Matthew Ralph- Dissertation

School of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
CIVE5708M
Individual Research Project Dissertation
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MEng in Civil and Structural Engineering
Relocation or Protection?
A Cost Analysis for three isolated case studies to determine the most financially viable
option for mitigating the damage of floods
by
Matthew Ralph
Cn12mrr
May 2016

I
Acknowledgements
I would like to take the time to thank my supervisor Professor Andy Sleigh for all the help he offered
during my final year project. He was always available with answers to questions and queries I had on
the topic. More thanks should be directed towards my co-supervisor Sangaralingam Ahilan who was
a useful guide offering insights and recommendations.
Further acknowledgements are provided to the various professional contacts who helped throughout
the project. These include Simon Jepps and John Chatterton, who helped during the project subject
selection and issues quantifying intangible costs.
Last but not least, thanks are given to all the family and friends that supported me during this difficult
period. Without all the help, support and advice it would have been extremely difficult completing
this dissertation.

II
Abstract
The purpose of this dissertation is to analyse whether it is more financially viable for governments to
offer a relocation package for businesses and residents operating in flood prone areas or whether it is
more beneficial to continue to protect properties using traditional alleviation methods. The
controversial nature of the relocation policy means that there are limited studies available discussing
this concept. Intangible effects of flooding which are difficult to quantify also limit the value of any
potential result.
A cost analysis was undertaken to collate the values of certain factors initiated by flooding events, the
calculations included the breakdown of costs for each option as well as discussions of assumptions
made for unquantifiable impacts. The results provide a new alleviation option for governments to
consider, and due to the likelihood of increased severe weather events the relocation option becomes
more and more viable.
Key Words: Flood Alleviation, Sustainable Solution, Forced Relocation, Making Space for Water,
Cost Analysis

III
Contents
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................I
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................II
Chapter 1- Introduction................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Objectives......................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Outline of the report.....................................................................................................................2
Chapter 2- Literature Review........................................................................................................4
2.1 Flooding Overview ........................................................................................................................4
2.2 Flooding Economics ......................................................................................................................5
2.2.1 Housing prices........................................................................................................................5
2.2.2 Insurance................................................................................................................................6
2.2.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis..............................................................................................................6
2.2.4 Intangibles..............................................................................................................................7
2.3 ‘Making Space for Water’ .............................................................................................................7
2.3.1 Government Documentation.................................................................................................8
2.3.2 United Kingdom .....................................................................................................................9
2.3.3 Netherlands............................................................................................................................9
2.3.4 Europe..................................................................................................................................10
2.3.5 Worldwide............................................................................................................................11
2.4 Relocation ...................................................................................................................................12
2.4.1 United Kingdom ...................................................................................................................13
2.4.2 China ....................................................................................................................................14
2.4.3 Disaster Response................................................................................................................15
Chapter 3- UK Case Studies ........................................................................................................ 17
3.1 Carlisle 2005 Flood......................................................................................................................17
3.1.1 Overview ..............................................................................................................................17
3.1.2 Causation .............................................................................................................................18
3.1.3 Damages...............................................................................................................................19
3.1.4 Reaction ...............................................................................................................................20
3.1.5 December 2015 Floods ........................................................................................................22
3.2 Leeds 2007 Flood ........................................................................................................................23
3.2.1 Overview ..............................................................................................................................23
3.2.2 Causation .............................................................................................................................24
3.2.3 Damages...............................................................................................................................25

IV
3.2.4 Reaction ...............................................................................................................................25
3.2.5 December 2015 Floods ........................................................................................................26
3.3 Calder Valley 2012 Floods...........................................................................................................27
3.3.1 Overview ..............................................................................................................................27
3.3.2 Causation .............................................................................................................................28
3.3.3 Damages...............................................................................................................................29
3.3.4 Reaction ...............................................................................................................................30
3.3.5 December 2015 Floods ........................................................................................................32
Chapter 4- Methodology ............................................................................................................ 34
4.1 Area Selection .............................................................................................................................34
4.1.1 Carlisle..................................................................................................................................34
4.1.2 Kirkstall.................................................................................................................................35
4.1.3 Hebden Bridge & Mytholmroyd...........................................................................................35
4.2 Maps............................................................................................................................................36
4.2.1 Software...............................................................................................................................36
4.2.2 Data Files..............................................................................................................................36
4.2.3 Shape Files ...........................................................................................................................36
4.2.4 Flood Zone Maps..................................................................................................................37
4.3 Quantifying Method....................................................................................................................38
4.3.1 Businesses............................................................................................................................38
4.3.2 Residential............................................................................................................................40
4.3.3 Final Quantities ....................................................................................................................40
4.4 Site Visit.......................................................................................................................................41
4.4.1 Willingness to accept survey................................................................................................41
4.4.2 Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd .......................................................................................42
4.4.3 Kirkstall.................................................................................................................................44
Chapter 5- Cost Analysis............................................................................................................. 46
5.1 Protect.........................................................................................................................................46
5.1.1 Previous Schemes ................................................................................................................46
5.1.2 Future Schemes....................................................................................................................46
5.1.3 Cost of Damages ..................................................................................................................47
5.1.4 Other Costs ..........................................................................................................................49
5.1.5 Further Considerations ........................................................................................................50
5.2 Relocate ......................................................................................................................................51
5.2.1 Compulsory purchase order.................................................................................................51

V
5.2.2 Residential............................................................................................................................52
5.2.3 Commercial ..........................................................................................................................52
5.2.4 Compensation Costs ............................................................................................................54
5.2.5 Demolition Costs..................................................................................................................54
5.2.6 Further Considerations ........................................................................................................55
Chapter 6- Results and Analysis.................................................................................................. 56
6.1 Carlisle.........................................................................................................................................56
6.2 Kirkstall........................................................................................................................................57
6.3 Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd ..............................................................................................58
Chapter 7- Discussion and Conclusions ....................................................................................... 60
7.1 Project Aim..................................................................................................................................60
7.2 Limitations...................................................................................................................................61
7.3 Reliability.....................................................................................................................................62
7.4 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................62
7.5 Further Research Opportunities .................................................................................................63
Chapter 8- References................................................................................................................ 65
Appendices................................................................................................................................ 72

VI
List of Figures
Chapter 3- Case Studies
3.1 Hydrograph of the amount of rainfall in Carlisle 2005 17
3.2 Satellite images above Carlisle 2005 18
3.3 Images of flooding in Carlisle 19
3.4 Flood defences around Riverside business park 20
3.5 River Petteril defences 21
3.6 CUFC flood defences 21
3.7 Flood figures from December 2015 floods 22
3.8 Images of flooding, 2015 Carlisle 22
3.9 The River Aire Catchment area 23
3.10 Images taken in Kirkstall and the districts boundary 24
3.11 Map of percentage of average rainfall 2012 24
3.12 Visualisation of proposed new movable weir 25
3.13 Image of flooding Kirkstall Road 26
3.14 Map created using QGIS showing postcode districts of Kirstall 26
3.15 Proposed alleviation scheme for Kirkstall 27
3.16 Rainfall data for Todmorden against national average 28
3.17 Map detailing the affected areas in Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd 29
3.18 Image of flood water flowing down Keighley Road 30
3.19 Alleviation scheme installed at Nutclough Reservoir 32
3.20 Images of the flooding in Hebden Bridge on Boxing Day 33
Chapter 4- Methodology
4.1 Images of Carlisle Cathedral and Castle 34
4.2 Image of Kirkstall Abbey 35
4.3 Images taken during fieldwork in Hebden Bridge 35
4.4 QGIS map of Carlisle 37
4.5 QGIS of Kirkstall 37
4.6 QGIS map of Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd 38
4.7 Google map of Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd showing businesses 39
4.8 Google map of Kirkstall showing businesses 39
4.9 QGIS map of Stubbing Drive Hebden Bridge 40
4.10 Pictures taken during fieldwork of unopened businesses 43
4.11 Images of the green areas in Kirkstall 44
4.12 Images taken in Kirkstall 45
Chapter 5- Cost Analysis
5.1 Total costs of previous and future flood alleviation schemes for Carlisle 47
5.2 Total costs of previous and future flood alleviation schemes for Hebden Bridge 47

VII
List of Tables
Chapter 3- Case Studies
3.1 Table showing the number of flooding events per postcode sector 26
3.2 The number of properties affected by the 2012 flooding in Hebden Bridge 30
4.1 The number of residential and commercial properties at risk from flooding 40
4.2 Results of the survey conducted in Hebden Bridge 42
4.3 Results of the survey conducted in Kirkstall 44
5.1 The total cost of damages for each location 49
5.2 Cost of completing adequate property resilience 50
5.3 Average house price in all three locations 52
5.4 The total cost to acquire all residential properties for each location 53
5.5 Showing the approximate area requiring demolition and the total cost 54
Chapter 6- Results and Analysis
6.1 Showing the breakdown of total cost for Carlisle 56
6.2 Showing the breakdown of total cost for Kirkstall 57
6.3 Showing the breakdown of total cost for Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd 58

