Main thesis

‘EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE IRISH DEFENCE FORCES’
SO YOU THINK YOU CAN LEAD?
Comdt ADRIAN O’DWYER
Submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the
MA (LMDS)
National University of Ireland Maynooth
2012
Supervisors: Dr. LUKE MURTAGH, NUI Maynooth
Comdt DAVID COWHIG, Military College

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MA (LADS)
STUDENT DECLARATION
1. I certify that this thesis does not incorporate, without acknowledgement, any
material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; and that
to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously
published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the
text.
2. Permission is given for the Military College Library and the NUI Library
Maynooth to lend or copy this dissertation upon request.
3. The views and conclusions expressed herein are those of the student author and
may not necessarily represent the views of the Command and Staff School or the
Military College.
SIGNED: ___________________ RANK: Commandant
NAME: Adrian O’Dwyer

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my wonderful wife Tish. Your belief in me started
this journey which your love and advice allowed me to complete. You, our daughter
Isabelle May and the twins, Michael and Paul, encouraged and supported me throughout
this journey and I really could not have done this without your commitment.
My supervisors, Dr. Luke Murtagh from the National University of Ireland Maynooth, as
my civilian overseer and Comdt David Cowhig from the Command and Staff School, as my
military mentor, were of invaluable help throughout this thesis. I am extremely grateful to
you for your guidance, confidence building, encouragement, patience and fostering of a
convivial atmosphere throughout.
My thanks to the interviewees who gave of their time willingly and were information rich
and illuminative. I wish to particularly acknowledge the support of my fellow students on
the 68th
Command and Staff Course, whose friendship, good humour and selflessness was
unfailing and appreciated. My thanks to the staff of the Command and Staff School and in
particular to the Course Co-ordinator, Comdt David Cowhig.

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ABSTRACT
(Thesis word count: 11,998)
Up to 90 percent of the difference between outstanding leadership and average
leadership is accounted for by Emotional Intelligence. This may surprise those in
military circles who have a sceptical view of emotions. An emotionally
intelligent commander achieves organisational synergy, by inspiring his
subordinates to work successfully together, in pursuit of organisational
objectives. The military mentality sees the mission as paramount while the
human factor is considered very much secondary. A gap exists in the education
of interpersonal skills in the Irish Defence Forces.
This thesis examines the construct of Emotional Intelligence and the benefits it
can provide for leadership education and development in the Irish Defence
Forces. The Irish Defence Forces primary operational commitment is to Peace
support and Crisis Management Overseas where a premium is placed on military
leaders that can understand and effectively deal with the emotions of others.
Combining semi-structured interviews and reflective practice with extensive
literature review, the case study found that the relationship between Emotional
Intelligence and leadership was a positive one, with many benefits for leadership
education and development in the Irish Defence Forces.
The findings confirm the significance of Emotional Intelligence to the Irish
Defence Forces. Emotional Intelligence creates an ideal framework to aid the
leader and meet the needs of the individual and the organisation while achieving
the mission. The research found that self-awareness was the stepping stone for
leadership with interpersonal relationship as a criterion for leadership success.
Emotional Intelligence education and development can help fill the gaps in
interpersonal skills which were identified.
These findings provide a better understanding of the construct of Emotional
Intelligence as it relates to leadership education and development, particularly
Military Leadership.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
STUDENT DECLARATION...............................................................................................I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................ II
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................IV
LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................VIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................X
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................. 1
THESIS INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
Aim of this thesis .............................................................................................................. 2
Relevance to the Defence Forces and LADS.................................................................. 3
Personal Relevance as a Reflective Practitioner ........................................................... 4
LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................... 7
Introduction...................................................................................................................... 7
Emotional Intelligence ..................................................................................................... 7
Models of EI.................................................................................................................... 12
Mayer, Salovey and Caruso ........................................................................................ 12
Bar-On......................................................................................................................... 12
The Dark Side of EI ....................................................................................................... 14
Leadership Theories ...................................................................................................... 16

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Transactional and Transformational......................................................................... 16
Authentic leadership ................................................................................................... 18
Resonant Leadership................................................................................................... 18
Military Leadership ....................................................................................................... 19
Military Philosophy..................................................................................................... 19
US leadership model ................................................................................................... 20
DF Leadership............................................................................................................. 23
EI Leadership ................................................................................................................. 26
EI and Military Leadership......................................................................................... 27
Studies of EI ................................................................................................................ 28
Chapter Summary.......................................................................................................... 29
METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................. 30
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 30
Research Philosophy...................................................................................................... 30
Positive versus Post-Positive....................................................................................... 30
Epistemological Stance .................................................................................................. 31
Methodology ................................................................................................................... 32
Research Strategy........................................................................................................... 33
Data Collection ............................................................................................................... 34
Semi-Structured Interviews ........................................................................................ 34
Sampling...................................................................................................................... 35
Reflective practice ....................................................................................................... 36
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................. 37
Limitations...................................................................................................................... 37

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Chapter Summary.......................................................................................................... 38
RESEARCH FINDINGS................................................................................................... 39
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 39
Leadership development................................................................................................ 40
Self-awareness............................................................................................................. 40
Doctrine and Philosophy............................................................................................. 41
Mentoring and Coaching............................................................................................ 42
Education..................................................................................................................... 43
Interpersonal Skills........................................................................................................ 44
Interpersonal relationship .......................................................................................... 44
Empathy....................................................................................................................... 45
Moral Courage ............................................................................................................ 47
EI can benefit the individual and the organisation..................................................... 48
No one leadership style encompasses all aspects of military leadership ................... 49
Chapter Summary.......................................................................................................... 51
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................... 53
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 53
Findings........................................................................................................................... 53
Implications for the DF.................................................................................................. 55
Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 56
Further Study ................................................................................................................. 58
APPENDIX A ..................................................................................................................... 59
EI ASSESSMENT MEASURES OF BAR-ON, GOLEMAN AND MAYER,
SALOVEY & CARUSO .................................................................................................... 59

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MOST EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP STYLES............................................................... 60
APPENDIX C ..................................................................................................................... 61
LIST OF INTERVIEWEES.............................................................................................. 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 63

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - Howard Gardiner’s multiple intelligences………………………………….....7
Table 2 - Intrapersonal intelligence…………………………………………………...…9
Table 3 – Interpersonal intelligence...………………………………...………………....10
Table 4 - Leadership Requirements Model from FM6-2………………………………23
Table 5 - Army Leadership Requirements: Model and Goleman Model Crosswalk...23
Table 6 - Draft Capstone and applicable EI competencies…………………………….25

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Emotional Intelligence ability.................………………………… Page 11
Figure 3.2: Processes involved in Emotional Intelligence……………………Page 11
Figure 3.3: Dark side........................................…………………………............Page 15

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
DF Defence Forces
EI Emotional Intelligence
ESB Electricity Supply Board
IQ Intelligence Quotient
LMDS Leadership Management and Defence Studies
RP Reflective Practitioner
UN United Nations

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CHAPTER ONE
THESIS INTRODUCTION
Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself is true wisdom. Mastering others is
strength; mastering yourself is true power.
(Lao Tzu, 2009:36)
Introduction
Mayer and Salovey (1997:10) who coined the words ‘emotional intelligence’ define it as
“the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion...the ability to understand
emotion and emotional knowledge...the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional
and intellectual growth.”
“The very act of leading requires social interaction and interpersonal skills. Yet from the
time of Solon and Socrates, emotions, including empathy, have been seen as the antithesis
of being rational and are considered a threat” (Hand, 2010:29). Future leaders need to be
facilitators, enabling others to develop their leadership and potential. They will be
collaborative leaders, able to influence non-employees and stakeholders. New skills and
attitudes are required; emotionally intelligent skills and attitudes (Sparrow & Knight,
2006:4). “Emotional Intelligence (EI) accounts for 85 to 90 per cent of the difference
between outstanding leaders and their more average peers” (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005:28).
It is a characteristic of the military mentality that non-human factors ... are held
essential, while the human being, his desires and thoughts ...the psychological
factors ...are considered as unimportant and secondary. (Albert Einstein, cited in
Fitton, 1994).

