facilitation refers to behaviours which contribute to organisational outcomes through interper-
sonal means. It includes altruism (Smith et al., 1983), helping coworkers (George & Brief,
1992) as well as a range of other behaviours which address issues such as barriers to perform-
ance, morale and cooperation (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). Job dedication is more
closely linked to Smith et al’s (1983) original dimension of generalised compliance which has
also been labelled conscientiousness, and includes performance behaviours such as self-
discipline, rule-following, and taking initiative (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996).
1
Interestingly of the other two categories of essential employee behaviour identified by Katz, the first
one, entering and remaining within the organisation, although a significant organisational variable would
not be commonly considered a form of performance per se, while the second, carrying out one’s role re-
liably, echoes Borman and Motowidlo’s (1993) dimension of technical or task performance.

6. Distinguishing Task and Citizenship Performance
Although there is a growing body of writing and research on citizenship performance un-
der its various titles, there also remains some disquiet about whether it best to use a single di-
mension of individual performance or whether splitting performance into two basic factors is
justified. Some writers even question the value of including citizenship activities as a per-
formance dimension. Schmidt (1993) for example cautioned against identifying citizenship
as a type of work performance because both Borman and Motowidlo (1993) and Smith et al
(1983) defined them to be something which is not part of the job description ie extra-role be-
haviour. Including it within the job description makes it cease to be ‘contextual’ and thus
loses something which early definitions saw as central to it definition. However in a review
and revision of OCB Organ (1997) stated that the emphasis on citizenship being extra-role
was unnecessary and added needless conceptual confusion.
The empirical research reported by (Viswesvaran et al., 1996) and discussed earlier also
raises questions about the distinction between task and citizenship performance given that a
single factor accounted for so much of overall performance ratings in their meta-analysis. In a
series of studies designed to address this question Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994) and Van
Scotter and Motowidlo (1996) found that not only do supervisors distinguish between task
and citizenship performance, but also that the citizenship dimensions of interpersonal facilita-
tion (OCB altruism) and job dedication (OCB conscientiousness) are significantly different
components of supervisors’ judgements of overall performance. A range of other researchers
have also confirmed the practical and empirical significance of this theoretical distinction
(Borman, White, & Dorsey, 1995; Conway, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Fetter, 1991,
1993; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Paine, 1999; Van Scotter, Motowidlo, & Cross, 2000).
This distinction is further confirmed by the fact that task performance and citizenship per-
formance typically correlate with different predictors. For example job experience explains a
considerable amount of the variation in task performance (Borman, White, Pulakos, & Op-
pler, 1991; Schmidt, Hunter, & Outerbridge, 1986; Schmidt, Hunter, Outerbridge, & Goff,
1988) but the relationship with citizenship performance is considerably smaller (Motowidlo
& Van Scotter, 1994; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). In the United States Army Project A
Selection and Classification project, tests of cognitive and perceptual-motor skills were best at
predicting task performance measures such as job-specific and general task proficiency,
whereas measures of temperament and personality provided the best prediction of citizenship
measures such as giving extra effort, supporting fellow-workers, and maintaining personal
discipline (McHenry, Hough, Toquam, & Hanson, 1990).
Despite this evidence of the distinctiveness of task and citizenship performance it remains
a fact that the two dimensions are not entirely separate. Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1996)
for example found that job dedication overlapped too much with task performance and inter-
personal facilitation to provide separate prediction of overall performance. Conway (1999)
likewise found that although his use of a multi-trait, multi-rater approach provided strong evi-
dence for the separateness of task and citizenship performance, the distinction was more pro-
nounced for non-managerial than managerial jobs, and there are substantial correlations be-
tween task and citizenship performance (in the range 0.5 to 0.6).
This should not be too surprising considering that both contribute substantially to overall
measures of performance and that a certain amount of halo and/or common method variance
is inevitable in most measures of performance (Arvey & Murphy, 1998). Considering this in
the light of the other evidence presented here it seems reasonable to conclude that task and
citizenship performance are related but distinct, and both should be taken into account in any
attempts at understanding employee, group or organisational performance.