1
Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Background
For thousands of years civilisations have chosen to reside next to rivers and oceans, this is because
the land is generally flat and fertile, with direct access to drinkable water, improving both
communication and mobility. As a result of this, humans have had to develop methods for defending
their livelihoods against the power of floods. It is crucial therefor to continue to develop new
innovative methods for alleviating the risk of flooding, especially with the increasing influence of
global warming effecting the frequency and intensity of natural disasters.
This paper attempts to generate a new option for flood protection, by implementing forced relocation
in an effort to recreate the natural flood plains and remove the risk of flooding to certain communities.
This remains a highly controversial topic, but by conducting this research it is hoped that despite the
initial financial outlay, the results will suggest that there will be economic and social benefits for future
generations. This option will be discussed alongside the historical method of mitigation, which
involves using structural means to protect urban areas. It is widely accepted that no defence will
protect communities indefinitely from flooding and it is this build-up of cost which may suggest that
the relocation option is the most financial viable in the long term. Both options will calculate a total
cost for the government, dependant on the values of the tangible and intangible considerations for
each scenario.
1.2 Objectives
The main aim of this project is to compare two options, protection or relocation, in order to determine
the most cost effective method of mitigating flood loss, this process will be undertaken in three
isolated locations with contrasting situations. By considering all the possible factors influencing the
financial aspect of an alleviation scheme, a cost analysis will be produced detailing the breakdown of
total cost for each option. The ultimate aim of the study can be divided further into a number of
manageable objectives, these are as follows:
1. Conduct initial research on the cause and effects of major flooding incidents, with
consideration applied towards their economic impact.
2. Detail various countries attempts to alleviate the effects of flooding, highlighting
relocation practices and sustainable approaches.
3. Conduct case studies on three relevant locations to generate a full understanding of the
current situation and the issues of the region.
4. Effectively cost both the options, to protect and to relocate, using a variety of sources and
techniques.
5. Produce an accessible cost analysis effectively showing the most financial viable response
for each location.

2
1.3 Outline of the report
The research paper will be categorised into eight chapters, they will chronologically detail the process
undertaken by the study in its attempt to produce relevant and reliable results. The format will be as
follows:
Chapter 1- Introduction
A brief outline of the topic being examined, with discussions on the methods undertaken to complete
the projects aims and objectives. A framework of the report is also provided to improve the reader’s
accessibility.
Chapter 2- Literature Review
Analysis of key literature discussing topics considered important for this study which include, an
overview of the flooding issues, the economic effect of flooding, sustainable alleviation methods and
international forced relocation examples.
Chapter 3- UK Case Studies
A case study has been generated for each of the three chosen locations analysing a recent flooding
event. An overview of each settlement is provided detailing the causation, the amount of damages
and the local authority’s reaction. A brief discussion is also included about the December 2015 floods.
Details the chronological development of the study from the area selection up until the
commencement of the costing process. The section includes information on how the QGIS maps have
been created, how the number of properties for each location have been quantified and details on
the willingness to relocate survey conducted in two of the areas.
Contains discussions on all of the relevant cost considerations for both alleviation options. Tangible
and intangible costs will be debated, with all assumptions supported with relevant sources. For this
section the breakdown of individual costs is included showing the weighting assigned to each
consideration.
Chapter 6- Results and Analysis
Each location generated an accessible table showing the breakdown for each scenario including the
various factors considered. This enables the reader to digest the information and decipher the most
cost effective solution. A discussion is included for all of the results offering recommendations for the
most suitable response.
Chapter 7- Discussion and Conclusions
To conclude the paper the reliability, limitation and overall successfulness of the study is analysed.
With opportunities for possible avenues of further research also discussed.

3
Chapter 8- References
Includes all the relevant sources which were used for completing the study. It offers an alphabetically
formatted section providing the reader with the means to find and analyse the source’s themselves.
Appendix
Finally the appendix contains relevant data calculations and external figures which have not been
included in the text. For some situations enlarged images are also included so that a more detailed
version is available for the reader’s requirements.

4
Chapter 2- Literature Review
This section of the report will compare different journals and academic literature which have been
useful for this paper, providing information on a number of crucial topics. These topics include an
overview of the flooding issue, a discussion on the impact of flooding on the economy, various
methods of sustainable flooding policies with their implementation procedure and finally forced
relocation examples from around the world. These subjects will help to cost alleviation schemes as
well as providing examples of sustainable solutions and useful precedents of previously successful
relocation policies.
2.1 Flooding Overview
Flooding is one of the most frequently occurring natural disasters in the world and affects thousands
of people each year. No other natural disaster has claimed more lives, destroyed more infrastructure
or damaged more land than flooding (Douben, 2002), data is available which demonstrates this fact
by showing that between 2000 and 2009, 2 billion people were affected by disasters; 4% by
Earthquakes, 30% by droughts and 44% by flooding (Ferris, 2010). A number of studies suggest that
these percentages could increase, with Fleming (2002) reporting that floods could be twice as likely in
50 years time. One of the major reasons that floods are occurring with greater frequency is continued
urbanisation, this increases the area of flood zones, creating new at risk properties and a greater area
of devastation (Bartosova et al., 2000). There are numerous different types of flooding which need to
be dealt with in a variety of different ways. During the introduction part of this literature review the
different types of flooding will be analysed, with possible mitigation measures provided, also included
will be real life examples of large flooding events which have impacted regions both socially and
economically.
For this particular study the two important mechanisms of flooding are pluvial and fluvial. During times
of intense and prolonged rainfall there is a possibility that rivers will exceed their capacity and burst
their banks with the river spilling out of the channel onto flood plains, this is known as fluvial flooding
(Chen et al., 2010). It is easier to protect against fluvial flooding as in most cases the water level rises
slowly enabling the evacuation of areas at risk, if required. Interestingly the majority of recorded flood
events are categorised as fluvial floods and occur because of long periods of rainfall over a large
catchment area (Douben, 2002). Pluvial flooding is considered a relatively new form of flooding and is
caused by urbanisation and increased development. Often referred to as flash floods, their threat
originates from high intensity slow moving storm fronts which generate high flow rates in isolated
locations (Douben, 2002). Pluvial flooding is intensified when the drainage system does not function
properly or is incorrectly managed, this saturation reduces an urban centres capacity to deal with large
volumes of water. Braun and Aßheuer (2011) discuss the effect of urbanisation in Bangladesh,
highlighting the increase in risk from pluvial situations which coincides with the countries annual
fluvial floods. In most situations it is this combination of fluvial and pluvial flooding which creates such
a difficult scenario for the local authorities to deal with.
Finally the third recognised mechanism of flooding is Coastal, this type of flooding is a major concern
for the United Kingdom, but this particular study focuses on inland locations for examination, so this
mechanism can be neglected. It is covered well by Dawson et al. (2009), who states that the risk from
coastal flooding is rising due to the fact that global warming is increasing the frequency of natural

5
disasters, the source states that in 1990, 1.2 billion people lived in near-coastal zones highlighting the
increasing importance of good coastal management. Coastal flooding is caused by extreme tidal
conditions including high tides, storm surges and tsunamis.
A useful source for gathering information on large recent floods is Douben (2002), the paper provides
information regarding the most devastating floods in the last century. Provided in chronological order
it offers the financial losses, number of lives lost and the causation of the event. Some of the most
significant include, Netherlands 1953 which drowned 1800 people and destroyed 3000 homes, China
1994 almost 1500 people lost their lives with billions of dollars of damage and Mississippi 1993 where
800 of the 1400 levees were breached submerging 40,000km² of the Midwest.
Flooding is a natural disaster that may cause tremendous tangible and intangible damage to the
national economy. It is the aim of this paper to reduce the effect on the economy and increase the
quality of life of people that are constantly wary of the flooding risk.
2.2 Flooding Economics
The economics of flooding involves calculating the total cost associated with each flooding event, and
the overall effect on the economy. This section will discuss the effects of flooding on the housing
market or the incurred loss of value in an area, the issues with gaining flood insurance, the cost-benefit
analysis undertaken before any alleviation scheme proposal and quantifying certain intangibles.
Bennett and Hartwell-Naguib (2014) estimate that flood damages in England exceed £1.1 billion
annually, with the environment agency calculating that by 2080 this value could surpass £27 billion
(Environment Agency, 2013). Therefor it is crucial that the defensive strategy for dealing with floods
not only looks at the prevention of loss of life but also reducing the cost of alleviation schemes without
reducing the effectiveness of its protection.
2.2.1 Housing prices
One easily identifiable method for determining the effect of flooding on an areas value is to assess the
depreciation in value of a property categorised in a high risk flood zone. When comparing houses in
the same location before and after a flood event it is easy to understand the trend. An initial paper
which explained the basic principles of a hedonic pricing structure as well as the link between housing
prices and flood risk is Daniel et al. (2009), the paper also touches on how these valuations can be
extrapolated to provide an accurate figure showing the loss of value for a particular area. The study
found that an increase of flood risk by just 0.01 can see a decrease in property values of around 0.6%,
indicating that the cost of floods are not only attributed to the damages but also from the devaluation
of the community and its amenities. In a very specific case study, Tobin and Montz (1988) discuss the
subsequent response of the real estate market following the Northern California floods of 1986.
Although the study could be considered dated, it offers a comprehensive analysis of the effects that
natural disasters have on region and the swiftness values return to their typical levels. The findings
detail that disasters can successfully re-calculate the actual value of an area, and that in some
scenarios the property price does not fully reflect how at risk the building is. As a source it was useful
for this study as it showed the influence flooding can have on valuations and therefor the difficulty
effectively costing them. In a similar process to this study, Bartosova et al. (2000) uses GIS software to