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The Irish Defence Forces (DF) expects leaders to carry out a diverse range of tasks.
Military life requires the leader to possess a wide array of skills to deal with ever changing
dynamics and complex challenges. Leaders require continuous education and development
to ensure optimal outcomes, especially in the event of hostilities. The DF places emphasis
on an effective command and control paradigm with no leadership doctrine (Brennan,
2003:38). “Bad practice can flourish in a vacuum...” (Defence Forces, 2004:8). Formal
doctrine on leadership is currently under development. In a time of DF transformation, an
ideal opportunity exists to implement a modern theory of leadership.
Emotionally intelligent leaders adapt to new realities, “[e]ven in the midst of vast changes,
they can see their way to a brighter future, communicate that vision with resonance, and
lead the way” (Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee, 2004:247). Empathy is the most important
EI competency for visionary leadership and it is impossible to articulate inspirational
visions if one cannot sense what others feel and understand their perspective (Goleman,
2004). As formal leadership doctrine is being developed, it is timely to examine the effects
of EI and how it might augment DF leadership training and development.
Aim of this thesis
The aim of this thesis is to conduct an examination ascertaining how the integration of EI
may benefit military leadership. This aim will be progressed through the primary thesis
question: How can Emotional Intelligence contribute to Defence Forces leadership
education and development? This will be further explored by examinations of: the EI
concept as a leadership paradigm, leadership concepts into the early twenty-first century,

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leadership in the DF and my own service and experience in a reflective practitioner1
role.
Relevance to the Defence Forces and LADS
This study is of significance to the DF, as it relates directly to officers’ performance as
leaders in a continually changing operational environment. Leadership culture in the DF
should keep pace with developments in leadership doctrine, to ensure optimal efficiency
and maximum effectiveness of the organisation. EI may be applied to fill gaps that appear
in DF leadership doctrine, development and education in the DF post cadetship.2
This
examination will give the DF a better understanding of how EI impacts on leadership,
which may aid the drafters of DF formal doctrine to encapsulate additional leadership
qualities.
Emotions already play a powerful role in military planning and training, and play an even
more powerful role in peacekeeping or multinational missions, where there is a premium
placed on soldiers who can understand and defuse the emotions of others, thereby
reconciling the commander’s intent on the ground (Abrahams, 2007; Blascovich & Hartel,
2008; Jupp, 2008).
By exploring the relationship between EI and leadership, we may enhance the leadership of
officers in the DF thereby “ensuring that our personnel have the requisite skills to perform
their duties efficiently and effectively” (Defence Forces, 2011:3). The British leadership
1
Reflective practice is assuming the perspective of an external observer in critically analysing one’s actions
with a view to improving their professional practice (Imel, 1992).
2
Cadetship is a period of initial training in the DF culminating in commissioning to the officer ranks for
successful candidates.

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doctrine (Defence Learning Centre, 2004) suggests that effective leaders employ EI
competencies.
Officers can reach retirement on age grounds with one short leadership module completed.
It appears that DF leadership education and development is unstructured and left to the
individual to pursue. I contend that the art and science of true leadership in the DF has
evolved into little more than a managerial role.
Personal Relevance as a Reflective Practitioner
By three methods we may learn wisdom; First, by reflection which is the noblest;
second, by imitation which is the easiest; and third, by experience, which is the bitterest
Confucius3
My experience of serving in all three uniforms of the DF – Army, Naval Service and Air
Corps – places me in a unique position to conduct a leadership case study. I have studied at
Naval Colleges overseas, have experienced exchange courses with foreign Navies, lectured
in United Nations (UN) schools overseas and served on UN missions overseas. With 35
years of service in the DF, I have experienced many positive aspects of leadership. There
have also been aspects of toxic leadership,4
which can have an adverse effect on trust and
morale, making the leader ineffective (Reed, 2004).
Leadership culture has evolved during my service with fewer leaders adopting the
authoritarian and Machiavellian approach, “that self-interest is the sole driving force in
3
Confucius (551–479 BC) was a Chinese politician, teacher, editor, and social philosopher of the Spring and
Autumn period of Chinese history (Rigel, 2006).
4
The Toxic leader has poor interpersonal skills and demonstrates a lack of respect for his subordinates
creating a poisonous workplace climate (Reed, 2010).

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human nature” (Goleman, 2007:125). At times I have been guided and mentored by
emotionally intelligent leaders. “Emotionally intelligent leaders are more likely to question
unethical behaviour in the work place, despite being afraid to do so” (Sanders et al.,
2010:98). It is my experience that many DF leaders need to show greater moral courage and
become more innovative and decisive. There appears to be a risk-averse culture of self-
preservation with a view towards promotion (Prendergast, 2010:46).
Leadership in the DF is evaluated by way of annual appraisal reports, without a formal
leadership doctrine in place. This leads to inconsistent reporting and ambiguity in the
assessment of leadership competencies, without a solid comprehensive theory (Defence
Forces 2004:8). Despite a lack of formal doctrine, the DF develops officers’ leadership
skills by experiential learning. What would happen if we could accelerate and enhance
leadership competence by teaching all DF personnel to lead with emotional intelligence?
The intention of this reflective practitioner is to improve the profession of DF leaders by
critically analysing past practices.
Structure of the thesis
This thesis is organised into five chapters. Chapter Two reviews the literature pertaining to
EI and Leadership into the twenty-first century, with the latter part paying particular
attention to the factors most relevant to the military context. A considerable journey of
research was undertaken on the wealth of information that exists on EI and leadership,
perhaps a journey of a lifetime. Chapter Three outlines the methodology by which the
issues raised were brought forward for further research. Chapter Four outlines findings

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from data collected through semi-structured interviews and reflective practice. Chapter Five
summarises the research topic and provides the main conclusions and recommendations as
to how the research findings may be applied for the benefit of the DF and furtherance of
research within the academic community.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Chapter One has introduced EI and shown that there is a need for effective leadership
development and education. This chapter provides a review of literature to ascertain
existing knowledge, current theories of EI and leadership, and gives the reader a broad
understanding of EI. It defines EI and explains the three main EI models along with modern
leadership paradigms. It shows the correlation between EI and leadership from which
develops a thematic framework to guide primary research.
Because of the historically stoic nature of Armed Forces, military personnel do not feel
comfortable acknowledging their awareness of feelings and emotions (Dulewicz, Young &
Dulewicz, 2005). Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and technical ability are important in strong
leadership; however the leader would not be complete without EI which can be a
determining factor in excellent leadership (Goleman, 2004; Boyatzis and McKee, 2005).
“History has shown that leadership theory has constantly shifted paradigms from trait,
behavioural, contingency to transactional/transformational theories and now beyond”
(Klenke 2008:53).
Emotional Intelligence
EI is “the capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating

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ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships”
(Goleman, 2004:317).
Bar-On (1997a:14) defines EI as “an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and
skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and
pressures.” This paper adopts this definition of EI because the DF leader routinely deals
with environmental demands and pressures.
EI is composed of intrapersonal intelligence required for effective self-management and
interpersonal intelligence required for effective relationship management. Effective self-
management plus effective relationship management leads to effective overall performance.
EI therefore leads to effective performance (Sparrow & Knight, 2006:22).
It should be understood that EI is one of the multiple human intelligences as depicted in
Table 1 below. This table lists these intelligences derived from strict criteria which occupy
their own part of the brain and vary independently of other intelligences.
Table 1 - Howard Gardiner’s multiple intelligences
Verbal / Linguistic
Logical / Mathematical Cognitive intelligences, i.e. IQ
Visual / Spatial
Musical / Rhythmic
Bodily / Kinaesthetic
Special intelligences
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal Personal intelligences, i.e. EI
Naturalistic
Spiritual / Existential (involves the whole
brain)
Later additions to the original 7
(Sparrow and Knight, 2006:14)

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Table 2 and 3 list what Sparrow and Knight (2006) consider the more important aspects
relating to the EI components of personal intelligences (EI). The tables also show what is
needed for effective self-management and effective relationship management.
Table 2 - Intrapersonal intelligence
 Being intelligent in picking up
what is going on inside us and
doing what we need to do about
it.
What you need for effective self-
management:
 mood management
 self-motivation
 dealing with setbacks
 using your intuition
 managing your energy
 dealing with stress
 avoid depression and addictive
behaviour
 Helps us make sense of the
things we do, the thoughts we
have, the feelings we feel and
the relationship between them
all.
 With it you learn how to stay in
charge of your own emotions
(Sparrow and Knight, 2006:16).

