This document summarizes a research paper about the impact of charter schools on urban public school systems, using Detroit schools as a case study. It finds that while some charter schools have had success, they have not been a panacea and their rapid growth in Detroit has led to increased segregation. It also discusses critics who argue that charter schools privatize education and are motivated by profit rather than student outcomes. The document advocates for reform of existing public schools rather than replacing them with charter schools.

1. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
1
History is Not Always in the Past: Segregation and Urban Schools in Michigan Today
Exemplary charter schools, like the national network of KIPP academies and the Green
Dot schools in Los Angeles and New York City, have indeed worked wondered, giving
inner-city youngsters seemingly bound for failure the skills and confidence needed to
shape their own identities. But those top-drawer academies only serve a tiny minority of
students-KIPP enrolls 33,000 students, .00059% of the nation’s school-age population.
Nationwide 3% of students attend charters, many of them ordinary or worse (Kirp, 5).
Charter schools are not always the answer to the United States’ public education crisis, as
only a percentage of them have shown significant success. Some students thrive in charter
schools but there is not enough success to make a logical claim that charter schools are a lasting
resolution to the public education crisis of the United States. Deregulation, privatization, and
segregation are all potential negative consequences of charter schools (Ravitch, Part I-Ch. 1).
Urban public schools like the ones found in Detroit would benefit from long-lasting,
considerable reform instead of stripping away “failing” schools and replacing them competely
with charter schools.
According to the National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, over half of the children
in Detroit attended charter schools during their study in December of 2013. The amount of
students had increased by 10% since 2012 (from 41% to 51%) revealing an increase in students
that has occurred rapidly, further emphasized by a statement claiming that student enrollment in
the United States had increased by 80% overall (charterschools.org). “‘It’s no surprise that
parents continue to seek the best possible educational options for their children,’ said Dan
Quisenberry, President of the Michigan Association of Public School Academies (MAPSA), the
state charter school association” (charterschools.org). Charter schools appear to be the best
choice here, but the level of education in cities like Detroit is still suffering. In this paper I will

2. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
2
explore how charter schools are not enough to fix the problems of urban schools that have
suffered from violence, lack of funding, and segregation for decades.
Research of Detroit charter schools has found mixed success, but largely success that was
accomplished was not the full potential that could be reached and in some cases, such as with
Detroit’s Gee Edmonson Academy, in which numerous school rating websites displayed
disappointment. The socioeconomic background of the 272 students that attended Gee
Edmonson Academy in 2009-2010 is as follows: (95% of the student population is African
American. 1% of the population is white. 3% of the population is of mixed race or ethnicity. 99%
of the student body is eligible for free school lunches, revealing the poverty level of the students.
The state average of free and reduced lunch assistance is 51.2%. Gee Edmonson Academy has a
significantly higher rating (elementaryschool.org). The school fits many of the criteria of a
typical struggling urban school in the United States: largely minority students who live in an
economically poor environment.
There are only 15 full-time teachers and the ratio of teachers to students is about 18:1
(elementaryschool.org). The ratio is not a bad one-it is enough so that each classroom allows for
individual attention for students. Yet the school has a “D” grade based on test scores and the
environment; although the school scored a “C” on improvement, it scored an “F” on tests-only: a
mere 6% of students are proficient in math, 30% in reading and writing, and 2% in the social and
natural sciences. In the 8th grade class, only 39% of students are proficient in math and reading,
about to enter high school unprepared. The schools have progressed by about 50% in each topic,
but the scores of the school remain dismal (scorecard.excellentschoolsdetroit.org). Charter

3. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
3
schools did not create the success that students deserved in this instance because the reforms that
were necessary and that could have perhaps been achieved as a public school were replaced with
the quick fix of charter schools.
Michigan urban schools in cities like Detroit provide educations that are not as beneficial
to students in comparison to rural or suburban schools. This is a result of multiple detrimental
factors, including a hostile living environment, over-crowding of schools, and the inability to pay
teachers the deserved salary. Areas like Detroit have recently initiated charter schools-privatized
public schools. Charter schools are harming Detroit further by enabling segregated school
systems, under-paying their staff, and because it is more difficult to regulate a privatized school
than one in a public school system. The most harmful way that charter schools have been
hindering the public education system is by segregating students. This is harmful because
segregation denies students the ability to interact with students of different ethnicities and
cultures. Furthermore, socioeconomic status could be affected by race: minority groups in
America are more likely to be in the poor and working class. Schools with a greater population
of poor and working class students risk more hardships because of less available funding.
Diane Ravitch’s Reign of Error claims that charter schools are detrimental to the
American public school system almost solely because of the privatization. She claims that
market-based reforms align with enemies of public schooling by allowing room for exploitation,
fraud, corruption and schools are no longer solely institutions of education but rather they’re now
markets. Charter schools do have potential to be beneficial to the American school system, if the

4. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
4
motive of profit were to be removed (Ravitch, Part I- Ch.1). David Kirp, the author of
Improbable Scholars, has reached similar conclusions:
These privately run academies have become playthings of the super-rich. The fabled
Harlem Children’s Zone floats on an ocean of money from investment firms such as
Goldman Sachs; and when Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg wanted to make a splash, he
pledged $100 million to underwrite new charter schools in the troubled Newark, New
Jersey school system, announcing his largesse on The Oprah Winfrey Show…The Obama
administration’s $4.35 billion Race to the Top initiative…deployed the carrot of new
money to prod the states into expanding charter schools and closing low-performing
public schools (Kirp, 4).
It is made clear that schooling in the United States morphed into solely being about finances and
who could contribute to the money bank that is privatized charter schools. Money could have
instead been put to use in the financing of the struggling public school systems and could have
assisted in the creation of new reforms.
Ravitch makes it clear in her introduction that the problem of segregation and
concentrated poverty is a result of society, not school districts. Charter schools are enabling that
problem by typically arising in areas in which there is racial segregation geographically (Ravitch,
Part I-Ch. 1). Moreover, she concludes that privatization comes with the cost of deregulation and
segregation (Ravitch, Part I-Ch. 6). Furthermore, Ravitch made charter schools sound as if they
were solutions to problems that did not need solutions at all. In a dismayed tone she spoke of
how privatized charter schools were used as solutions for black and Hispanic students that were
being “failed” by public schools and needed “saving” by being placed in private schools. Charter
schools were an answer to the calls to fix the achievement gap between minority students and
whites. However, the achievement gap was already closing and the scores of blacks and
Hispanics increased greatly in the two decades after national federal testing in 1990. According

5. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
5
to Ravitch black students in the eighth grade saw a closing of the gap of 78% to 49% from 1990
to 2011. Hispanics saw a similar decrease of 66% to 39% (Ravitch, Part I- Ch. 6). If the federal
government had not intervened and privatized schools had not become a sought after solution,
than perhaps the achievement gap would have continued to close. White achievement also
improved in addition to minority students, which prevented the achievement gap from closing
further-giving a false impression that black and Hispanic students were not doing as well as they
actually were (Ravitch, Part I- Ch. 6). However, the achievement gap still could and needs to be
closed even more.
The existing schools need to be reformed. Ravitch claims that public schools are not a
lost cause and that substantial reforms within the existing schools are the right solution. School
districts should focus on early education, the essentials of reading, writing, and vocabulary, and
the reliance of individual attention to students. Classrooms should be typically smaller,
preferably less than twenty students, and teachers should be counseled to interact with students
based on their individual needs (Ravitch, Part I-Ch.1). Union City school district of New Jersey
has displayed actions that could represent Ravitch’s advice, and is an accomplished and
successful district, steadily progressing over the last few decades as a result.
David L. Kirp presents the story of a successful school district that once was close to
being shut down completely, Union City in New Jersey. The state had threatened to seize control
of the schools (Kirp, 8). Union City schools consisted of students that were mostly minorities
and immigrants. The district was extremely poor and many children were introduced to school

6. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
6
barely knowing English (Kirp, 15). The school system worked well under pressure and converted
a potential disaster into a well-functioning machine:
This is no one-year wonder. Over the course of the past generation these youngsters have
been doing better and better. What’s more, in 2011 89.4% of the students graduated-
that’s 15% higher than the national average. Nearly 60% head to college; the top students
are regularly winning state-wide science contests and receiving full rides at Ivy League
universities (Kirp, 8).
The school district faces many pressures to continue further success and get more high test
scores each year. However, the school district refuses to concentrate solely on scores and
performance of students and rather consistently attempts to balance the needs of students on an
emotional level as well. One thing that Kirp made sure to claim in his introduction was that
charter schools were simply a quick fix in many states and that schools needed more of a
concrete fix. What Union City did was make their schools feel more like a family and relied on
turning students into thinkers rather than memorizers (Kirp, 8). Funding helped, as well as
making the district as a whole function well together, each element helping the other out in a
cohesive system (Kirp, 12). In this paper it will be discussed what reforms should be promoted in
urban public schools, specifically in Detroit, in replacement of “quick-fixes” like charter schools.
It will be discussed the different aspects of reform that need to be considered in order to raise test
scores as well as graduation rates, and compare those reforms to the success of Union City.
Adequate finances are necessary to build larger schools, hire more teachers, and in the
purchasing of school supplies such as books, computers, and projector systems. Finances are also
necessary in the funding of extracurricular activities which could keep students away from gangs
by providing activities as an outlet for the stress they face as well as a simple distraction. Money

7. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
7
could also be used for security measures which would make students feel safer and therefore
make them more able to concentrate on their classes. Struggling families would have money for
themselves so that they may provide the essentials for their families, thus relieving students of
the stress that they face wondering how they could help their parents or siblings. Problems that
arise with low-income families could produce over-tired and over-worked students. Long and
constant work hours for parents could result in feelings of neglect. Many students may feel as if
it is their duty to help their parents when in financial distress or they may have to help look after
younger siblings if there is not enough money for child care or babysitters. Extra stress on
students could negatively affect the academic performance, stress that students in suburban and
rural areas are less likely to be burdened by.
David L. Kirp argues that money does in fact matter in shaping a school system in
Improbable Scholars: The Rebirth of a Great American School System and a Strategy for
America’s School in which Kirp discusses the success of Union City schools in New Jersey. Kirp
argues that more finances created a path for success:
New Money, not just new ideas, was essential to the success of aa district whose woes
could be traced in part to the school board’s unwillingness to raise taxes. The state’s one-
year reprieve came with an edict that the city hike the tax rate, and the school budget
grew by $4 million. Most of these new dollars were earmarked for long-overdue
repairs…$500,000 to create minilibraries in each classroom as a way to woo children into
becoming readers (Kirp, 83).
Union City went on to set fundraisers in order to raise more money for the schools and purchased
200 computers. Many of the students were impoverished just as in Detroit, and the new libraries
and computers made the children excited for school which improved their performance (Kirp,

8. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
8
83). New technology in Detroit’s schools as well as more supplies provided for the school would
be beneficial because many students may not be able to afford their own supplies and new items
to learn with could bring a newfound excitement to the studies.
Urban areas like Detroit face hardships that suburban and rural areas typically are less
exposed to. Large cities are more vulnerable to violence, murder, gang affiliation, and robberies
due to the lack of stability residents face in their socioeconomic status. Desperation could lead to
extremes in behavior as people struggle to find solutions to their economic problems. Virginia
Delaney-Black’s article “Violence exposure, trauma, and IQ and/or reading deficits among urban
children” reveals how students who experienced trauma struggle more in school because of their
fear to leave their home and their lack of concentration in classes. Students who suffered from
PTSD did significantly worse than other students on standardized tests as well as faced lower
literacy rate. This could be from undue stress and a lack of sleep caused by nightmares, as well
as a fear of the unknown and potential violent encounters.
The article focused on students who were from a low socio-economic status which links poor
education to violent environments as well as both factors occurring within poorer families
(Delaney-Black, Comments). Poorer communities face larger amounts of violence because of
higher populations, as well as economic instability. Turmoil and frustration are emotions that
easily develop into something more violent and dangerous reactions. Violence and crime leads to
jail and imprisonment, which leads to lower chances at finding a career or getting into higher
education. Lower education hinders chances for higher socioeconomic backgrounds and more

9. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
9
income, people potentially become desperate, and then violence and turmoil results. It appears to
be a cycle that many urban areas cannot seem to escape.
Students showing signs of struggle in learning may be a cause for concern: “Exposure to
violence may actually inhibit intellectual and academic functioning. If community violence
exposure does in fact cause such deficits, the estimated number of urban children experiencing
violence at this level would make this an issue of major concern. For example, Lester and
colleagues have previously demonstrated that even very small IQ decrements (only 3.26 points,
<0.25 SD) can have a major practical impact if large numbers of children are affected” (Delaney-
Black, Comments). The study concluded that urban schools like Detroit may benefit from
interventions and centers for students showing symptoms of PTSD. This study reveals clear signs
that a violent environment like in Detroit has a direct negative correlation with struggling
students (Delaney-Black, Comments).
“Discipline in Michigan Public Schools and Government Enforcement of Equal Education
Opportunity” relates the amount of discipline in schools to the success of the schools. Discipline
in secondary schools that was not satisfactory led to defiance from students which create a poor
educational environment for surrounding students. Urban schools would suffer from this
phenomenon more due to the large population of students. Students may feel ignored or
neglected by staff due to the crowding of schools and act out while seeking attention. The study
also claimed that minorities were more likely to drop out or suffer in school. Detroit Public
Schools holds a majority of minority students and therefore may hold a higher drop-out rate than
other schools as well as disproportionately being suspended and expelled from school (Discipline

10. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
10
in Michigan, 2). This could be a reaction from crowding as students seek attention as well as
students possibly reenacting violence they had been exposed to. Students who have been victims
of violence or who have witnessed violent happenings may be more tired and stressed than other
students, and act out. Perhaps students who do need more discipline are also acting out violent
situations that they had witnessed.
These students may simply need more attention as well as counseling as they may not know
how to show the fact that they are struggling. Ravitch suggested that every school in the United
States should be well equipped with staff ready to work with students who have mental,
psychological, and emotional problems. Staff should consist of nurses, psychologists, guidance
counselors, as well as social workers (Ravitch, Part I-Ch. 6). Students with expulsions on their
record tend to suffer more when seeking higher educations and a disproportionate amount in
Detroit could only hinder the community. If students are enable to receive a higher education due
to disciplinary problems, it only makes sense that gangs and violence is a possibility for the
future. With a loss of opportunity, an abundance of stress, and a past of outbursts, students may
grow up to continue on the path they had been on. If violence did in fact replace the opportunity
for higher education due to disciplinary problems during early education, then this could hinder
Detroit by having less potential income into the city, more poverty, and the potential for more
violence.
Although Improbable Scholars does not explicitly claim counseling as a solution, a similar
tactic was used by the school district in aiding their success. Teachers, especially early childhood
education teachers, focused on making students as comfortable and relaxed as possible during

11. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
11
school hours. The ultimate goal was to make students want to go to school. Kirp compares the
schools to a family: “its warmth feels like the public equivalent of love. It takes lots of work to
make such caring an institutional virtue” (Kirp, 44), revealing how much of a community, rather
than simply an institution, the school district has become.
The feeling of community and family as a united front assists in the education of the students
by insuring the feeling of a safe and trustworthy environment. Improbable Scholars claims that
many teachers lack the essential backgrounds to work with children, especially ones in struggling
communities: “’Kindergarten teachers typically lack a solid background in child
development’…they don’t understand the ‘why’’” (Kirp, 114). The “why” could be why those
teachers teach or it could be why what the students are learning is important, the text does not
explicitly explain what “why” refers to but both predictions serve as vital models for what needs
to be happening in the classroom. Students need motivation in order to learn and knowing why
the curriculum matters is important. Teachers understanding why their job is important, that their
teachings could shape a child’s future, is even more vital.
It is clear that schools do not have the ability to stop violence nor effectively change the
environment that students live in. However, schools could make a strong effort to create a safe
space for students. Counseling should be readily available and workers should be counseled and
taught how to respond to victims of trauma. Schools could have security guards as well as the
forcing of issuance of badges for guests whom must be authorized to visit the school. It would be
a struggle to achieve these tasks without appearing hostile, but it is not impossible.

12. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
12
Renée J. Martin’s article “An American Dilemma: Using Action Research to Frame Social
Class as an Issue of Social Justice in Teacher Education Courses” puts into perspective how
minority students could be suffering in school as a result of socioeconomic status. The article
claims that students with a lower socioeconomic status were expected to do less work, are
exposed to less valuable curricula in comparison to students of higher status, and in general are
given a less valued education:
The social class of America’s students is a salient factor in their ability to achieve desirable
academic outcomes in schools. Scholarly research has unearthed numerous links between
teachers’ expectations of students from various social classes and students’ academic
outcomes… It has long been understood that knowledge, power, and social class are
inextricably linked and that the best predictor of one’s occupational prestige and
socioeconomic status are governed by the education once receives (Martin, 6-7).
Martin is correct that knowledge, power, and social class are linked. However, class should not
determine a student’s education and knowledge. Education and power should lead to a higher
social class, but those born into lower ones should not be trapped into a system of neglect.
This could be evidence as to what is happening in Detroit Public Schools considering that
most students are from urban areas of Detroit, Detroit being a well-known city throughout the
world. The inefficient education for socioeconomic struggling students could cause the gap
between suburban areas and urban areas like Detroit because suburban and rural areas typically
hold more students of a higher socioeconomic status in comparison to urban areas like Detroit.
Students who are receiving a lacking education would struggle in pursuing higher education
because of the competition that revolves around colleges and universities.

13. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
13
Even if the students were admitted into higher education, they would be surrounded by
students from higher socioeconomic environments who have had previous experience with
school work. This could lead students to feel isolated and inefficient. Students with a
socioeconomic status that is lower typically are trapped in that status because they are granted a
poor education and therefore cannot make the leap into middle class status because of their
inability to get a higher education. A college education or a degree in a skilled trade is necessary
in order to compete in today’s job market. Without those educations, people are stuck working in
lower paying jobs, with limited career opportunities. If students in urban areas are not receiving a
quality education, then one can hypothesize that they will be continue to be in a lower
socioeconomic class, limited by their education, and pursuing limited pay jobs. It’s a debilitating
cycle that reveals why Detroit’s job market is suffering so much.
Kirp understood that there was a link between social class and education. He understood that
many children from lower social classes were denied the education they deserved and therefore
suffered by being trapped into a defined future:
The old saw that demography is destiny contains more than a kernel of truth. Over the past
generation, fewer white students and more poor and nonwhite students have enrolled in
public school. Between 1990 and 2010…‘the percentage of public school students who were
White decreased from 67% to 54% and the percentage of those who were Hispanic increased
from 12% (5.1 million students) to 23% (12.1 million students)’…between 2007 and 2011
‘the percentage of school-age children living in poor households…increased from 17% to
21%.’ Add the near-poor, those barely scraping by, and that figure doubles. For black and
Hispanic youth, poverty is a double whammy (Kirp, 6).
Kirp goes on to claim that many taxpayers could be resentful of poor schools because they don’t
want to pay for a school that is unsuccessful. As schools’ test scores drop, the funding for the

14. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
14
schools decrease as well, in the form of potentially massive budget cuts (Kirp, 6). However,
taxpayers don’t realize that schools lacking in funding that cannot adequately educate students
actually cost taxpayers because of dropouts:
Nationwide, most public schools-and most charter schools, for that matter-give these kids at
best a mediocre education. As a rule…youngsters from poor families go to worse schools
that middle class students. Poor minority and immigrant youth generally wind up in factories
for failure, where students flunk classes, skip school and drop out in droves: in 1,550 dead-
end high schools, fewer than 60% of the students graduate…that dropout will cost taxpayers
nearly $300,000 in lower tax revenues, additional government benefits, and incarceration
costs (Kirp, 7).
Poor education leads to harmful cycles of poverty, desperation, and the potential of violence and
crime. Poor families produce poor students that tend to end up in less successful schools and so
cycle continues because without a great education, there is little opportunity to crawl out of
poverty.
Many might claim that phenomena like “White Flight” are in the past, but history tends to
repeat itself. According to “How Segregated are Michigan’s Schools? Changes in Enrollment
from 1992-93 to 2004-05” by Bettie Landauer-Menchik, Michigan Schools have increased in
segregation dramatically since the introduction of charter schools. The article begins by stating
that Michigan was cited as the most segregated state in the United States in 2002 by the Harvard
Civil Rights Project (Landauer-Menchik, 1). The article sought to find out if African Americans
were more likely to attend segregated schools in 2004-2005 than twelve years prior. The first
figure shown revealed that Detroit was the most segregated city in Michigan by far in 1992-

15. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
15
1993. The amount of segregated schools in Michigan had increased by almost 50%. Detroit held
the most segregated schools, 274 out of 431 buildings (Landauer-Menchik, Table 1).
Segregated schools in Michigan are mostly found in the Detroit, Southfield, and Flint area,
where the traditional schools are commonly segregated as well (Landauer-Menchik, Figure 3).
This reveals that charter schools are not simply creating segregation, because it was previously in
the schooling system. This does not mean, however, that charter schools are not further
promoting segregation by making it easier for families to choose who is in their schools because
they are privatized. The article mentions that Detroit is the only district with more than 100,000
students in the city, and it is also the city with the most segregated schools in general.
Segregation and crowded urban areas hold a direct link. Perhaps systems like School of Choice
could help if used more by giving students in crowded schools a different school to attend to that
may not be as segregated as the new charter schools being created.
It may be inevitable that charter schools increase segregation because they are formed in
areas that have previously faced housing segregation due to “White Flight” but segregation
should not be promoted in any manner. Households may prefer to choose segregated schools in
order to appease their comfort zone but this only hinders their children’s education by limiting
their exposure to new types of people. Perhaps charter schools could decrease segregation by
seeking out students from other housing areas. One way to counteract the results of segregation
would be to have cultural presentations in which students learn about specific cultures during
select times each day.

16. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
16
A benefit of segregated schools could be that students are more comfortable. If it is a
minority group that attends the school as the majority than the school could concentrate on that
specific culture and background. Students with a similar history could benefit from a learning
environment in which their culture and history plays a role because it could motivate them to
learn to the best of their potential. It is important for children and young adults to learn about
their culture’s history and background so that they may learn from the past, find pride in their
ancestors, and strive to become more successful. As an example; if someone were German, than
it would be important for them to learn about German history and culture so that they could learn
from Germany’s past. This would potentially interest them because of their ancestry, as well as
teach them important information about the world.
Much of Detroit’s problems lie in the financial sector. Segregation is obviously a factor that
is not easily changed as well as something that some perceive as a non-issue. Working on
Detroit’s finances may be the only answer to the education problem. Timothy Bartik’s essay
“Increasing the economic development benefits of higher education in Michigan” describes the
potential for Michigan to increase economic benefits of higher education in hopes of increasing
the amount of students that go to college and universities. This could increase local economic
development and therefore help create more income. If more people in Detroit had the
opportunity and ability as well as benefits of higher education, then the money needed for the
city could come due to higher quality in the workforce (Bartik, 3-4). If more people are working,
than the opportunity “loss” could be crime. Bringing more money into the city through the work
force would help fund city renovation projects as well as provide citizens with money for
housing, water & electricity, as well as health care through job benefits.

17. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
17
Charter schools typically pay teachers and staff less than other public schools. Debbi Harris
and Marisa Burian-Fitzgerald discuss the hardships of teaching staff in charter schools in
“Teacher's Hourly Wages: A Comparison Across Michigan Schools and Alternative
Occupations. Policy Report 24”. Teachers hold a very competitive pay in comparison to other
careers that they could have chosen with the same education and that charter schools typically
pay their teachers less in comparison to other urban schools and suburban schools (Harris,
Burian-Fitzgerald, 1). A competitive pay and low-income could cause excessive stress for a
teacher who should be able to concentrate on teaching their students rather than worrying about
pay. If schools face budget cuts, it could possibly cut into available resources for the students.
Teachers have the option to purchase resources for their classes themselves, but with lower pay
they may not be able to afford it which could create more undue stress.
In urban schools teachers with more experience tend to receive a lower pay than novice
teachers because the schools are desperately trying to find new staff with more experience
(Burian-Fitzgerald, 7). Students may find comfort with teaching staff after working with them
for a school year, and if troubled students are given new teachers than that could hinder progress
by making the student feel nervous or uncomfortable. Furthermore, the new teacher would have
to pick up where the last had left off, interrupting the progress of the student.
It is a reasonable conclusion that teachers who accept jobs at schools that pay less because
they wanted to help the students. Teaching is a noble job in which a driving motivation should be
to better the community through wisdom and knowledge. It is very possible that the teachers that
take the low-paying jobs just realize that those students may need them more than at other

18. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
18
schools. However, teachers are still human and if teachers with more experience receive less pay,
then there is not enough compensation for staying within the school system. It is easy for
teachers to feel under-appreciated, and there is a lack of motivation if test scores keep dropping.
The study also showed that not only to charter schools pay teachers less in general, but that
teachers also tend to work longer hours than with traditional public schools (Burian-Fitzgerald,
6). This could be hold negative consequences because the teachers could exhaust themselves and
as a result lack the needed energy to work with so many students. If teachers have a lack of
motivation, long hours, low pay, and most likely a high ratio of students to teacher, than how
could a school expect those classes to be successful? Students need individual help and
cooperation. It is simply asking too much of the staff to expect them to help students adequately
with a lack of resources, lack of pay, and excessive work.
Rita Maranowski provides a new perspective to the dilemma: perhaps it is not just low
funding in the school systems, but misplaced funding? Maranowski’s article “Estimating the
Efficiency of Michigan's Rural and Urban Public School Districts” claims that much of
education funding does not go to the general education but rather to specialized programs
(Maranowski, 1). This is unfair and unbeneficial to most students because the students who are
not in these special programs end up being ignored and lost in the system. This is revealed by the
stagnant success rates that have resulted from all of the money being put into specialized
programs. This presents the question of whether or not too much blame is put on society,
environment, and the history revolving many urban areas. Maranowski claims that despite a
large increase in funding, success of students as only increased marginally (Maranowski, 1).

19. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
19
Perhaps the school systems themselves are partially to blame. Maranowski proposes that
policy enforced that could dictate how schools use funding could be beneficial considering the
wide variety in which different schools use their finances (Maranowski, 3). One policy that
Michigan has enacted that is beneficial for urban schooling is more direct attention toward
students who are at a greater risk of struggling academically:
Research indicates children from disadvantaged backgrounds are at greater risk for low
academic performance and therefore, the federal government has responded by providing
schools with additional funding for programs targeted at helping students who meet
eligibility requirements. Title I funding for elementary and secondary education is available
to schools to help improve the academic achievement of disadvantaged students
(Maranowski, 12).
The only problem with this is that there are many more disadvantaged students in areas like
Detroit than in other schools in Michigan.
“The Nation’s Report Card” by the National Center for Education demonstrates that Detroit
fell behind other schools in large cities in terms of education in 2009. Test scores in Detroit were
significantly lower and only 40% of students in Detroit fell under the NAEP’s basic level,
compared to other large cities average of 63%. Only 7% of Detroit students fell under the
NAEP’s proficient level, compared to 21% on average in other large cities. Students in Detroit
are showing that they are not being granted the same education as students in surrounding
schools. 60% of students are not meeting the NAEP’s basic level, 60% of students are not
meeting the requirements of skills that are typically met by other students (National Center for
Education Statistics, Overall Results). This gives the impression that not only is Detroit
struggling more than the typical urban area, but perhaps Detroit’s schools are also to blame for
the schools considering that other large cities held higher scores. The data did not include the

20. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
20
white students in Detroit because “reporting standards were not met”. This could be a result of
Detroit having a far greater amount of students than most districts as well as being a city in
which “White Flight” hit particularly hard. In 2009, students who were eligible for free/reduced-
price school lunch had an average score that was 13 points lower than that of students who were
not eligible for free/reduced-price school lunch. This reveals that students who held a lower
socioeconomic status were less successful in school (National Center for Education Statistics,
Score Gaps for Student Groups).
Revenues and Spending of Michigan’s Urban, Suburban, Town and Rural School Districts by
Michael Van Beek analyzes the difference in funding and revenue of schools in different
environments and socioeconomic statuses to test the argument that schooling is directly related
to adequate (or inadequate) funding. Van Beek claims that history is to blame for much of the
disparity between different types of schools: “For most of the 20th century, the majority of
America’s school revenues came from local property taxes. In many states, including Michigan,
large disparities between districts’ local property values and methods of assessing taxes led to
substantial funding variations between urban, rural and suburban districts…suburban districts
could often raise more local revenue per pupil than rural and urban districts” (Van Beek, 1). This
is a shadow of the “White Flight” phenomena in which property taxes in Detroit dramatically
decreased after many white middle and upper class residents left. Cities now surprisingly held a
high amount of revenue in comparison to rural districts and in comparison to the changes in
terms of growth to suburban and rural districts (Van Beek, 4), showing that funding is not as
crucial as many make it out to be. The study also found that rural and town groups spent more
funding on instruction than did city and suburban schools. Kirp cited an increase in funding as

21. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
21
one of the stepping stones in creating a more successful school system out of Union City,
including the building of a new preschool and a $180 million high school (Kirp, 12).
School of choice is one program that was presented in order to relieve some competition in
schools with high populations of disadvantaged students. Charisse Gulosino and Christopher
Lubienski’s analysis on school programs in “School’s Strategic Responses to Competition in
Segregated Urban Areas: Patterns in School Locations in Metropolitan Detroit” shows the efforts
that Detroit’s school system has shown to help students become more successful. School of
Choice allows students to pursue an education at schools that they otherwise would not have
been able to afford to attend: “…not only is choice expected to open up access to existing, high
quality schools, for families in need of alternatives, but the competitive effects of choice-as
schools compete for the choices of consumers- are also expected to generate new and better
options for poor families” (Gulosino, Lubienski, 2). This could also help schools that are
suffering from over-crowding students because more students could go to other schools.
However, it could also hinder the schools that the students are leaving because instead of
working on the problems of the child’s school, they just seek an alternative. This could further
the problems of inequality because now the children stuck at the original school are still
struggling whereas the children who use School of Choice now have a better education. The
expected prevention of this problem is that schools would do better that were losing their
students because of competition for consumers: “…‘market populism’ where competition-based
reforms such as charter schools and vouchers can provide equitable opportunities for
disadvantaged groups” (Gulosino, Lubienski, 2-4). Although this is a decent idea and does give

22. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
22
poor families more choices and opportunities, it is not always realistic. Yes, the child has a
higher quality school to attend, but how would they get there? What if their parents must work
long hours? How would the parents consistently afford to get the student to classes on time?
Considering that students who normally attend School of Choice are commuting. It is nice that
these high quality schools are offered to more students, but what about the struggling schools?
What about the students that must stay there? The opportunity just becomes more unequal. What
communities should be doing is work to improve the lower quality schools rather than simply
moving some students to higher quality schools. What happens when every student from the
poorer schools tries to get into the higher quality schools? Those higher quality schools both
become crowded and lose some of that quality as a result, or some students get left behind.
Yet, if schools are over-crowded, they may be relieved that some students are seeking their
education elsewhere. The study found that many charter schools have taken the place of tuition-
funded private schools so that they may receive students who are better-prepared and get better
market value (Gulosino, Lubienski, 11). This shows that charter schools may be driven by
business goals where real estate is low (Gulosino, Lubienski, 19). This gives the impression that
charter schools are not being enacted in order to help with the success rate of students, but to
gain finances instead on the coattails of students that are already successful. The study found
suggestions for charter schools: “…our findings suggest a need for close monitoring of the
distributive patterns of enrollment, racial/ethnic and income groups, and the net effect of charter
school location on neighborhood characteristics” (Gulosino, Lubienski, 21). Charter schools tend
to be placed in similar areas, with similar students. Where is the diversity?

23. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
23
Detroit’s citizens have thought of reforms for their schools in order to better educate their
students according to Council of the Great City Schools report, “Reforming and Improving the
Detroit Public Schools”. The council advised both reforms in finances and in curricula. The
council claimed that since 2002 improvements in the school had become stagnant and even
declined in some areas, and that the school district is lacking in “clear and consistent guidelines
(Council of the Great City Schools, 8). The council advised reforms such as: working with a
teachers’ union, developing and updating the district’s marketing plan, initiating a city-wide
“army” of volunteers and mentors, developing a parent guide that explains the school goals for
the year, and ensuring that every school has enough resources by establishing a policy for
ordering textbooks and other resources (Council of the Great City Schools, 10-11).
This resource displays that citizens of Detroit know what the district’s problems are and that
they are attempting to solve those problems. Since that is the case, I must wonder why Detroit’s
public schools have not improved drastically since 2008 when this report was issued. The
council provides statistics on how students in Detroit are different than surrounding schools in
Michigan: Detroit students are more than four times as likely to be African American than in
other cities in Michigan and the enrollment of students in Detroit Public Schools has dropped
significantly more than in other schools in Michigan (28 students per school in comparison to 10
students per school) (Council of the Great City Schools, 23-25). Perhaps the demographics of
Detroit have put the city in a position in which they face too many socioeconomic hindrances
that reforms cannot simply fix. Charter schools may only create more of a problem by creating
an environment in which those socioeconomic realities are enhanced.

24. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
24
One aspect of Union City’s success that has been vastly neglected by all of the other articles
regarding urban education is how local government can shape a school district. The mayor of the
city, Brian Stack, who is also state senator, worked tirelessly with the school district to make it
the success story it is (Kirp, 115). School politics intertwining with local politics is an aspect that
most districts lack. Usually the mayor does not hold much leverage in school politics, but the
necessary relationship between local politics and school matters rescued Union City (Kirp, 117).
Senator Brian Stack made sure to get Union City the funding they needed and he fought against
any potential cuts that could occur. Similarly, democratic Congresswoman Brenda Lawrence of
the 14th district in Michigan, who is also the mayor of Southfield, has won the recent election on
a platform of early education. With her “double-dipping” and history of working well with
Republicans, Brenda Lawrence could help school districts of Detroit and surrounding urban
areas.
The following is a list provided by Kirp that reveals what Union City did that made them so
special and become a success story among poor urban schools:
1. High-quality full-day preschool for all children starts at age three.
2. Word-soaked classrooms give youngsters a rich feel for language.
3. Immigrant kids become fluent first in their native language and then in English.
4. The curriculum is challenging, consistent from school to school, and tied together
from one grade to the next.
5. Close-grained analyses of students’ tests scores are used to diagnose and address
problems.
6. Teachers and students get hands-on help to improve their performance.
7. The schools reach out to parents, enlisting them as partners in their children’s
education.
8. The school system sets high expectations for all and maintains a culture of abrazos-
caring-which generates trust (Kirp, 9).

25. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
25
Many of these ideas advised by Kirp could be applied to Detroit schools and other urban schools
in America. Early education is a necessary component of schooling because it is the first
impression a child holds of school and rooms full of language could be beneficial because of the
components of reading and writing as well as communication. Challenging students is a practice
that should be expected from teachers. It’s a common sense conclusion that no one will know
what their capable of unless they are pushed. Looking at past work of students to figure out what
could have went wrong or what miscommunication could have existed between the student and
the teachings could help with the performance of students because it shows exactly what students
needed to work on. The same method is used by students every time they look at past comments
from teachers before writing again. Hands-on help to teachers and students could be effective
because then potential problems would be brought to light immediately allowing for more time
to fix the issues at hand. Reaching out to parents is helpful because they can assist students on
their homework as well as promote growth by boosting their students’ confidence and
reinforcing notions that education is important. Lastly, building trust is crucial because the
opportunity of failure brings vulnerability and a safe environment could bring reassurance to
students who have emotional problems or trauma due to potentially destructive or violent
environments in urban areas.
Union City did more for their students than most schools. Union City cared about how
the students were doing emotionally, mentally, and academically. They did not search for quick
fixes but rather fought for the right resources and worked with teachers to insure that students
were being taught to their best ability based on their individual needs. Numbers on tests were not
as important as the well-being of the students. The consideration that students and teachers are

26. Mikaela Haley
December 12, 2014
MC 401
Research Paper
Rough Draft
26
people was not lost among the searching through figures and statistics to see which race or
socioeconomic background was doing better. The leaders of the school district, as well as the
community, worked hand in hand to discover the problems of the school and what had to be done
to fix them. It took grunt work, hands on help, and fundraising. It was a long process that took
years to accomplish and is still a work in progress. The school district did not search for a quick
fix and did not allow privatization to take over. Union City realized that substantial reform was
necessary and that real success takes years and dedicated leaders and staff.