6
more accurately map a locations particular geographical situation and measure the extent of risk. The
study discusses how the increase of a properties flood risk, negatively effects its value. By being one
of the first papers to fully utilise the GIS software the study offers a unique view on the effect of rising
flood risk and how that transfers to the economic value of a location. The final study conducted by,
Bin et al. (2008) also exploits GIS software and the hedonic property price to produce visual
representations detailing the effect reducing flood risk can have on the value of a property. This
section displays not only the direct cost of floods, but also the indirect consequences of ineffectively
protecting a region, and the implications for location valuations.
2.2.2 Insurance
One of the major issues for flood prone areas is the issues gaining acceptable insurance policies. If
some areas are deemed to be too dangerous to protect it adds additional stress on the government
budget, as greater relief spending is required. This shows the importance of ensuring that all houses
at risk can get reasonable levels of insurance, this protects area valuations, entices new investment
and visitors into the community. One of the most important strategies implemented in the United
States for dealing with the insurance issue is the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), the
effectiveness of this policy and its implications are discussed in Shilling et al. (1989). The paper
discusses the property value dependant on whether insurance is subsidised or not, this is because one
of the most important sections of the NFIP is that existing buildings are guaranteed insurance whereas
new builds are not. Despite the year of publishing, the source remains useful for explaining the
importance of flooding insurance and its ability to reduce the cost in the immediate aftermath of a
disaster. Another source which highlights the advantages of flood insurance and its attempt to
mitigate the economic damages in a specific community is Botzen et al. (2009). The paper discusses
various incentive strategies undertaken by governments to improve the resilience of properties in
exchange for providing competitive insurance packages. This has the added advantage of improving
the protection at properties and consequently reducing the cost of flood damage. Michel-Kerjan and
Kunreuther (2011) have produced a source detailing their opinion on the insurance procedure and
offering a potential alternative which reduces the risk to government and increases personal
responsibility. The study highlights the importance of insurance for ensuring economic and social
resilience immediately succeeding natural disasters. Insurance is a necessary procedure to analyse
because the cost to bail out communities is extremely large. The reduction in insurance cover,
increases the amount of relief the government has to provide, this increases the total cost of damage.
2.2.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis
A cost benefit should be conducted for every potential construction project, this will detail the overall
cost of the proposal as well as the amount of money that will be saved. This is also essential for any
flood alleviation scheme so that the best possible solution can be generated and the costs of floods
can be minimised. A useful introductory book on the theory behind cost-benefits is Hanley and Spash
(1993). The source also explains the hedonic pricing strategy which is a crucial aspect of any valuation
process. Included within the book are various case studies and examples providing a useful framework
to follow for any study attempting to produce a cost analysis. Another paper which uses case studies
to display an effective methodology is Meyer and Messner (2005), they examine various EU countries

7
methods for integrating a successful cost benefit analysis into the countries hazard alleviation policies.
The report identifies the importance of producing a cost benefit analysis for each possibility to decide
on the best course of action, this helps to reduce the overall cost of an event without reducing the
schemes effectiveness. Jonkman et al. (2004) produced a similar paper, but it solely focused on the
Netherlands methods for producing a cost analysis and how it impacts the approval of future
alleviation schemes. Once again the source stressed the importance of conducting a relevant analysis
and the effect it can have on the cost of a project. It is important that the reader is aware that by
completing an accurate cost benefit analysis the cheapest possible scheme is produced which can still
effectively protect a region, this can help improve the economic aspect of a flood event.
2.2.4 Intangibles
The overall cost of flooding is a difficult concept to quantify, this is due to a number of defining factors
which will be classified as intangibles. These are basically factors which occur as a direct result of
flooding which negatively impact a person’s life, currently there is no defining way of quantifying these
factors in monetary terms. This creates difficulty when attempting to effectively analyse the cost of
an isolated flood event. One of the first papers which attempted to quantify the intangible costs of
flooding was, Lekuthai and Vongvisessomjai (2001). The study proposed the production of a new
approach called, ‘Anxiety-Productivity and Income Interrelationship Approach (API)’, which quantified
the intangible damage in monetary terms. The API offers the first approach which details the full cost
of flooding damage. This creates the possibility that proposals which would have been deemed
unfeasible in the past, could now be considered achievable due to intangible benefits upon the
schemes completion. This was preceded by Green and Penning- Roswell (1989) who noticed the
omission of certain aspects of overall cost, which could not be quantified. The paper defined these as
the intangibles, and it suggested that their impact upon households was huge and often larger in
financial terms than personal losses. Two papers which discuss the method for costing the damages
of floods are Booysen et al. (1999) and (Chowdhury, 1988). The first paper includes the cost of the
intangibles, providing a useful outline for anyone conducting a costing exercise. The second paper
looks at Bangladesh, a follows a questionnaire based technique which gathered information on the
cost to people’s lives. Although not an extensive and detailed study, it still generates useful data for
detailing the effect of the 1987 flood on the Bangladeshi economy. This aspect of flood costing is
important for this study because it provides examples of how to generate monetary values for aspects
of damage which are difficult to quantify, this may be useful when attempting to quantify sentimental
value and psychological effects.
2.3 ‘Making Space for Water’
‘Making Space for Water’ is a concept which looks at the possibility of allowing rivers more space to
flow in their natural paths and where possible removing human habitation in these flood plains. All
alleviation methods should also consider ways of reducing the damage to public health, the
environment, cultural heritage and economic expenditure. This would create a fully integrated
sustainable and environmental solution to a severe natural problem. A number of schemes and
policies can be categorised under this heading, ‘Making Space for Water’, this paper has defined this

8
concept as any sustainable alleviation method which aims at improving the ecology and reducing the
potential structural development in a particular area. A number of papers were available on this topic
with references available on European equivalents including, ‘Room for Rivers’ and ‘Retaining Water
in the Landscape’.
2.3.1 Government Documentation
The initial reading for this topic centred on government publications, Defra (2004) provided a detailed
overview of the whole strategy and a description of how the authorities aimed at improving the
situation. Described as a consultation exercise the report was gauging the opinions of stake holders
and political party leaders as to whether, ‘Making Space for Water’ would be a viable option in the
long term. The (2004) report hinted that the policy was consistent throughout Europe and more of a
worldwide way of sustainably dealing with floods. Two articles were analysed to see the differing
opinions of this new policy, with regards to the Somerset levels approach to flood management. North
(2014) believes the whole policy was introduced in accordance with EU regulations, and that flood
defence gave way to ‘management’ and therefor further flooding. He stated his indignation at the
policy and it was his belief that EU leadership was the reason for numerous high profile flooding events
in rural areas, such as the Somerset levels. Dingwall (2014) offers a more balanced view on the reason
for flooding in the levels, he takes into account the history of the area and the issues with dredging
and making environmental changes to an eco-system. Dingwall tends to agree with the governments
‘Making Space for Water’ procedures and states categorically that any alleviation methods introduced
in the area are pandering to a small minority of the population by producing an ineffective solution in
the immediate aftermath of a disaster. He stresses the need for a long term sustainable solution
instead of short term hard engineering measures. The follow up document released by UK government,
Defra (2005) discussed the findings of the consultation exercise, and stated its ‘new strategic direction’,
which involved the prioritisation of allowing certain areas to flood, against their continued protection.
It provided a positive opinion on the policy from the government’s point of view detailing the overall
aims of the strategy and its final vision. The report also states the desire to analyse the costs of
providing and not providing flood alleviation schemes, this mimics the approach of this study which
analyses the cost benefit of certain options against others.
In October 2007 the EU announced the Flood Directive 2007/60/EC, this document outlined the
European Union’s approach to flooding, building on previous legislation, it instructed all member
states to follow a uniform strategy of alleviation in order to witness the most successful results. The
EU (2007) directive aims to assess the risk of flooding in all river basins and coastal regions, to map
out all flood prone areas and establish flood risk management plans based on cooperation between
member states. This was a useful document for comparing the differences in policies between EU and
UK parliament, it is relevant that for much of Europe rivers flow inbetween countries. Therefore a
more holistic approach is required, as one action may have a catastrophic reaction in a neighbouring
country. Although these documents were useful, it is worth noting that they are, for obvious reasons,
extremely positive about the policies they are aiming to implement. For a more balanced view the
next stage of research involved reading some papers which discussed the reason for implementing
these policies in certain countries and an analysis of their overall effectiveness.