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Table 3 - Interpersonal intelligence
 Being intelligent in picking up what
is going in other people and between
people and doing what we need to
do about it.
What you need for effective
relationship management:
 motivating others
 leading others
 developing others
 collaborating with others
 confronting with others
 facilitating relations between others.
 Help us to turn into other people,
empathise with them, communicate
clearly with them, inspire and
motivate them and understand our
relationships with them and the
relationships between them.
 With it you can inspire other people,
develop their trust in you very
quickly, create a team that performs
rather than storms and is effective
and creative.
(Sparrow and Knight, 2006:16).
We have all seen competent leaders derail or become emotionally hijacked when we
thought that they should have more common sense. “Commonsense is not so common”
Voltaire.5
It would be beneficial if we could develop a common-sense and emotionally
intelligent approach at all times. EI is distinct from other mental processes, in that it targets
a specific area of problem solving, which is the ability to accurately understand emotions
and the ability to apply this understanding, to enhance thought (Mayer et al., 2008;
Goleman, 2006; Sparrow and Knight, 2006).
5
François-Marie Arouet de Voltaire (21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), better known as Voltaire. She
was a French enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher.

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Figure 3.1 - EI ability (Hearns, 2012).
Figure 3.1 above shows EI as the ability to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions
to facilitate thought.
Figure 3.2 illustrates reflective learning which is reflecting on experience, a key practice of
an emotionally intelligent person. “Reflective learning allows one to convert self-awareness
and awareness of others in the moment into self-knowledge and understanding of others,
which are longer term attributes” (Sparrow and Knight, 2006:80).
Intrapersonal Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence
Self-awareness Other awareness
Reflective learning Reflective learning
Self-knowledge Knowledge of others
Self-management Relationship management
Figure 3.2 - Processes involved in EI (Sparrow and Knight, 2006:81).

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Models of EI
“Three main models of emotional intelligence exist”; Mayer, Salovey and Caruso, Bar-On
and Goleman (Stys and Brown, 2004:i).
Mayer, Salovey and Caruso
Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2006) base their theory on a four branch model of EI,
framed within a model of intelligence and often referred to as the ability-based model:
1. The skill to accurately perceive emotions in oneself and in others.
2. The skill to use emotions to assist thinking and problem solving.
3. The skill to analyse feelings, discriminate among emotions and understand
their meaning.
4. The skill of emotional management in understanding changing emotions.
They see EI as a subset of social intelligence measured by an ability-based model, which
differs from the Bar-On (1997a) and Goleman (2006) mixed models.
Bar-On
The Bar-On model deals with social, emotional and survival aspects of EI in a trait or
mixed model. He considers EI and cognitive intelligence contribute equally to a person’s
general intelligence, which then offers an indication of one’s potential to succeed in life.
Combining the two gives a more complete appraisal of one’s overall intelligence.

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Bar-On (2006) prefers to refer to EI as emotional and social intelligence identifying five
broad factors and 15 facets of EI, which are an array of interrelated emotional and social
competencies. The broad factors are:
1. Intrapersonal skills (emotional self-awareness, recognising ones limitations to
accurately self-actualise).
2. Interpersonal skills (relationships, social responsibility and the ability to
empathise with others).
3. Stress Management (capacity for stress tolerance and impulse control).
4. Adaptability skills (ability to adapt towards self and environment and
flexibility in problem solving).
5. General Mood (optimism and happiness).
Self-report measures are used by mixed models, whose scales encompass a broad array of
attributes described as EI and emotion-relevant information processing.
Goleman
According to Goleman (2006), the four components of emotional intelligence are:
1. Self-awareness: accurate, realistic self-assessment by knowing your limitations,
traits, strengths, goals, emotion.
2. Self-management: the ability to control disruptive emotions and impulses by
managing a changing situation to achieve a positive or acceptable result.
3. Social awareness: being empathetic, having organisational awareness, recognising
and meeting the needs of others.
4. Relationship management: involves inspirational leadership, influence, conflict
management and the ability to build and manage relationships by finding common
ground with all kinds of people.
Goleman (2004) argues that these human competencies play a bigger role than cognitive

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intelligence, in determining success in life and work. He sees self-awareness as the main
factor in emotional development to achieve success.
Goleman (2004), Mayer et al. (2006) and Bar-On (2006) suggest that their emotional
intelligence models are both teachable and learnable and can increase EI. A comparison
table providing an overview of these EI models can be seen at Appendix A. Measuring an
EI score as judgement of self or others is missing the point: we are all unique and scores
highlight self-development areas that require unique mentoring and coaching.
The Dark Side of EI
Goleman does not concern himself with emotions such as worry, anger and sadness, those
emotions that diminish the quality of most people’s lives. Elder (1996) questions how any
theory of the human mind can be developed without explanation of how the mind can
create complex phenomena without intelligence taking charge of the thinking underlying
those emotions.
Austin, Farrelly, Black and Moore (2007) hypothesised that it was reasonable to assume
one’s EI could be used for manipulative purposes to promote self-interest
(Machiavellianism)6
. They conducted an examination of associations of ‘Machiavellianism’
with self report and performance EI, to ascertain if EI has a dark side. No correlation of
Machiavellianism to EI was uncovered in their study. They found that emotional
manipulation was not correlated with EI and no dark side exists (Walter, Cole and
Humphrey 2011:55). Alexander (2011) disagrees, and sees a Machiavellian aspect, in that
people with high EI can manipulate their emotions in a given situation for their own gain.
6
Machiavellianism – the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct, deriving
from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolo Machiavelli, (Soanes and Stevenson, 2006).

15
However, she does not qualify how this happens, and concludes by showing EI in a positive
light.
Fig. 3.3 shows how emotional intelligence relates to strategic behaviour. Kilduff, Chiaburu
and Menges (2012) suggest that as you increase your EI abilities (in yellow) then your
ability to use these attributes for strategic dark side tactics increases. The four dark side
tactics (in grey) are arranged in order of increasing likelihood of strategic exploitation of
others for self-serving ends.
Fig. 3.3 - Dark side (Kilduff et al. 2012:133) modified.

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Kilduff et al. (2012) argue EI may be used for personal gain by; disguising and expressing
emotions, controlling the flow of emotion laden communication and focusing emotion
deception on important others to facilitate the accomplishment of self-serving goals.
Goleman (2006) argues that a true EI leader must have empathy, so prohibiting
manipulative control of emotion laden communication.
Leadership
We should take care not to make the intellect our god. It has of course, powerful muscles,
but no personality. It cannot lead, it can only serve (Einstein, cited in Clemmer, 2009:4).
“Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve
a common goal” (Northouse, 2010:3). He sees leadership as an interactive event available
to everyone in the group.
Management and leadership are part of the success of any organisation, in that we manage
things and lead people. Management is about processes, facts, intellect, goals, controls,
rules and reactions. Leadership is about people, feelings, emotions, vision, commitment,
values, innovation and being proactive (Clemmer, 2009).
Leadership Theories
Transactional and Transformational
A modern paradigm of leadership, conceptualised by MacGregor Burns (1982) and
explored by Bass & Riggio (2006), is of leaders being either Transactional or