7. Practical Importance of Citizenship Performance
Citizenship or contextual performance, along with OCB have been growing in importance
in discussions of human resource management (Borman et al., 1997). This has been for theo-
retical reasons as already outlined but also because citizenship performance has been shown
to have comparable influence with task performance on overall performance ratings by super-
visors (Borman et al., 1995; Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Van Scotter et al., 2000), an
effect that becomes stronger as ratees move up the organisational hierarchy (MacKenzie et al.,
1999). One study that directly estimated the relative importance of both found that task per-
formance accounts for between 17% and 44% of overall performance whilst contextual per-
formance accounts for between 12% and 34% among soldiers (Motowidlo & Van Scotter,
1994). Citizenship performance is taken into consideration by sales managers in evaluating
sales-person performance, even after taking objective measures such as sales volume into ac-
count (MacKenzie et al., 1991), which makes sense considering that citizenship performance
accounts for between 15% and 43% of variance on sales, production & quality (Podsakoff &
MacKenzie, 1997). In another study citizenship performance accounted for 29% of sales
managers’ performance ratings as opposed to 21% accounted for by objective measures
(MacKenzie et al., 1999). This figure is consistent with Borman and Motowidlo’s (1993) es-
timate that 30% of variance in descriptions of managerial performance are accounted for by
citizenship performance.
Borman and Motowidlo (1993) and Organ (1997) proposed that citizenship performance
makes an important contribution to both individual and organisational performance. Coopera-
tive and effortful behaviour contributes to organisational effectiveness by helping when un-
foreseen contingencies arise, making the supervisor’s job easier, and through providing gen-
eral assistance to the organisation (Bateman & Organ, 1983). This provides support for the
broader organisational, social and psychological environment of the organisation within
which the technical core of the organisation operates (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Smith
et al., 1983) and aids the accomplishment of organisational goals by facilitating communica-
tion, lubricating relationships, and reducing tensions or emotional disruptions (Arvey & Mur-
phy, 1998) in a manner consistent with skills used for facilitating team-work (McIntyre &
Salas, 1995). Although typically they are not directly or contractually rewarded (Organ &
Konovsky, 1989) despite their substantial impact on performance evaluations, citizenship be-
haviours become increasingly important because over time because of their combined effect
on organisational operations and performance (Organ, 1990; Podsakoff, Ahearne, &
MacKenzie, 1997; Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997).
There is a growing body of evidence, which supports this hypothesised link between citi-
zenship performance and organisational effectiveness. Podsakoff and Mackenzie (1994)
found that each of the dimensions of citizenship behaviour used in their study made inde-
pendent contributions to a total of around 17% of unit-level performance in a group of life
insurance agencies. Walz and Niehoff (cited in MacKenzie et al., 1999) in a study conducted
in restaurants found that employee citizenship behaviours predicted increased operating effi-
ciency, customer satisfaction, quality of performance and cost efficiency, and decreased food
wastage and customer complaints, accounting for an average of 29% of variance on these or-
ganisational outcomes. George and Bettenhausen (1990) likewise found that unit-level citi-
zenship behaviour accounted for a significant proportion of objective sales performance.
These correlational results of course do not demonstrate causation, but Koys (2001) provided
evidence that this is indeed a causal relationship. In a study using cross-lagged regression
analysis within a restaurant chain, Koys observed that citizenship behaviours predicted subse-
quent organisational outcomes such as profitability and customer satisfaction, but not the
other way around.
In summary, paying attention to citizenship performance is similar to acknowledging that

8. it is different to work in a group or organisation than it is to conduct apparently similar activi-
ties on one’s own. Organisational requirements extend past formalised issues such as dress or
procedure to the unwritten and often unspoken norms and expectations which constitute the
informal organisation (Katz & Kahn, 1978) and which lead to organisational outcomes of im-
portance to researchers and managers (Organ & Paine, 1999; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine,
& Bachrach, 2000).
Implications for Research and Practice
This article has described the growing recognition of the ways in which both task and citi-
zenship performance have distinct and major impacts upon organisations, and this recognition
has significant implications for both practitioners and researchers in employment relations.
Task performance has by its nature been long integrated into research and practice, but citi-
zenship performance has not often been explicitly recognised within employment relations
either at the individual or more particularly at the organisational level (cf Addison & Belfield,
2001; Michie & Sheehan-Quinn, 2001; Ramsay et al., 2000).
From a practitioner perspective the major implication is that organisations in their em-
ployment relations strategies should explicitly target citizenship performance. Recruitment
and selection activities have traditionally focussed upon identifying and developing useful
knowledge, skills and experience which contribute directly to task performance, while train-
ing and development and much of performance management has emphasised developing and
motivating task performance. The fact that citizenship performance is more easily identified
using personality and attitudinal measures (McHenry et al., 1990) suggests that these should
be incorporated into selection procedures. A considerable amount of research is consistent
with the idea that perceived organisational support is the major variable which increases citi-
zenship performance among existing staff (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Eisenberger, Hunting-
ton, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986; Moorman, Blakely, & Niehoff, 1998; Netemeyer, Boles,
McKee, & McMurrian, 1997; Organ & Lingl, 1995). Consequently organisations should
consider the support they provide to employees bearing in mind the potential benefits or costs
of changes to the levels of citizenship performance which result. Performance management
systems in particular need to be re-thought to, for example, ensure that while encouraging
higher levels of task performance they do not simultaneously discourage citizenship perform-
ance.
A greater emphasis on citizenship performance also has implications for the conduct of re-
search in employment relations. Like every new model it raises many new questions. Is citi-
zenship performance always valuable within an organisation, and if not what determines
whether it is valuable or not? Does a focus on citizenship performance merely cover a new
form of work intensification (Ramsay et al., 2000)? To what extent should citizenship per-
formance be directly addressed within industrial agreements through various approaches such
as ‘soft’ HRM programs (Roan, Bramble, & Lafferty, 2001)?
This new perspective on performance also provides hints as to how to start developing
models which contain cross-level linkages from individual to group to organisational per-
formance. Most of the research on performance within organisations conducted to date has
used highly specific measures when examining individual performance (Viswesvaran &
Ones, 2000) or relatively fuzzy and diffuse measures for organisational performance (Wood
& de Menezes, 1998). Being relatively non-job-specific allows citizenship performance to
fulfil an intermediary role between these levels of analysis and potentially provide a key for
the development of more inclusive understandings of performance generally.

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