9
This research has provided governments with evidence to justify producing a more sustainable long
term approach to flooding. This next section of the Literature Review will analyse various countries
responses to new legislation manoeuvring policy away from hard engineering to more sustainable
solutions.
2.3.2 United Kingdom
The first country which is analysed by this paper is the United Kingdom and its ‘Making space for
Water,’ policy for flood management. Fleming (2002) gives an extremely useful overview of the flood
risk management procedures of England and Wales, the paper gives consideration to environmental
impact, catchment-based approach and climate change. Written in 2002 it emphasises the need to
produce a more holistic approach to dealing with flooding, highlighting the author’s opinion that a
strategic catchment based approach is essential and should be more widely used. Crucially the report
states that ‘Floods can only be managed, not prevented, and the community must learn to live with
rivers’, this paved the way for future government planning. Wheater (2006) and Werritty (2006)
develop upon Flemings (2002) opinions, also stating the need to return flood plains to their natural
purpose and championing environmental protection over hard engineering. Werritty (2006) also
discusses how the local authorities in Scotland attempt to meet UK laws and how they measure the
success of reaction and protection to flooding. Another paper which analyses a Scottish case study is
Jones and Macdonald (2007), which debates Glasgow’s efforts to implement more green areas in the
city centre for storm water storage. This creates sustainable areas within city centres which are
designed to flood, therefore protecting critical infrastructure. This is an example of how large urban
centres can introduce the ‘Making space for Water’ policy to improve pluvial protection.
Another source which discusses pluvial flooding is Douglas et al. (2010), the study also touches on the
governments new plans for flood alleviation. The paper emphasises the need for an integrated
programme of protection between various agencies, highlighting the fact that the environment
agency is only liable for fluvial flooding, when in reality for the majority of flood events both
mechanisms of flooding are responsible. One example of an environmentally sustainable policy being
implemented is, the ‘Slowing the Flow’ initiative for the east Yorkshire town of Pickering. Nisbet et al.
(2011) provides an accessible report detailing the chronological planning and construction process of
the project. This source offers a successful precedent for future schemes, which protects
infrastructure using mainly natural mitigating measures. Pickering Town Council (2014) also discusses
the ‘Slowing the Flow’ project, it builds on Nisbet’s (2011) work, producing a resident friendly version
of the process for mass distribution. The pamphlet is a useful source detailing the construction works,
as well as describing in laymen’s terms what the protection will do and look like.
2.3.3 Netherlands
Nienhuis and Leuven (2001) give an excellent overview on river restoration and flood protection. The
paper analyses two books on rivers, one on river restoration and one on floods. The review discusses
the difficulty in creating a mutually advantageous alleviation programme which benefits countries
ecologically and socially. Nienhuis and Leuven (2001) study a very densely populated region of the
Netherlands as a relevant example showing the change in policy towards rehabilitating natural rivers
and the removal of economic assets from flood plains, moving away from more historic methods of

10
alleviation. The first of the books reviewed (De Waal et al., 1998), identifies the need to continuously
improve river systems in a holistic framework. The book covers a wide range of developed countries
as well as various river systems moving from upstream to urban watercourses. Smith and Ward (1998)
discuss the causes and consequences of river and coastal floods, the book addresses the topicality and
universality of floods which are an increasing hazard at a time of global environmental change. Useful
emphasis is also provided on the Dutch method of mitigating flood damage, and their dedication to
improving and restoring their riverside habitats.
As mentioned a highly relevant and useful country to investigate, which is actively pursuing a
sustainable flood management strategy is the Netherlands. With its proximity to the sea,
topographical uniformity and flooding history, the Netherlands need to produce a comprehensive
flood management plan which will address the problem for the foreseeable future. Rohde et al. (2006)
builds on De Waal’s research on floodplain restoration, he discusses the need to produce an integrated
strategy instead of an individual site by site response. The paper explains the method for choosing
relevant sites for restoration using various analysis tools, a detailed case study is provided for the
Rhone-Thur project in Switzerland. This becomes a useful tool for deciding the most suitable areas to
implement a river restoration programme, further analysis is required to ensure areas aren’t overly
built up or impractical to alter. One study by Silva et al. (2004) gave a descriptive, chronological
account of the ‘room for rivers’ program. The paper discusses potential floodplain management
approaches as well as detailing the reasons for the countries obsession towards flood protection. This
was a very useful source for understanding the importance and difficulty of flood management for the
Netherlands. Klijn et al. (2004) builds on Silva’s (2004) study and offers two environmentally
sustainable alternatives for dealing with pluvial and fluvial flooding in the Netherlands. Both of these
options attempt to improve the capacity of the watercourses upstream by various techniques. The
premise of the first option, ‘Detention in Compartments,’ is to provide multiple detention areas which
will ensure that enough water can be temporarily stored safely under river level peaks. ‘Green Rivers’,
is the second option the researchers discussed, this involves creating a floodplain between two dikes
which can be used for recreational purposes during low river levels and flood water storage during
high rainfall. Green rivers are also described in Silva’s (2004) paper, showing the credibility of this
option.
Warner and van Buuren (2011) and Schut et al. (2010) were valuable papers for determining the
successfulness of the ‘room for the river’ policy. Warner and van Buuren’s paper scrutinises the
discursive strategies implemented by the Dutch government in an attempt to mitigate flood damage.
This was an exceptionally important paper for this particular research because of the similarities with
the UK government’s policy of ‘making space for water’, highlighting the worldwide consensus to
switch from ‘fighting against water’ to ‘living with it’. In contrast Schut et al. (2010) provides a
description of the origins of the policy as well as explaining the long process which has to be navigated
before any change can be seen, this was achieved by analysing a specific depoldering in western
Holland.
2.3.4 Europe
Further papers looked at the development of the ‘Retaining water in the Landscape’ policy used in
other countries. One paper which touches on the Dutch policy shift but also mentions Hungary’s flood
prevention stance is (Werners et al., 2010). The paper categorises the supporters and opponents to a

11
policy change and discusses how these individuals can organise and effect the scope of change. Zaugg
(2003) on the other hand focuses solely on Switzerland’s methodology for dealing with flooding,
discussing the conflicting interests of various stakeholders and community leaders. The research
precedes the Rohde (2006) paper already mentioned, which also analyses the Thur River, however it
discusses the negotiation and planning process of the scheme instead of the procedure undertaken to
choose a relevant location. Hartmann (2010) produces a similar paper but from a German viewpoint,
the author introduces the idea of ‘large areas for temporary emergency retention’ (LATER). Floodplain
management is a difficult process, there are numerous stakeholders and local residents who all have
contrasting opinions, it is the job of the planning committee to effectively appease all relevant parties,
this is something that Hartmann (2010) discusses effectively. Social dispute is something which will be
debated in this research paper because of sentimental value and relocation issues, are hard to quantify
monetarily and contrasting parties may have different valuations.
Another author which discusses the move to sustainable flood prevention is (Hoffmann et al., 1997),
with his views on the change in Belgium’s disaster management policies. Neilsen (2002) discusses
Denmark’s approach to the legislation and the shift from a drainage solution to the return of the
wetlands. The paper analyses two different projects in the country which both aim to return the
straight rivers to their natural meanders, better interaction between rivers and its meadows as well
as establishing former marshlands and lakes. As both projects have been completed, the source is
useful as it provides a framework for achieving success in sustainable flood management. The final
study with compares the effectiveness of numerous EU countries and there interpretation of the
policy, ‘retaining water in the landscape’ is (Salazar et al., 2012). Salazar compares four individual case
studies and their countries varying approaches, while also providing discussions on the effectiveness
of the schemes. The paper found that the schemes were successful at dealing with small and medium
sized flooding events, but unsuccessful for the large less frequent ones. This suggests that a hybrid of
both sustainable and hard engineering methods is required in the most vulnerable situations.
2.3.5 Worldwide
There are numerous examples, not just in Europe but throughout the world where governments have
attempted to implement sustainable policies to deal with floods. Although barely mentioned in
mainstream media, flooding in China of the Yangtze, Yellow and Songhua Rivers in 1998, forced the
evacuation of millions of people, and destroyed over 600,000 homes (Ferris, 2010). Over the past
decades the flood management systems implemented in China and the rest of the world have moved
away from physical control and structural methods, to a more integrated sustainable design. This
approach aims to reduce human vulnerability through non-structural approaches, such as flood
warnings, land use planning and insurance (Smith, 1997). Wong and Zhao (2001) conducted surveys
to gauge the opinions of villagers in the Guangdong province who were regularly affected by flooding,
three perspectives were shared by the respondents and may have implications for any future flood
management approach. The lack of confidence in hard engineering structures, the high level of
resilience in villages and the desire to produce a more sustainable solution, will all affect the
governments approach to flood alleviation. Another paper which discusses China’s new approach to
flooding is Pittock and Xu (2010), who introduce the term ‘soft path’ with regards to the non-structural
approach of flood mitigation. The findings suggest that China must look towards implementing a ‘living
with floods’ policy, which empowers people by improving their ability to survive.