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Transformational. Transactional leadership is made up of contingent reward, management
by exception and laissez-faire7
leadership. Transformational leadership attributes on the
other hand, are idealised influence (charisma), inspirational motivation, intellectual
motivation and individual consideration, including mentoring and coaching (Brennan,
2003). “The transactional leader works within the organisational culture as it exists; the
transformational leader changes the organisational culture” (Bass, 1985:24 cited in Defence
Learning Centre, 2004:72). Research (Megerian and Sosik, 1996; Gardner and Slough,
2002) has shown aspects of EI are positively correlated with transformational leadership
behaviour, and significant negative correlations exist between EI and transactional
leadership behaviour. There is a dark side, in that many charismatic leaders exhibiting
elements of transformational leadership used their abilities to evil ends – Adolf Hitler, Josef
Stalin, Pol Pot, and Osama Bin Laden (Bass and Riggio, 2006). Livingstone, Nadjiwon-
Foster, & Smithers (2002) agree that transformational leadership is the optimum leadership
theory for military organisations. Bass & Riggio (2006) agree, but qualify this assumption
by adding the qualification ethical for transformational leaders. Kellerman (2004) supports
such addition.
“Most leadership theories, including transactional/transformational have remained two-
dimensional models (autocratic versus democratic leadership, task-orientated versus
relationship-orientated leadership, and management versus leadership) at a time when the
world is no longer two-dimensional” (Klenke, 2008:379).
7
Laissez-faire leadership is the absence or avoidance of leadership as well as the most ineffective where
decisions are not made and responsibilities are ignored. (Bass & Riggio, 2006:8-9).

18
Authentic leadership
The core of authentic leadership is to be self-aware of values and identity, accept and
remain true to oneself and provide good and sound moral leadership. Authentic leaders are
aware of how they think and behave, have an awareness of the needs of others and increase
motivation, commitment and satisfaction of others. They are self-aware and realise the need
for self-management (Avolio, Gardner, Walumba, Luthans and May, 2004). They believe
that authentic leadership can be nurtured and is not a fixed trait. Northouse (2010:237) sees
the authentic leader as “transparent, morally grounded and responsive to people’s needs and
values,” he sees a need for genuine trustworthy leaders after the recent failures in private
and public sectors. Authentic leadership could be transformational leadership with ethics.
Resonant Leadership
Goleman (2000; 2004; 2006) posits the idea that the most effective leaders exhibit many
leadership styles and have the emotional intelligence to fluidly switch between styles as the
situation demands. One can build on an individual’s emotional genetic makeup and develop
EI to enhance resonant leadership as the most effective leadership model (McKee et al.,
2008; Boyatzis and McKee, 2005; Goleman, Boyatzis & McKee, 2002; 2004; Goleman,
2004; 2006). The Resonant leader switches between six distinct approaches (Appendix B),
including visionary, coaching, affiliative and democratic. They advise caution in
pacesetting and commanding to be used in times of emergencies or military conflict. A
Dissonant leader depends on the commanding and pacesetting approaches, eventually
losing touch with the needs of his workforce and organisation. (Boyatzis and McKee, 2005)
see the resonant leader as inspirational, positive, in touch with others, demonstrates
compassion, mindful, authentic and in tune with self others and the environment. “The art

19
of leadership involves applying the right interpersonal technique as the situation and needs
of the followers demand” (Reed, 2010:60). This flexible leadership paradigm appears to be
suitable for the dynamic leader
Military Leadership
Military Philosophy
“Leadership is visionary; it is the projection of personality and character to inspire people
to achieve the desired outcome” (Defence Learning Centre, 2004:2). The foregoing sees
leadership as un-prescriptive and situational, with key elements such as vision, personality
projection, inspiring people, transforming and self-awareness. Military leaders hold a legal
position of authority and responsibility which civilian leaders do not. This is ‘Command’,
where one of the main differences the military leader may face is that of willingly sending
his subordinates into harm’s way with possible fatal consequences.
The US Army (US, 2006:1-2) leadership manual defines leadership as “the process of
influencing people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation while operating to
accomplish the mission and improve the organisation.” It promotes self-aware, flexible and
agile leaders. The DF defines leadership by borrowing this definition (Defence Forces,
2011:46). TM 205 sees DF leaders requiring clarity of vision, strength of will and moral
courage, and the most essential element of combat power8
is leadership (Dodd, 2001:3-6).
8
Combat power is the physical means available to a commander and the moral strength of his command.
Combat power is generated by the combination of the four elements of manoeuvre and firepower in
conjunction with protection and leadership.

20
The DF is aware that leadership and management of personnel are vital to delivering on its
mission and roles (Defence Forces, 2003). Without a formal leadership doctrine, one is
continually reinventing the wheel, leading to ambiguity and clashes in roles. Brennan
(2003:44) argues that the DF has no “plausible leadership theoretical paradigm cognisant of
current force requirements and recent leadership theoretical developments.” He further
argues that the DF needs to expand its concept of leadership by fostering a true leadership
culture.
“An understanding of culture, and how to transform it, is a crucial skill for leaders trying to
achieve strategic outcomes” (National Defence University, 2011:10). Each military
organisation has a unique culture. The DF appears to have a culture of avoiding doctrine
but could adapt a non-prescriptive one subject to change. We should be aware that the
prevailing paradigm of leadership is temporally and spatially bound, making it subject to
change as new theories evolve (Klenke, 2008).
US leadership model
‘BE-KNOW-DO’ is the United States Army’s motto in leadership doctrine (Department of
Army 2007:1-1).
Be: values and attributes give the leader the courage to do what is right.
Know: skills are for today but one needs to develop skills to acquire knowledge.
Do: values, attributes and skills must be lived to establish credibility and trust.
FM 6-22 (US, 2006) the US Army leadership manual sees self-awareness as a critical
factor of competent leadership in uncertain situations and argues that self-management is
the proactive and logical follow up to self-awareness. Becoming a leader is a career long

21
process, involving; life experience, education (civilian and military), coaching, mentoring
and self-development (US, 2006). Personnel should be continuously mentored to the
highest leadership standard which “helps the Army maintain a highly competent set of
leaders” (US, 2006:8-14).
Table 4 below shows what a leader in the US forces is expected to achieve with the
attributes gained in training, which are compatible with elements of the Goleman model.
Table 4 - Leadership Requirements Model from FM 6-22
ATTRIBUTES
What a Leader is:
 A Leader of Character
 Army values
 Empathy
 Warrior ethos
 A Leader with Presence
 Military Bearing
 Physically Fit
 Composed
Confidence
 Resilient
 A Leader with
Intellectual Capacity
 Mental Agility
 Sound Judgement
 Innovation
 Interpersonal Tact
 Domain Knowledge
CORE LEADER
COMPETENCIES
What a Leader does:
 Leads
 Leads others
 Extends influence
beyond the chain of
command
 Leads by example
 Communicates
 Develops
 Creates a positive
environment
 Prepares self
 Achieves
 Gets Results

22
Sewell answers the question of the need for EI in army leadership with a resounding ‘YES’.
“The most valuable element in building and maintaining successful relationships, in
individual or team, is emotional intelligence” (Sewell, 2009:93). Abrahams (2007) and
Sewell (2009) agree on the need to incorporate EI in leadership training and development in
the military. “The intangible skills and abilities that are the by-product of emotional
intelligence will take the army to new levels of productivity, and further enhance an
environment where leaders can thrive” (Lackey, 2011:6).
Sewell (2009:97), in Table 5, conducts a comparison between Goleman’s concept of EI
and the attributes and core leader competencies of the US Army Leadership Model (Table
4), showing similarities (red print) between both. While the US Army in its leadership
model does not holistically address the importance of the emotional side of leadership, the
attributes and competencies are comparable with the Goleman model of EI (Sewell, 2009).