12
Another country which is annually affected by severe flooding is Bangladesh, the economic
vulnerability of the country coinciding with regular natural disasters, ensure that hard engineering
methods are unfeasible. One of the earliest papers attempting to alter flood management policies was
Shaw (1989), the study discusses the Bangladesh method of flood mitigation and the advantages and
disadvantages of the response. Opperman et al. (2009) builds on research published by Shaw (1989),
to provide a proposal for potential sustainable flood plain development. The proposal attempts to
protect valuable ecosystems by implementing flood adaption instead of flood prevention, with the
only structural defences protecting valuable cities or crucial infrastructure. This change in approach
has been mirrored across numerous countries, especially in ones with a low GDP when it becomes
impossible to provide a structural defence.
Another Asian country which has moved towards a ‘living with floods’ policy is Vietnam. The country
has always had to find ways of dealing with flooding in a sustainable manner, but due to climate
change the regularity and intensity of these events are increasing. DiGregorio and Van (2012)
produced a useful book, explaining the increase of risk due to climate change as well as providing a
detailed case study analysing Typhoon Mirinae. The source describes the current response plan for
rural regions but also stresses the impacts of economic development in major cities and the affect
that can have on the a flood management strategy. Three more papers studied Vietnams method for
floods. The first, a report by Beckman et al. (2002), also integrates a case study example for rural
regions damaged by flooding. The main purpose of the research was to assess the capacity of
communities and their residents to deal with disasters. In contrast Tinh and Hang (2003) discuss the
newly adopted policy for the Mekong delta, to ‘live with floods’. The study illustrates the benefits of
incorporating low-tech measures and traditional coping techniques in flood management strategies,
to enhance safety and improve incomes for areas subjected to annual flooding. The paper provides
examples of various methods being implemented by the government, including the provision of a
small loan so that households can raise their properties above expected water levels. The final paper
analysing Vietnam is Danh (2007), this study differs from the ones previously discussed because it
reviews a resettlement program in the delta. This has added implications for this study, as it analyses
the effectiveness of the program providing positive and negatives for the method used.
Finally Adeloye and Rustum (2011) discuss Nigeria’s approach to mitigating floods, or more correctly
the need for one. They identified the need for storing water upstream of Lagos during high rainfall
events, this has the dual advantages of protecting the capital against floods as well as storing drinkable
water to increase the capacity of the country for dealing with frequent droughts. The paper also
discusses the UKs methods of flood alleviation, drawing positives and negatives from the ‘making
space for water’ policy.
2.4 Relocation
Another important part of this research project is the potential option of forced relocation and the
implications of employing this strategy. Therefor it was crucial to review various past projects where
governments have attempted to evict people from their neighbourhoods, in an attempt to find
suitable methods for achieving this and highlight past failings. A number of different countries will be
assessed, with the reasons for attempting large scale relocation discussed. The political nature of a
country is one of the major issues affecting the successfulness and feasibility of the option and that

13
aspect of policy implementation will also be analysed. Two incredibly useful sources, Habitat (2007)
and Couldrey and Herson (2015) gave numerous examples of forced evictions for different countries.
Each case study provided the background of the situation, the reason why eviction was deemed
necessary and how the various governments achieved relocation. The source provides examples of
successful and unsuccessful policies giving the reader a balanced view of the relocation possibility.
2.4.1 United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has relatively few examples of forced relocation, this is mainly because of the
political makeup of the country and its dedication towards preserving human rights. There are a few
unique examples where the government has attempted to initiate a resettlement programme to try
and improve the economic or social aspect of people’s lives, unfortunately this has not always been
achieved.
One example of relocation was the housing market renewal pathfinders, this aimed at reinvigorating
deprived areas by demolishing and replacing failing structures. Both of Cole and Nevin (2004) and
Wilson (2013) provide a detailed description of what the pathfinders programme would entail and the
full scope of the policy. They are both useful sources for understanding the concept, and discovering
potential drawbacks. The scheme had a number of supporters and opponents, both arguing about
the successfulness of the policy. One source attempted to analyse the effectiveness of the program,
Tyler et al. (2009) includes a cost analysis to determine the total cost of implementation against the
added value in the area. The document also provides details about the relocation packages offered,
which is a useful data source for this particular project when it comes to costing that particular option.
A benefit of the scheme was seen on the east coast where homes vulnerable to coastal erosion were
purchased from the property owners. Nicholas (2012) discusses this phenomenon explaining why the
policy had huge positive impacts for the property owners, enabling them to purchase another
property in an area with less risk.
Another example of forced eviction in the UK is the case of Dale Farm. UN-Habitat (2007) delivers a
detailed case study on the situation and how it was resolved. In 2011 the 100 families residing on the
farm were asked to peacefully relocate the area, this resulted in hundreds of protestors attempting
to resist the police. Eventually the residents of the farm were ejected. The source provided an update
on Dale farm, and discussed the legal processes required to forcibly evict people.
The newly approved HS2 rail line has also resulted in compulsory purchase orders for properties
adjacent to the planned infrastructure. The way the government acquires most of these properties for
forced eviction situations is by using a compulsory purchase order (CPO). Useful government
documents for detailing the CPO procedure are (Communities and Local Government, 2004), (Office
of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004) and (Communities and Local Government, 2010), they provide
information regarding the reason why CPOs are implemented and how they are managed, the legal
requirements and the compensation packages offered to the proprietor. These sources became
essential reading when creating the CPO procedure, used for the acquisition of properties at risk from
flooding for this study.

14
2.4.2 China
Forced eviction in the People's Republic of China refers to the practice of involuntary land requisitions
from the citizenry, most of the papers studied the effect of and the method enforced for the three
gorges dam project in central China. Although, there are numerous examples of local authorities
seizing land from villages in rural areas for economic development. These are not well publicised
because of the potential negative public relations associated with forced relocation. One article which
was useful for understanding the sheer amount of relocation programmes and why they were
required was Jacob (2011). The newspaper article states that 40% of the local government’s income,
comes from land sales showing their reliance on selling land to huge corporations for a quick profit. In
general the main reasons why China decides to relocate communities is for economic gains, to install
important infrastructure and to provide social benefits.
One recent and well publicised example of forced eviction in China is the Three Gorges Dam project
which was completed in 2012 on the Yangtze River. In total it was estimated that 1.3 million people
were evicted from their homes, either due to construction logistics or because of the new threat of
flooding (Wee, 2012). The Chinese government regards the project as being a social and economic
success, although by analysing various research papers it becomes clear that this was not neccisarily
the case and understandably the policy of eviction had large amounts of opposition. A highly relevant
document for the three gorges dam was Heming and Rees (2000), the paper discusses the policies
implemented as well as the migrants views on them. The results suggest that a high proportion of the
residents relocated face impoverishment due to a number of varying factors. Yuefang and Steil (2003)
also discuss policy, planning and implementation of resettlement, the paper follows a very similar
pattern to Heming and Rees (2000), but touches on environmental impacts of the project and not just
social and economic problems. The study also offers the reader recommendations on how the policy
could be improved for future operations, highlighting the need for more comprehensive displacement
compensation packages.
Preceding Heming and Rees (2000), Fearnside (1988) analyses the environmental impact of the project
and the potential of more devastating floods. The study fails to discuss the relocation process as it was
published before the project was fully underway. Although it still remains relevant as it emphasises
the issue of prioritising either flood protection or electric power, describing the effect each choice
could have on the local community. One paper which explains the difficulty in implementing a
resettlement program is Yan and Qian (2004), they suggest that most governments have inadequate
funds to offer reasonable compensation packages. The study also identifies the difficulty quantifying
in monetary terms the sentimental attachment to an area and the psychological impact on a person
when being forced to move. The final document analysing the Three Gorges Dam, reiterates the
findings from previously read journals. Jackson and Sleigh (2000) also discuss the decision making
aspect of resettlement, the property rights in China and the incentives offered to residents to move.
The paper concludes that although economically successful the dam construction has negatively
affected large sections of the population which could escalate social unrest and political change.
Another example of large scale relocation in China is from construction related to the 2008 Beijing
Olympics. The construction of new infrastructure in the centre of the city meant that thousands of
citizens were forcibly evicted. This provided further instances explaining the Chinese government’s
policy regarding large construction projects and the methods undertaken to ensure completion. It was
estimated that 1.5 million people were moved to make way for the various Olympics infrastructure

15
(Blanchard, 2008). Blanchard (2008) reports that the vast majority of people relocated received no
compensation, the source remains useful for gaining an adequate overview of the Chinese eviction
policy for the Olympic Games. The article also highlights the inability to organise successful
demonstrations, as people who complain tend to be harassed by officials, then detained if they are
particularly troublesome. Another study which provides a negative opinion of Chinese strategy is,
Hopkins (2006) this source discusses the property rights and laws in China in an attempt to understand
how forced eviction is allowed in such vast quantities. It also analyses the case of acquiring land for
Olympics construction, before finally offering acceptable solutions to mitigate the citizen’s loss if
eviction is actually required. This paper was valuable for finding problems with the Chinese land
procedures and giving options for successfully managing a relocation process, it produced a valuable
framework for this study by offering methods of achieving successful eviction and relocation. Digby
(2008) was the final study which analysed Chinas policy towards relocation, it detailed the
humanitarian concerns of various aspects of the games, once again criticising the country’s policies
towards eviction.
There are a number of potential large scale construction projects in the pipeline for China, which could
result in more people being resettled. Huge engineering projects such as West-to-East Electricity
Transmission Project and the South-to-North Water Division Project (Yan and Qian, 2004). These are
schemes which could show examples of successfully implemented relocation processes which would
improve the standard of living and safety of the country’s citizens. This will only be achievable if
lessons are learned with regards to previous attempts at achieving this aim.
2.4.3 Disaster Response
Another major reason that governments relocate or redesign communities is in the aftermath of
natural disasters. They can use the disaster to adjust how a community operates or choose to rebuild
houses in other communities where there is less risk. Jha and Duyne (2010) discuss how to manage a
community which is currently dealing with an emergency or are in the recovery stage. One chapter
which was particular useful was titled, to relocate or not to relocate. The section offers reasons for
and against relocating disaster affected areas, and provides the risk mitigation strategies which the
government can use if relocation is deemed a necessity. The rest of this section will analyse a number
of individual examples where relocation was necessary to rebuild after natural disasters and for each
case how this was successfully achieved.
Couldrey and Herson (2015) created a valuable source, concentrating on disasters and displacement.
The journal reviewed a number of migration examples from throughout the world, centring on the
post disaster response and the methods of relocation. One country which features heavily for post-
disaster resettlements is Sri Lanka, especially after the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, which shocked the
whole region. The government decided to create a new policy called, ‘Build Back Better’ enabling the
country to rebuild crucial infrastructure and to improve quality of life. Kennedy et al. (2008) analyse
the ‘Build Back Better’ policy to determine how successful and achievable its aims were. The paper
emphasises the need for community feedback, ensuring that any resettlement has been approved, or
even recommended by influential community leaders. In slight contrast the following study
(Khasalamwa, 2009), delves into how the policy was perceived by various actors and how this hindered
the effectiveness of the program. The paper also examines the outcome of the Sri Lankan programme,