23
Golemans model is Self-Awareness, Self-management, Social Awareness and Relationship
Management.
Table 5 - Army Leadership Requirements Model and Goleman Model Crosswalk
DF Leadership
The DF sees every member of the DF as a leader (Defence Forces, 2011: 46). Brennan
(2003) is of the opinion that DF formal training focuses on combat leadership while the
practical training in units focuses on management. He sees that a significant gap exists in
the education of interpersonal skills such as mentoring, coaching, appraisal, counselling,
PERSONAL COMPETENCE SOCIAL COMPETENCE
Self-Awareness Self-Management Social Awareness Relationship
Management
– Self-
Awareness
– Self-
Assessment
– Prepares Self
– Self-
Confidence
– Composed
– Confident
– Warrior
Ethos
– Domain
Knowledge
– Military
Bearing
– Emotional Self-
Control
– Transparency
– Adaptability
– Resilient
– Mental Agility
– Achievement
– Initiative
– Innovation
– Optimism
– Creates a Positive
Environment
– Physically Fit
– Organisational
Awareness
– Army Values
– Service
– Empathy
– Empathy
– Inspirational
Leadership
– Leads by Example
– Influence
– Extends influence
– Leads Others
– Communicates
– Developing Others
– Develops Leaders
– Catalyst for Change
– Creates a Positive
Environment
– Conflict
Management
– Interpersonal Tact
– Sound Judgement
– Teamwork
collaboration
– Gets Results
(Sewell, 2009:97)

24
organisational awareness and problem solving, which have a direct bearing on leadership
development. There is a draft DF Capstone Doctrine awaiting promulgation, and it includes
a leadership chapter (Defence Forces, 2011:46). It proposes that DF leadership philosophy
will be based on values-based leadership and the development of subordinates. It lists the
key leadership attributes as Integrity, Vision, Communication, Decision Making,
Innovation, Humility and Knowledge (Table 6).
“Doctrine establishes a common frame of reference and tools that leaders use to solve
military problems, promoting mutual understanding, facilitating communication and
enhancing effectiveness” (Giffen, 2010:12). The DF is an organisation that requires a
formal leadership doctrine and a philosophy for the development of competent leaders.

25
Table 6 shows the EI competencies required to achieve the desired
leadership attributes in the DF Capstone doctrine.
Table 6 - Draft Capstone and applicable EI competencies
Capstone
Leadership
Attribute
Sub-attributes EI
Competency
Integrity Moral Courage
Inspires
Values
Loyalty
Self-Actualisation
Independence, Empathy
Social Responsibility
Vision Shared
Success
Clarification
Self-Regard
Empathy
Social Responsibility Emotional
Expression
Communication Negotiating
Mentoring
Listening
Emotional
Expression
Assertiveness
Interpersonal Relationship
Empathy
Decision
Making
Decisiveness
Risk management
Judgement
Evaluation
Problem-Solving
Reality Testing,
Impulse Control
Innovation Take Risks
Lead change
Manage
Encourage
Flexibility
Stress Tolerance
Optimism, Problem-Solving
Reality Testing
Humility Respect
Confident
Fallibility
Emotional Self-Awareness
Emotional Expression,
Empathy
Interpersonal Relationships
Professional
Knowledge
Wisdom/
Experience
Understand actions
Self-Actualisation
Decision-Making
(Bennett and O’Dwyer, 2012)

26
In a recent leadership study of Irish Air Corps (IAC) pilots, Hunter-Nolan, McArdle,
McMahon and O’Reilly (2012) found a possible trend towards a dilution of military
culture, leaning towards a minority laissez-faire style of leadership, unsuitable for effective
military leadership, and one that could contribute to a negative climate. Hunter-Nolan et al.
(2012) considered an autocratic leadership style is required of military leaders. However,
they posit that the dilution of military culture of IAC pilots could have serious
consequences for the IAC as part of the DF and may be detrimental to its future. Their
study determined that AC leadership is predominately autocratic. However, on conducting
a deeper analysis of their data, one finds that the overarching leadership style is laissez-
faire at 44 per cent, with autocratic at 36 per cent and democratic at 20 per cent. This
implies that a negative climate already exists.
EI Leadership
George (2000:1046) states that EI’s “special relevance to leadership revolves around the
fact that leadership is an emotion-laden process, both from a leader and a follower
perspective.” Ruderman, Hannum, Leslie and Steed (2001) see the principal themes that
stand out from the relationship between EI and effective leadership as a willingness and
ability to take decisive action, a more participative style, more centred and self-aware,
better interpersonal relationships, healthier work/life balance and better able to deal with
pressure or difficult situations.
Leaders ignore emotion at their peril as emotions are contagious and the resulting level of
resonance can have a profound effect on individual and collective performance (McKee,

27
Boyatzis and Johnston, 2008). The Defence Learning Centre (2004) posits that EI may not
sit well with the culture of defence, but it is important in the understanding of leadership.
Some researchers assert that the primary determinant of leader effectiveness is EI (Sanders,
Lindsay, Foster and Cook, 2010). It is crucial to promote the development of high EI in
leaders to ensure impulse control and efficient performance. A leader with high EI acts
clearly, motivates others and acknowledges subordinates’ efforts (Nadler, 2011).
EI and Military Leadership
Organisational synergy is achieved by the interpersonal influence of an emotionally
intelligent commander inspiring his subordinates to work successfully together in pursuit of
organisational objectives (Abrahams, 2007). We may all have experience of the leader with
high EI who is in touch with the mood of the organisation. There is a requirement for
military leaders with high EI to build and maintain successful team relationships
(Abrahams, 2007:8; Sewell, 2009). This should be incorporated in leadership training and
development. Lackey (2011) agrees and posits that EI will enhance an environment where
leaders can thrive and take the military to new levels of productivity.
“Exceptional leadership in the military will demand that individuals are able to choose from
an array of styles to suit the specifics of a given situation” (Mau and Wooley, 2008:55).
Effective leaders switch skilfully to a style best suited to the situation, and employ the EI
competencies that underpin this style (Defence Learning Centre, 2004; Goleman 2000;
2004; 2006). Military leaders with high EI are more likely to achieve the desired results,
understand and manage others if they know and understand and can manage themselves
(MacNamara, 2005).

28
Studies of EI
Right Management (2011) conducted a worldwide study in leadership development, finding
the greatest cause of leadership derailment or failure was a lack of competency in building
interpersonal relationships. It was found that leadership success was dependent on the EI
attribute of interpersonal skills. This has also been found true of military forces.
Dulewicz et al. (2005) conducted a study of the British Royal Navy to explore the
relationship between EI, leadership and job performance using three leadership styles
Engaging, Goal Orientated and Involving. Their findings show that EI competencies make
a greater contribution in all three leadership styles to overall performance and leadership in
Royal Naval Officers than IQ and Managerial competencies.
Abrahams (2007) conducted a study of emotional intelligence and command climate with
271 students in the US Army, mainly company commanders. He found those high in EI set
a positive command climate and the most important leadership competency to shaping
effective command climate was interpersonal relations; in agreement with Right
Management (2011). “One way that leaders with low emotional intelligence poison
command climate is by isolating themselves emotionally from their subordinates”
(Abrahams, 2007:4). So leaders with high EI will create an environment where troops will
respond more efficiently and effectively to orders, instructions and requests from
immediate superiors.
Applying emotional intelligence theory to Army leader development and training is an idea
whose time has come. The costs of selecting and promoting leaders, with poor emotional

29
intelligence skills, are lost unit effectiveness and junior leader disenchantment (Abrahams,
2007:3). Therefore, it appears that assessing an individual’s EI and highlighting their
problems or weaknesses can be of benefit to both the individual and the organisation.
“Lifelong learning requires standards, with related tools for assessment, feedback and self-
development” (Ness, Kolditz, Lewis & Lam, 2010:146). EI can provide these tools through
self-directed learning which is “[t]he crux of leadership development that works ...”
(Goleman et al. 2004:109). Intrapersonal skills are of the utmost importance to military
personnel.
Chapter Summary
This literature review has examined the frameworks and current theories in the areas of EI
and leadership which have been weaved together to ascertain the correlation between EI
and leadership. The theory of EI has been evaluated, through the theoretical lens of
leadership with an emphasis on military leadership. EI has been defined and its principal
competing theories described. Theories of leadership, leadership models, and styles
relevant to the military context have been outlined.
The subject was further explored by adopting qualitative research methods in a case study
of the DF, using themes identified in the literature, namely: self-awareness and doctrine are
necessary for leadership development, that interpersonal skills, especially empathy are
essential for effective leadership, that EI can benefit the individual and the organisation,
and that no one leadership style encompasses all aspects of military leadership.

30
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter outlines the research methodology used to examine the impact of EI on
leadership and provides the rationale behind my research philosophy, epistemology and
methodology. The main focus is on the effect EI could have on leadership training and
development in the DF. The literature reviewed has evidenced the importance of EI as it
pertains to leadership and identified certain themes worthy of further exploration. This
research contends that leadership training and development in the DF is of the utmost
importance to the well-being of all personnel, as we are all leaders and followers and
equally important to overall performance, as people are the heart of a military organisation.
Therefore, this methodology must elicit how EI may benefit leadership in the DF.
Research Philosophy
Positive versus Post-Positive
The approach deemed most appropriate for my research was a post-positive one. It allowed
explore why the DF needs to invest more resources in leadership development as it can be
the life blood of a military organisation. The post-positivist social researcher assumes a
learning role rather than a testing one (Agar, 1986). My initial thoughts were that the
leadership of the DF could be enhanced using a positivist philosophy to reach a full
understanding based on experience and knowledge from which I would deduce rational
concepts. This would simply pursue the need for a prescriptive formal leadership doctrine,

31
clearly lay out a quantitative list of leadership traits and logically create the leaders required
(Antonesa, Fallon, Ryan, Ryan and Walsh, 2006:13). A positivist approach would produce
a clear and concise logical conclusive framework to train future leaders. It would produce
measurable results, provide generalisation and be capable of replication (Bryman, 2008).
After some critical thinking and being mindful of my epistemological stance, it became
evident that a positivist paradigm could not evaluate the essential components identified in
the recurring themes of my literature research (Brookfield, 1987). Neither would it allow
for an emotionally intelligent reflective learning approach.
An implication of the post-positive approach is that questions may not be answered, there
are no universal solutions and conclusions can change over time. This does not mean that
post-positivist researchers do not take a moral stance or avoid action; rather they recognise
the complex web of life and experience that lies outside dogma and authoritarian mores
(Antonesa et al., 2006:19). By selecting a post positive philosophy to underlie my research,
I was mindful that my own epistemological position had to be stated in order to maintain
objectivity and impartiality.
Epistemological Stance
“Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the origin, nature, and limits of
human knowledge which focuses between the knower and the known” (Klenke, 2008:17).
My epistemology is derived from my upbringing and over 35 years’ service in the DF with
a wealth of different experience from serving in all three uniforms of the DF – Army, Naval
Service and Air Corps. This experience has broadened my perspective and placed me in a

32
unique position to conduct a leadership case study, by critically examining the need for
high levels of emotional intelligence in DF leadership. I have grown along the way and
have developed aspects of my EI, gained a greater understanding of leadership and the
emotional needs, behaviours and perceptions of others. I have no fear of subjecting my own
observations to scrutiny. My beliefs in life and mindset would never fit within the positivist
framework.
My epistemological approach emanates from my formative years having been exposed to
authority and education, as the eldest son of a policeman and a teacher. Having spent my
youth in a rural village I was taught traditional values and religious beliefs based on a
Catholic upbringing and education, all of which I questioned constantly. At an early age I
was introduced to foreign cultures by travel and would have had a cosmopolitan outlook on
life. My military career furthered my respect for leadership. I find it difficult to understand
unethical leadership or leaders who display a lack of empathy or moral courage. The
purpose of my research was theoretical, personal and hopefully of positive practical use. By
using a reflective practice I was conscious of placing ownership on this thesis and “that a
critically reflective stance towards our practice is healthily ironic” (Brookfield, 2000, 46-
47). I am aware that epistemological assumptions will be carried forward into my research
and will have a bearing on my choice of methodology.
Methodology
The researcher is aware that his ontological assumptions, “What is the nature of reality?”
(Klenke, 2008:15) together with his values and epistemological assumptions will decide

33
methodological strategies. Taking account of my research philosophy and conscious of my
post-positivist stance, a qualitative approach to data collection was adopted in order to
generate a “deeper understanding of social phenomenon than would be obtained by
quantitative data” (Silverman, 2000:8). My review of the literature identified great benefit
both to the DF and the individual in adopting Emotionally Intelligent Leadership.
“Qualitative methods produce a wealth of detailed data about a small number of people and
cases: they provide a depth and detail through direct quotation and careful description of
situations, events, interactions and observed behaviour” (Klenke, 2008:33). Quantitative
methods “may neglect the social and cultural construction of the variables which qualitative
research seeks to correlate” (Silverman, 2000:5). Consequently given the scope of this
study and the time frame a qualitative approach was adopted.
Research Strategy
I have chosen a case study because it is an empirical enquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real life context (Yin, 2009). The
approach chosen was that of a holistic exploratory case (Yin, 2009). The Defence Forces
was the primary object of the case study. The unit of analysis was the application of EI to
the DF and the positive effect it would have on the organisation’s leadership. A case study
research methodology relies on multiple sources of evidence to add breadth and depth to
data collection, to assist in bringing a richness of data together in an apex of understanding
through triangulation, and to contribute to the validity of the research (Yin, 2009).
However, as I am using a reflective practice study, triangulation will be achieved by the use
of semi-structured interviews and reflective practice. As reflective learning is an essential

34
perquisite for EI (Sparrow and Knight, 2006), it is fitting that reflecting on past experience
is used as an element of the research strategy.
My own experience of 35 years’ service in the three uniforms of the organisation, including
five tours overseas puts me in a unique position to add depth to the study. The observer’s
own experience is considered an important and legitimate source of data (Brewer, 2000:
59). The unique strength of this approach was the ability to combine and analyse a variety
of information sources, so enriching this study. I am going to use this experience in the role
of reflective practitioner and to conduct semi-structured interviews which indirectly explore
aspects of EI and its relevance to leadership in the DF.
Data Collection
At all stages I was very much aware that the particular focus of my research question would
be filtered through my “theoretical sensitivity” (Antonesa et al., 2006:87) and felt
comfortable bringing my personal and professional experience to bear. However, one must
be mindful that all research is value laden and biased (Cederblom & Paulsen, 2001).
Semi-Structured Interviews
I conducted a series of semi structured interviews as the main part of my research method,
as it allowed theoretical orientation and epistemological assumptions determine the
interpretation of the interview (Klenke, 2008). They also gave an authentic insight into
people’s experiences. The semi-structured interview was chosen to conduct a searching

35
exploration of the link between leadership and emotional intelligence in the complex
environment of the business, military and academic worlds by the use of open ended
questions. This approach allowed for an adaptable and flexible means for data collection as
it reflects the shared understanding of information collection (Antonesa et al., 2006;
Klenke, 2008). Interview was used as a research instrument posing questions on themes
deducted from the literary review which were “developed and clarified” (Bell, 1999:135).
This method allowed for appropriate subject matter experts drawn from military, academic
and business expertise to be targeted. Klenke (2008:11) reminds us that “[r]esearchers, with
all of their prejudices, bias and professional baggage are the primary data collection
instrument in a qualitative study.” Using semi-structured interviews “allows the interviewer
to pursue lines of thinking introduced by the interviewee, encouraging him/her to offer
meanings or insights on the subject field” (Antonesa et al., 2006).
Sampling
The sample selection used was ‘purposeful sampling’ (Kane and O’Reilly-de-Brún,
2001:100). I conducted the interviews primarily with leaders who had military experience,
both Irish and International, or were civilian state employees at one time, with some having
experience in both spheres. They were chosen mainly because they have an understanding
of military culture, or a hierarchical organisation. This would allow for a less radical
departure from the military ethos but still bring a realistic viewpoint of leadership
requirements. Retired personnel can give an honest opinion (O’Brien, 2012) which is not
always possible when still part of a hierarchical structure due to possible career influences.