16
specifically addressing significant humanitarian agencies and there individual responses. This research
is backed up by Ranmini et al. (2015), the source reviews a specific case where 18 families were
relocated to the Matara district in Sri Lanka. This experience offers insights into the important factors
which need to be considered before relocation is undertaken, with major consideration given to the
long term support of the families. The final source reviewed for Sri Lankan post tsunami policy was
Fernando (2010), who also used case studies to develop an understanding of the successfulness of
programmes introduced. The study looked at three separate relocation examples for Galle, discussing
how relocation impacted their livelihoods and the social vulnerability of the region as a whole.
The Philippines is another country which has attempted to create resettlement programmes in a
response to natural disasters. The government enforced ‘no build zones’ within 40m of the high water
marks witnessed during the Typhoon Haiyan, this meant removing villages and their residents out of
these buffer zones to safer locations (Couldrey and Herson, 2015). Another source which is useful for
analysing the Philippines mitigating response to natural disasters is Thomas (2015). The report
discusses the countries method of resettlement as a measure for reducing the future risk of disaster,
real life examples have been included in the research to offer potentially useful precedents. Both of
these papers mention the legal and human rights concerns of the programmes with Thomas (2015)
giving feasible alternatives to improve the disaster mitigation strategy. UN-Habitat (2007) cover an
example for the Philippines which doesn’t involve a post disaster response and instead has economic
benefits. The report discusses the evictions around the capital Manila for the new North railway
project, involving the relocation of 400,000 people. The source highlights the inadequacies of the
resettlement process emphasising the quality of the temporary relocation sites and there distance
away from Manila, as significant negatives.
The earthquake which effected New Zealand and specifically Christchurch, enabled the government
to totally redesign the city in an attempt to improve its safety and functionality. The idea was to
purchase land and property situated in the ‘red zone’ of the city, to reuse for a different purpose and
effectively reduce the risk of future earthquakes. Mitchell (2015) provides a good overview of the
situation for Christchurch, focusing on the communication between community and authority and
how that can benefit a relocation strategy.
Bangladesh see’s annual flooding displace thousands of people each year, in recent history
infrastructural development projects have increased the number of evictions. These infrastructure
projects attempt to mitigate the extent of the floods so are a direct result of the disasters. Zaman
(1996) discusses the social impact of these projects, the legal framework involved with eviction and
the magnitude of population displacement. Finally, the author offers a potential resettlement policy,
which attempts to ensure equality, human rights and remove injustice. Two studies discussed the
resettlement program dealing with the frequent floods in the Mekong delta. Danh (2007) and Dun
(2011) both provide analysis on the impact of flooding in the region, before discussing the policies
implemented by the Vietnamese government to relocate whole communities.

17
Chapter 3- UK Case Studies
3.1 Carlisle 2005 Flood
3.1.1 Overview
Carlisle is the county town of Cumbria, situated 10 miles south of the Scottish Border. As the largest
city in the region it serves as the administrative centre for the Cumbria county council. Located on the
confluence of the rivers Eden, Caldew and Petteril, Carlisle has a long running history of issues with
flooding which once again occurred in 2005.
On the 6th
of January 2005, the Met Office issued a severe weather warning for Cumbria as heavy
rainfall and gale force winds were expected throughout the district. 36 hours of heavy rainfall on the
6th
, 7th
and 8th
, resulted in two months' worth of rainfall and the highest river levels and flows ever
recorded (Geographical Association, 2012). The water levels measured were one metre above those
recorded in 1822 which was the previous highest flooding level (Fewtrell, 2011). Alongside the rising
water levels, another defining factor of the 2005 floods was the strong winds witnessed in the area.
This resulted in the loss of electricity supply on the 7th
of January with subsequent losses of mobile
networks and landlines. Numerous other towns were effected throughout Cumbria including,
Cockermouth, Kendal, Keswick and Penrith, around 2500 properties were damaged with around three
quarters of these situated within Carlisle. In terms of damage, it was one of the most significant fluvial
floods to effect the United Kingdom in the last 50 years. The total damages to the region were in
excess of £500 million.
The graph below details the rainfall and flow data recorded in January 2005. It shows the large peak
in both rainfall and flow for the 7th
of January, which resulted in the huge flooding throughout the
region.
Figure 3.1- A hydrograph detailing the amount of rainfall and flow rate for Carlisle per day during January 2005
(Geographical Association, 2012)

18
3.1.2 Causation
At the start of 2005, a mild tropical air mass was situated above the United Kingdom. This brought
gale force South-Westerly winds throughout the country. A depression centre passed near to northern
Cumbria on Thursday the 6th
of January bringing strong frontal uplift and convection. The majority of
Northern England was covered by this cold front for the rest of the flooding event (Geographical
Association, 2012). Rainfall increased as the cold front moved eastwards over the higher ground seen
inland as the airstream was forced upwards. Rainfall in excess of 200mm was recorded at some gauges,
in the mountainous areas of the region. The Flooding event was amplified by that fact that the rain
was falling on already saturated ground and the intense winds hampered the efforts of the emergency
services (Fewtrell, 2011). Over 100 flood warnings were issued by the Environmental Agency as, long
intense rainfall accompanied with hurricane force winds led to widespread flooding throughout
Cumbria with Carlisle badly affected. Figure 3.2 below shows satellite images, taken from Dundee
University, of the region during the flooding event, it details a chronological development of the
depression which devastated the region.
Figure 3.2- Satellite images for the 6th, 7th and 8th of January 2005, showing the
developments of a depression over Cumbria (Environment Agency, 2006)

19
Due to the high volume of water entering the river system, protection at Warwick Road, Willow Holme,
Low Crosby ad Warwick Bridge were overtopped at various times on the 8th
of January. Another major
deficiency of the flood alleviation system was the inefficient management of the AVM flood warning
service that the Carlisle council offered residents in historic flood risk areas. Many residents failed to
sign up for the service and warnings were often supplied late or incorrectly.
3.1.3 Damages
Following intense prolonged rainfall and surface water run-off, river levels rose and eventually
overtopped their defences. Due to the extreme nature of the emergency, it became very difficult for
the agencies to predict the likely outcome and magnitude of the event (Geographical Association,
2012). This ensured that vast residential areas were unprepared and consequently devastated by
flooding. The worst affected area was situated south of the river Eden, this was due to large
development projects being completed on the floodplain. Warwick Road was one of the worst
affected areas, with two elderly residents drowning in their homes and around 1100 properties
damaged by flooding (Environment Agency, 2006). Strong winds also caused significant damage to
the city, with loss of mobile and landline networks. Falling debris also increased the number of
obstacles in the river system, resulting in flood defences being bypassed along major water courses
(Fewtrell, 2011). The total cost of the flooding was estimated to be over £400 million in damages.
Figure 3.3- Flooding on Irishgate and Warwick Bridge on 8 January 2005 (Fewtrell, 2011)
General Facts
• 2000 homes and businesses flooded, up to at least 2 metres in depth
• 3000 plus people homeless for up to 12 months
• Approximately 50 homes still unoccupied at the time of writing (November 2006)
• 60,000 addresses without power
• 3,000 jobs put at risk (Lindsay Cowen, 2005)

20
3.1.4 Reaction
The reaction to the floods was both extensive and immediate. It was necessary to complete a
comprehensive sustainable flood alleviation package for the whole of Cumbria and specifically in the
city centre locations. A few of the central Carlisle alleviation methods have been included in this
section to show the dedication of the government to protect the people of Carlisle. It is worth noting
that after these alleviation methods were completed further flooding has been seen, as recently as
Boxing Day 2015. A total of £38 million was spent defending the city against future flooding, these
costs will be discussed later in the paper when comparing alleviation methods to complete relocation.
All the figures below are taken from the (Geographical Association, 2008) document.
The integrated alleviation strategy involved two stages:
Phase 1: Improvements to the existing defences (raising and widening) along with the localised setting
back of the existing line of defence on the River Petteril and the River Eden around Botcherby Bridge.
Phase 2: This includes floodwalls and embankments along the River Caldew and around the city centre,
along with a pumping station that will pump water from the Little Caldew to the River Caldew
maintaining acceptable water levels in both rivers. (Harper, 2015)
Johnny Bulldog Lonning to Riverside Business Park
The poor condition of the embankments after the flooding meant that new defences were required.
1km of clay-cored earth embankment was built. The existing pumping station was repaired.
Reinforced concrete walls will be implemented around the riverside business centre, approximately
160m in length.
Figure 3.4- Flood defences around the Riverside business park