36
Interviews were completed with academics from the field of psychology (Bar-On and
Bennett), retired military officers and now businessmen (Aiken and D’Arcy), retired
businessman (McManus) and retired Irish DF Chiefs of Staff, (Mangan and Sreenan). They
have a wealth of leadership experience both military and civilian at the highest level and
were “information rich and illuminative sources” 9
(Patton, 2002: 40).
Reflective practice
“A reflective practice is one that provides the learner with a process, framework or support
tools for learning enhancement through reflection” (Evans, 2009:1). She argues that
“epistemic cognition, which describes an understanding of the limits, certainty, and criteria
of thought” (Day, Harrison and Halpin, 2009:86) is an important concept in understanding
the role of reflection. Day et al. (2009) argue that epistemic cognition, reflective judgement
and critical thinking are essential elements in helping one learn to think, become self-aware
and recognise the limitations of perspective.
I carried out a reflective practitioner inquiry by means of journaling my experiences in
order to develop my awareness of leadership and EI in the DF. This enabled me to identify
problems; review events with the perspective of time to allow deeper insight and consider
possible solutions. I interpreted and further analysed this data in tandem with the transcripts
from semi-structured interviews. Reflective practice encourages the development of EI and
can also be applied to organisational problem solving (Evans, 2009). Taylor (2000:10)
9
The interviewees are listed in Appendix C which includes details of their relevant backgrounds and
appointments. This appendix should be read in advance of Chapter Four, in order to place the findings in
context.

37
loosely quotes Plato as saying, ‘the unreflected life is not worth living.’ The researcher is
aware that knowledge is constructed cognitively and affected by personal biases and
coloured by context (Alliex and McCarthy, 2005).
Data Analysis
The data was analysed by applying an inductive logic to the primary themes. Data collected
from interviews was coded according to the main subject themes described earlier. Cross
case analysis was applied to the data from textual analysis in accordance with subject
themes (Yin, 2009). This thematic refinement allowed me to further analyse and cross
reference with the literature reviewed. Reflexive reasoning was applied to the coded data in
order to produce findings.
Limitations
There are many interesting studies of EI especially from eastern countries which could not
be fully explored or documented, thus giving a mainly western perspective. It is not
possible in a paper this size to delve too deeply into the theories of emotional intelligence
or leadership. Neither is it possible to conduct a large representative sample or prolonged
evaluation of effects due to time constraints. As EI is still a relatively new concept there is a
shortage of empirical studies or counter argument in the military sphere.

38
Chapter Summary
My overall methodology was built on a post-positivist philosophy while applying a
qualitative approach. The undertaking of a literature review, qualitative research and a
reflective practice study, all of which were analysed with a personal epistemology, allowed
me to stamp ownership on this paper. Semi-structured interviews were chosen as an
appropriate method and conducted with a variety of civilian personnel with relevant
leadership experience. While acknowledging incomplete triangulation as a limitation this
was balanced by the focus on purposeful sampling, selected interviewees, the flexible
nature of semi-structured interviews and the application of reflective reason to the coded
data. The research findings are presented and discussed in Chapter Four.

39
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Introduction
As the DF’s greatest asset, people deserve the highest possible leadership development to
equip them for complex and dynamic tasks. A DF Officer’s career may involve multi-
national overseas missions in responsible staff positions requiring high, intrapersonal and
interpersonal skills to deal with complex operations and diverse cultures. The DF is a
people centric hierarchical organisation and a key requirement should be to constantly
enhance the standard of leadership education and development.
This chapter presents an analysis of all data gathered by a reflective practitioner inquiry and
semi-structured interviews. The literature reviewed has evidenced that EI is an essential
ingredient for excellent and effective leadership (McKee et al., 2008; Boyatzis & McKee,
2005; Goleman, Boyatzis & McKee, 2002; 2004; Goleman, 2004; 2006) and identified
certain themes worthy of further exploration. These themes created a theoretical framework
to underpin the research. Namely: that self-awareness and doctrine are necessary for
leadership development, that interpersonal skills, especially empathy are essential for
effective leadership, that EI can benefit the individual and the organisation, and that no one
leadership style encompasses all aspects of military leadership.
The interviews produced a wealth of raw material for analysis to help answer the primary
research question: How can EI contribute to DF leadership education and development?
The raw data was analysed weaving it through the literature review and the reflective

40
practice study.
While we may use different terminology or approach the subject differently, EI and
emotional leadership are already evident in DF leadership practices (Sreenan, 07 March
2012).10
Sreenan is cognisant of the need to explore new leadership phenomena for
organisational and individual development, albeit by proceeding slowly, analytically and
carefully. It is difficult to find a solution to any problem if you cannot recognise what the
problem is. “I would have handled many things differently having the self-awareness and
understanding of emotions that I have now” Reflective Practitioner (RP)11
(05 May 2012).
Leadership development
The literature reviewed in this thesis placed focus on four aspects of leadership
development; self-awareness, doctrine, mentoring and coaching and education.
Self-awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to be aware of one’s emotions, traits, values, capabilities and
limitations and how these might affect others (Goleman, 2006; Mayer et al., 2006; Bar-On,
2006). The literature reviewed highlighted the importance of the intrapersonal competency
of self-awareness in emotional development to achieve leadership competency and success,
especially in uncertain situations (Goleman, 2004; US, 2006). It also portrayed the
necessity to develop self-awareness to progress the development of interpersonal skills
(Sparrow and Knight, 2006). This is true for both leaders and followers. The primary
10
Each respondent was interviewed once. This date of interview is given with the first reference in the text but
to avoid clutter it is not included with later references.
11
To avoid clutter the Reflective Practitioner will be referred to as RP.

41
research data supports the importance of self-awareness in the context of Irish DF
leadership development. Sreenan, realising that self-development should be pursued in both
institutional and operational settings, promoted self education style seminars to develop
self-awareness and self-management in DF personnel. He has a positive view of more
frequent self-assessments with guidance, allowing individuals to become more self-aware
(Defence Learning Centre, 2004). Mangan (07 March 2012) sees self-awareness as an
important part of DF leadership development that may have been overlooked. He agrees
with Goleman (2006) that it is the main factor in EI development to achieve leadership
success. Both Sreenan and Mangan in their experience, see self-awareness as an aspect of
EI that should be considered for furthering DF leadership development. This finding
highlights the importance of self-awareness to DF leaders.
Doctrine and Philosophy
The literature review shows there is no formal leadership doctrine in the DF (Brennan,
2003; Dineen, 2010) and highlights a need for military doctrine and philosophy to enable
leaders (Giffen, 2010). Bennett (08 March 2012) suggests that leadership doctrine “forms
the foundation upon which leadership development takes place and that firstly you have to
identify, “what the DF want from a leader? ”EI can play a role in “forming or establishing
doctrine” (Bar-On). The Capstone Doctrine (Defence Forces, 2011) is missing any concept
around performance and there is literally no other way to make judgement on the usefulness
of such doctrine (Bennett, 2012).
Each generation brings with it new changes, and the military should publish leadership
doctrine with a view to constant updating (US, 2006). Sreenan is of the opinion that

42
doctrine should not be rigid but broad in principle as we should never be telling people
what to think – but how to think. He posits that there is no prescriptive leadership doctrine,
as leadership evolves within society’s expectations and may retain some enduring
principles of military philosophy. Sreenan agrees that the whole military context changes
with society and that DF leadership “has evolved to continuously changing circumstances
and will always have to continue to change.” This agrees with the literature (Klenke, 2008).
Bennett posits that an organisation must have a formal doctrine to establish leadership
criteria (Department of Army, 2006) to avoid leader evaluation based on one’s experience
alone, which may be reinforcing one’s own prejudices. This highlights the need for clear
doctrine and philosophy. “There is an urgent need to publish comprehensive, formal
leadership doctrine and philosophy cognisant of force requirements to promote a solid
foundation for leadership development” (RP) (Giffen, 2010). This finding highlights the
lack of leadership doctrine.
Mentoring and Coaching
The literature highlights a gap in DF mentoring and coaching and the positive role it can
play (Brennan, 2003) which the primary data supports. Aiken (06 March 2012) posits that
mentoring in the military is important and should be outside the chain of command to be
effective. Sreenan argues that the Irish psyche sees this as another unwelcome influence.
This may explain why the DF had little conflict resolution in times past, until outside
studies such as Response to the challenge of a workplace (Defence Forces, 2004) were
conducted to address bullying issues. However, he argues that “there are probably plenty of