21
River Petteril – Upstream of Botcherby Bridge
On the right hand side a clay cored embankment was constructed 500m in length enabling a flood
plain in times of high river levels and an environmental improvement area for all other periods. On
the left hand side of the river a low earth embankment with footpath was completed at around 500m
in length.
Botcherby Bridge to Carlisle United Football Club (CUFC)
Next to the CUFC training facilities a 300m reinforced concrete floodwall was constructed, this was
continued around Brunton Park. This created protection for the football and rugby stadiums as well
as the training facilities. All existing defences were repaired, augmenting on the previous defensive
systems.
Figure 3.5- River Petteril defences near Botcherby Bridge
Figure 3.6- Flood defences situation around the Carlisle United football ground

22
3.1.5 December 2015 Floods
On Saturday the 5th
of December after a number of weeks of heavy rain, more than 200mm of rain fell
across the whole of the North West and Cumbria. Storm Desmond struck the west coast of England
bringing severe flooding and wind gusts of up to 80mph (Mortimer, 2015). In one location 341.4mm
of rainfall fell during a 24 hour period, surpassing a previous depth of 316.4mm to become the new
record high. Police estimated that in Carlisle alone between 2,200 and 3,500 homes had been flooded
(Pidd, 2015). Figure 3.7 is included below to show the other areas affected in Cumbria and how many
homes were flooded in each location.
Figure 3.7- Number of homes flooded in various locations throughout Cumbria (Pidd, 2015)
On the Saturday the Environment Agency issued 94 flood warnings with 47 severe flood warnings in
places in North West England and the Scottish borders, meaning there was a ‘danger to life’ (Mortimer,
2015). In Carlisle, many residents had to be rescued by lifeboat as their streets were engulfed by the
river Eden bursting its banks. More than 2,500 homes were without power for over 3 days, with Storm
Desmond estimated to have cost Cumbria over £500m (Treanor, 2015)
Figure 3.8- Left: Flooding around the Warwick Road area of Carlisle (Fritz, 2015) Right: Aerial image above the CUFC ground,
Brunton Park (Davies, 2015)

23
3.2 Leeds 2007 Flood
3.2.1 Overview
Leeds is a city located in the county of West Yorkshire, within the River Aire valley and along the
eastern edges of the Pennines. As the third largest city in England, it has developed into one of the
most important economic and logistical centres outside of London. The city has a long history of
flooding from the River Aire and its tributaries, with records providing evidence of floods in Leeds as
far back as 1616 (Environment Agency, 2009). A large proportion of the population in the Leeds
metropolitan district are situated adjacent to watercourses which have a high risk of flooding. The
Environment Agency estimates that there are 1500 homes and 500 businesses at ‘significant’ risk of
flooding in Leeds (Leeds City Council, 2007). There are currently 249 flood defences along the River
Aire with 70% providing at least a 1 in 50 year protection, the flooding in 2015 shows that more are
still required to minimise potential damage (Priest, 2012). In the figure below the River Aire catchment
area is included showing all major and minor waterways in the region, Leeds city centre is shown with
its proximity to the river also highlighted.
Kirkstall
Causation
Kirkstall
Kirkstall is a north western suburb of Leeds with a population of around 22,000, it remains an
important economic hub for the city with numerous businesses operating in the valley bottom.
Throughout this area the river is serviced with riverside paths and crossings, providing residents with
scenic routes and local wildlife, such as otters to enjoy. Downstream from Kirkstall Abbey, the area
becomes more industrialised, with retail parks and warehouses adjacent to the river. Various derelict
sites and green areas are also situated in Kirkstall (Environment Agency, 2016c). There are currently
no formal defences in the region which contributed to the floods of 2015, further protection is
required to ensure no repeat of the incident is witnessed. A map showing the boundary of the Kirkstall
district is included below. This gives a visual representation of the size and proximity of the area to
the river Aire.
Figure 3.9- A map showing the Aire catchment area, with major watercourses highlighted (Aire & Calder, 2015)
Image showing the River Aire flowing through the
centre of the Leeds metropolitan area (Leeds City
Magazine, 2014)

24
Figure 3.10- Map Showing the boundary of the Kirkstall area, (Doogal, 2016) Two images taken during field work showing:
Top- An example of the scenic walks available in the region, Bottom- The small shops flooded adjacent to Kirskstall Road
3.2.2 Causation
Historically the main cause of flooding in the area is
from severe rainfall over the whole catchment. June
2007 was a very wet month, with large amounts of
rain falling within the catchment boundary. When
further intense rainfall fell on the 15th
of June, the
already saturated ground could no longer hold the
water and the rivers swelled, eventually bursting their
banks and flooding various settlements in the area.
Many gauging stations recorded rainfall data
exceeding the monthly average in just 24 hours
(Environment Agency, 2009). The River Aire
consequently overtopped its banks in central Leeds,
flooding and damaging important infrastructure in the
Calls and Brewery Wharf areas (Environment Agency,
2007). The flood in 2007 was not just restricted to
Leeds and West Yorkshire with above average rainfall
falling across much of the country. Figure 3.11 shows
the percentage of average rainfall for all the regions of
the United Kingdom. In the north of England, which
Leeds is part of, 319.6mm of precipitation fell in June
and July 2007, this was a 233% increase on the average
for the region. Summer 2007 was also ranked the
highest for amount of rainfall ever recorded in the
North of England (Met Office, 2013) .
Figure 3.11- Map showing the percentage of the average
rainfall for June-July in the UK (Met Office, 2013)

25
3.2.3 Damages
In the context of the country Leeds escaped relatively lightly in the 2007 summer floods, fortunately
for the city the predicted weather did not materialise and the worst of the rain fell on Sheffield instead.
It was estimated that if this was not the case then 1,500 homes, 35,000 commercial properties and
important infrastructure such as the railway station would have been extensively damaged
(TheyWorkForYou, 2007). The city instead had to deal with minimal flooding in the city centre, which
effected businesses residing in Brewery Wharf and the Calls. As the region narrowly escaped a lot of
the flooding in 2007, a conscious effort has been applied to attempt to implement a number of
alleviation schemes for the city. These plans were predominantly situated south of the city around
Hunslet and Woddlesford where a lot of residential properties are at risk. The floods throughout the
country did represent the need for more flood protection schemes, especially for cities as
economically important as Leeds.
3.2.4 Reaction
The major reaction to the floods of 2007 was the production of an integrated alleviation plan for the
central and southern districts of the metropolitan area. The Kirkstall area was not protected because
the scheme including this area was deemed too expensive, costing an estimated £190m. The
protection recommended by the Canal and River Trust, Leeds City Council and the Environment
Agency, covers an area between the central railway station and Knostrop weir. The alleviation scheme
is known as the ‘Defences, Weirs & Cut’ option and will include:
 Removing the existing fixed weirs at Crown Point in the city centre and at Knostrop Cut and
installing moveable weirs that can be lowered when the river is high
 Constructing landscape defences such as low embankments, terracing and riverside walls at
low points along the riverbank to maintain a consistent 1 in 75 year standard of protection
 Removing Knostrop Cut island to merge the Canal and River Aire which will create additional
flood water storage and help facilitate the flow of water along this length to lower water
levels in flood conditions
 Providing flood defences along a length of Hol Beck which flows into the River Aire adjacent
to Granary Wharf
 Providing flood defences at Woodlesford in the form of low level embankments to achieve a
protection against a flood event that is likely to occur every 200 years. (Leeds City Council,
2014)
Figure 3.12- Above Visualisation of the proposed new moveable weir at Crown Point Bridge
(Leeds City Council, 2014)

26
3.2.5 December 2015 Floods
On top of a wet December, further heavy
rainfall occurred over Christmas, as a result of
Storm Eva. On Boxing Day residents in West
Yorkshire and Lancashire were evacuated from
their homes as flooding hit Leeds, Greater
Manchester and York (Priestley, 2016).
Overnight, the River Aire had risen to a record
height of nearly 3 metres and had burst its
banks. One of the most badly affected areas
was Kirkstall which contains important
infrastructure including, Kirkstall Road and the
Leeds-Bradford and Leeds-Harrogate rail lines.
Kirkstall
The first issue with the floods of 2015 for Kirkstall, was the disruptions caused to Kirkstall road, which
is a major route into the city centre from the north-western suburbs. The majority of the areas
amenities and businesses are situated adjacent to this road and consequently, they were badly
affected by the floods. Included below figure 3.14 and table 3.1 shows the extent of the damage
witnessed in the area from the flooding on Boxing Day. The figure shows the post codes which are
attributed to the Kirkstall region and there locations, yellow is LS5 and green is LS4. On the right the
table provides the reader with the number of flood incidents reported on a specific date. As the table
shows, a vast amount of the reported cases happen on or as a direct consequence of the flooding over
Christmas. The data also illustrates the amount of businesses in Kirkstall, 145 out of the 165 reported
incidents were at business premises, highlighting the economic value of the area and the need for
further protection. The data for affected postcodes was provided by the Leeds city council as a log of
all reported flood incidents since 2002 (Leeds City Council, 2016).
Figure 3.13- Aerial photo showing the flooding on Kirkstall Road
(Yorkshire Evening Post, 2015)
Residential Businesses
LS4 137 119
26/12/2015 35 26
28/12/2015 1 0
29/12/2015 3 3
07/01/2016 14 13
11/01/2016 24 24
13/01/2016 1 1
04/02/2016 37 37
05/02/2016 19 14
08/02/2016 2 1
10/02/2016 1 0
LS5 28 26
26/12/2015 3 2
05/01/2016 25 24
TOTAL 165 145
Figure 14- Map created using QGIS software, showing the post code areas in Kirkstall Table 3.1: Providing the number of
flooding incidents reported for each area on specific dates

27
Proposals
Initial proposals for the area have been finalised, but a compromised solution is expected in future
years. Figure 3.15 is provided below detailing the possible mitigation methods and there location on
the River Aire. The defences mainly involve constructing new flood walls at critical junctures, or
heightening existing defences. The protection is simple and easy to construct and should successfully
help to prevent future flooding in Kirkstall. On the figure the red lines represent new flood walls
marked for construction (Environment Agency, 2016c).
3.3 Calder Valley 2012 Floods
3.3.1 Overview
The Upper Calder Valley covers an area from Todmorden to Sowerby Bridge; including the towns of
Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd which are all connected by one main arterial highway route, the
A646 (Environment Agency, 2016a). As the name suggests, the region contains the source of the River
Calder and many of its tributaries, such as Hebden Water. The area is located on the eastern side of
the Pennines, and is just west of Halifax. Geographically the area is typical of a large proportion of the
Pennines: with steep-sided hills that shallow out into rolling hilltops, with moorland and narrow
valleys.
Figure 3.15- Map showing the location of proposed flood alleviation works in the Kirkstall area (Environment Agency, 2016c)

28
The Calder valley receives an above-average level of rainfall compared to the rest of England. This is
shown in figure 3.16, where the rainfall in Todmorden is compared to the average rainfall of England.
As the graph shows, the amount of rainfall Todmorden receives is consistently above the national
average.
The area has a long history of flooding, typically affecting the region around every 5 years
(Environment Agency, 2016a). The valley is highly susceptible to flash flooding during times of heavy
rainfall with thousands of properties currently at risk in the Upper Calder valley. The main issues which
are predominant in the Calder valley are; landslides, rising river levels, flash flooding, reservoirs
overtopping, surface run-off, overflowing storm drainage and rising water tables. Despite numerous
attempts at resolving these issues, such as lowering the river bed and laying it with stone slabs in the
1960s, the floods in July 2012 and again in 2015 show that the flood defences previously implemented
are not sufficient for effectively protecting the area.
In the summer of 2012 and again in 2013, the Calder Valley was devastated by flooding, over 1200
residential and commercial properties were damaged, with critical infrastructure travelling through
the valley badly affected (Coen, 2014). According to the environment agency the flooding in June was
the largest fluvial flooding event on record for most areas in the Upper Calder region (Calderdale
Council, 2013). Hebden Bridge was particularly impacted as it was flooded three times during the
summer of 2012, it is very susceptible to flooding with the town centre at the point of a confluence of
two rivers, with a smaller river joining the River Calder at the town’s western boundary (Coen, 2014).
3.3.2 Causation
The major causation of most flooding events in the Calder Valley, is the topography of the region. The
steep sided valleys allow rapid surface water run-off, which is barely mitigated by the limited
vegetation lining the slopes. The water from the hillsides therefor quickly collects in the valley bottom,
with the rivers unable to maintain the storm water. In most events the pluvial surface water damages
properties on the way to the water course, with fluvial damage occurring later as the rivers burst their
Figure 3.16- Rainfall data from Todmorden, Calder valley, compared against the national
average (World Weather Online, 2012)

29
defences. Specifically for the summer floods in 2012, where an average month’s rain fell in just a 24
hour period, a combination of these two methods resulted in the destruction of valuable
infrastructure. Figure 3.17 below shows the extent of the flood in 2012 without showing the damage
caused by surface water run-off flowing through the towns.
A major problem for Calderdale is the increase in frequency of flood events in recent years. Floods
have devastated the region in 2000, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2015. This may be
explained by global warming, as more short duration, high intensity storm events are occurring during
the summer months. As a result both fluvial and surface water flooding has increased throughout the
region.
3.3.3 Damages
The damages have been assessed for both major flooding events, which occurred during the summer
of 2012, affecting the towns of Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd. These are the towns which will be
investigated in this report so greater analysis has been provided on the issues affecting them.
22nd
June 2012
During the flood event on the 22nd
of June vast areas of Calderdale experienced damages to properties.
Approximately 760-900 properties, both business and residential, were damaged in the Calder
catchment (Lambert, 2013a). On top of that important road and rail infrastructure was affected for a
number of days, reducing the effectiveness of the emergency response. Numerous bridges were
impacted and many remained unusable for a number of weeks, causing major traffic disruption. This
event was the largest fluvial flooding event on record for the Upper Calder Valley, with the River Calder,
Figure 3.17- A map showing the areas affected by the 2nd-9th of July floods (Calderdale Council, 2013)

30
River Hebble, Walsden Water and the Rochdale Canal bursting their banks. Hebden Bridge also
recorded its highest ever river level at 3.331m, with levels in Mytholmroyd reaching 4.9m (Eye On
Calderdale, 2016). The flood also destroyed protection measures already in place, which had a direct
impact on the communities effectiveness in preventing further floods throughout the summer. Table
3.2 below shows the breakdown of residential and commercial properties affected by the June flood
in each of the towns of the Calder Valley.
6th
- 9th
July 2012
For the flood at the beginning of July only two towns were badly damaged. Approximately 300
properties were affected in Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd during the flood period (Lambert,
2013a). Three weather systems struck the area on the 9th
of July, with over 43mm of rainfall falling
onto already heavily saturated ground. The high intensity rainfall lasted around one and a half hours
with steady rainfall falling for the remainder of
the day. Nutclough reservoir overtopped a
retaining wall into residential properties. This led
to extensive flooding on Keighley Road with
water flowing directly down this main road into
the town centre (Eye On Calderdale, 2016). The
large surface run-off carried huge amounts of silt
and debris from the surrounding countryside,
blocking drains and culverts. This ensured that
the highway drainage system was overwhelmed
by the volume of flow.
3.3.4 Reaction
Reaction in Hebden Bridge involved three phases of response; Phase 1: Response and Immediate
recovery; Phase 2: Ongoing work and strategic assessment activity; Phase 3: Implementation and
Investment. To produce a successful response all the phases must be integrated and effectivewith th
ultimate aim of preventing further flooding in the future.
Table 3.2- Shows the number of reported properties affected by the 22nd June flooding in various locations (Lambert, 2013b)
Figure 3.18- Flood water flowing down Keighley Road
from Nutclough Reservoir overtopping (Lambert, 2013a)

31
Phase 1:
Once all the flood water had subsided, the initial response of the local authority was to remove all
solid waste and debris off the streets. This effort was assisted by a number of members of the local
communities and volunteers from further afield. There were a number of different groups set up to
deal with different areas of the relief effort. These included, Highway and Maintenance team,
Neighbourhood team and the Business and Economy team (Calderdale Council, 2013). A large amount
of charitable donations including relief funding was provided by a number of donors, in the aftermath
of the floods. This was distributed by the council to the relevant organisations to help with the
response effort.
This phase also involved the initial repair work on the existing flood defences. This was managed by
the Environment Agency and included; removing debris from the watercourses, reinstating footpaths
and repairing masonry or retaining walls. A number of consultation sessions were organised by the
local authority to gain an understanding of resident’s opinions and as a platform to effectively inform
on the most suitable ways of independently protecting homes and businesses.
Phase 2:
This phase involved producing a comprehensive integrated flood management strategy for dealing
with the reoccurring flooding in the Calder valley. Continuing repair work on existing protection will
also be witnessed during this stage of recovery. Both of these aims will be completed after further
assessment and data gathering around the region, to determine the most suitable methods of
prevention.
During this process the environment agency recommended that, in order to sustainably lower the risk
of flooding around Hebden Bridge, a combination of the following would need to be implemented:
 Storage
 Containment
 River Realignment (Coen, 2014)
Analysis on these three methods of alleviation was undertaken in various locations around the towns
of Hebden Bridge and Mytholmroyd. Ultimately it was found that there were a number of sites which
would be suitable and effective in mitigating further events, but that limited funds would make a
number of them unfeasible.
Phase 3:
The final stage of recovery involves implementing the strategy recommended in stage 2, this will
involve generating the required investment to finalise the alleviation methods designed. A number of
schemes were suggested but only a few were considered to be crucial and within budget. This shows
that there is still huge scope for improvement and that the area is still at tremendous risk from floods.
The vast majority of approved schemes are situated in Todmorden, located further upstream from the
towns being analysed in this paper.

Matthew Ralph- Dissertation

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