43
gaps for mentoring and coaching right across a range of activities within the organisation.”
Mangan suggests that a deficit or gap occurs in young officer leadership education because
DF pays lip service to the Commanding Officer being responsible for their mentoring,
guidance and development. This finds a lack of proactive mentoring and coaching by
commanding officers.
D’Arcy (09 March 2012) makes full use of mentoring and coaching in Bord na Móna12
with internal and external mentors not involved in appraisal. He sees diversity and cross-
fertilization as enhancing and aiding cultural development. Mangan would agree and
welcomes outside influences that initiate positive change, invigorate the organisation with
new attitudes and ideas that give leaders a broader perspective. Bennett also agrees and sees
a need for case studies to show leadership in action and the need for mentoring and
coaching. However, he too has an opposing view to Sreenan, seeing recognised leaders
from other military organisations as giving more objectivity. This finding demonstrates a
requirement for mentoring and coaching.
Education
The literature reviewed highlights a significant gap in DF leadership education (Dineen,
2010; Brennan, 2003) and shows the need to educate the military leader in military and
civilian fields (US, 2006). Sreenan established a Leadership Centre in the DF Military
College to provoke argument, challenge ideas and create a forum where topics akin to those
discussed in his interview could be critically analysed and individuals find their own faults.
12
Irish Energy Company

44
Bennett is in favour of EI as a self-report system where you get feedback and control your
own personal development, having firstly mapped it out (Dineen, 2010).
Sreenan agrees and posits that if you are a leader and interested in leadership, you go
seeking and searching yourself and that the organisation equips us pretty well to meet
changing circumstances. “Leadership development must be seen as a voyage of discovery
through an officer’s, career and that voyage must be undertaken by the officer him/her self
facilitated by the organisation” (Sreenan). Aiken is of the opinion that officers can go for
prolonged periods without formal leadership training available. Academia has a lot to offer
and while you cannot learn leadership from a book, elements can be taught and learned
(Aiken). This agrees with the literature (US, 2006). The finding is that while the onus is on
the leader to self-develop, the organisation must be proactive in facilitating that
development through continuous education.
Interpersonal Skills
The literature reviewed in this thesis focused on two aspects of interpersonal skills,
interpersonal relations and moral courage.
Interpersonal relationship
Good interpersonal relationships are the outcome of a leader high in EI, and are critical for
healthy command climate and a synergetic organisation (Ruderman et al., 2001; Abraham,
2007). The literature highlights interpersonal relations as a main requirement for success in
both civilian and military leadership. “I think the interpersonal side, to me, is critical”

45
(Bennett) (Hand, 2010; Ruderman et al., 2001; Abraham, 2007; Right Management 2011;
Reed 2010). “Failure to develop young officer’s interpersonal skills at an early stage is a
major failing of the DF as it is reflected in many officers’ unwillingness to communicate or
problem solve in the hope that time will resolve all” (RP). The literature also highlights a
significant gap in DF leadership education regarding interpersonal skills (Brennan, 2003;
Dineen, 2010). Mangan and Sreenan place particular emphasis on all forms of the
interpersonal skill of communication as being a fundamental requirement for leadership.
Mangan is definite in his views that the DF does not fully explore this interpersonal skill in
all its aspects.
Sreenan sees interpersonal skills as the most fundamental aspect of leadership. The
literature review has shown the effectiveness of EI in developing interpersonal and
leadership skills (Ruderman et al., 2001; Reed, 2010; Goleman 2004; Sparrow and Knight,
2006). Sreenan found early in his career as a young officer that he learned a lot about
interpersonal relations through living conditions at that time that promoted close interaction
with his comrades. Bennett regards these interpersonal skills together with intrapersonal
skills as essential for effective leadership. The data highlights interpersonal relationship as
the most important requirement for leadership and it is missing from DF leadership
development (Brennan, 2003; Dineen, 2010). This finding was also evidenced in the
literature review.
Empathy
Empathy is the ability to sense what others feel and understand their perspective
(Goleman, 2004). The literature strongly emphasises the need for the EI competency of
empathy in leadership (Goleman, 2004, 2006; Mayer et al., 2006; Bar-On, 2006; Clemmer,

46
2009; Northouse, 2010; Sewell, 2009; Boyatzis and McKee, 2005) and the primary data is
in full agreement with the literature. “The general lack of empathy in the DF is quite
unsettling in aspects of military life outside close knit operational military communities
such as onboard ship or overseas missions”(RP) (Hand, 2010). Mangan disagrees and
contends that the balance is right in the DF and that DF representative bodies have created a
positive effect. Aiken is very much aware of the importance of empathy from his former
days as a nuclear submarine commander and from battalions that have been deployed and
are working well together. The DF leadership attributes require the EI competency of
empathy (Bennett, 2012; Defence Forces, 2011). This finding shows the need for all leaders
to have empathy.
“Empathy is the key to good interpersonal relations. I have to read other people’s concerns,
their emotions, their feelings, in order to relate to them.” (Bar-On, 25 February 2012). He
sees a lot of military people reject empathy right out. “It is hard for one to interact with
other people if they do not have good empathy” (Bar-On). This finding was not apparent in
the literature review. Bar-On, Bennett and Mangan agree that an officer with too much
empathy for the individual may forget about the group, which does not augur well in a
combat situation, where life and death decisions must be made. Bar-On sees too much of
some EI competencies and the opposite side of other EI competencies as being on the dark
side of EI. This finding was not apparent in the literature reviewed.
.

47
Moral Courage
The literature reviewed recognises the importance of moral courage in the military leader
(Dodd, 2001; Defence Forces, 2011; US 2006). Bar-On sees moral courage as an
interpersonal skill, part of social responsibility and empathy. He suggests that “you do not
only do the cognitively correct thing but you do the morally right thing.” D’Arcy defines
moral courage as “generating a vision and following through on that consistently.” What
McManus (08 March 2012) sees in future leaders are commonsense and courage which
encapsulates a good balance of EI. “It is sometimes difficult for officers to show moral
courage in a hierarchical organisation where self-preservation may be the order of the day,
but when you have exhausted other options, you must take a stance, especially in ethical or
moral issues” (RP) (Prendergast, 2010).
Aiken sees the two worst leadership traits as inconsistency and lack of moral courage (US,
2006), suggesting that recently there is a more pronounced lack of moral courage among
senior officers in the British military system. He finds this unacceptable in an organisation
charged with defence of the State. Where leaders are risk-averse it may be a case of low
self-regard or assertiveness which are both aspects of EI that can be measured and taught
(Bar-On). Sreenan agrees with the inconsistency trait and adds the cult of the popular leader
trait, also one who always brings good news and never faces the facts. This finding is that
moral courage should be actively promoted as a cultural aspect of DF.

48
EI can benefit the individual and the organisation
The literature shows us we can learn leadership and we can develop EI (McKee et al., 2008;
Goleman, 2006), letting us switch between resonant leader styles (McKee et al., 2008;
Boyatzis and McKee 2005; Goleman, Boyatzis & McKee, 2002; 2004; Goleman, 2004;
2006). The primary data throughout indicates an acceptance of EI as being crucial for
leadership success though sometimes through indirect reference. Sreenan sees the
competencies of EI as providing a very useful, coherent and thought provoking framework
(Goleman, 2006; Mayer, Salovey and Caruso, 2006; Bar-On, 2000) for the identification of
skills and competencies appropriate to the military leader (Sewell, 2009). He sees a positive
role for EI in DF leadership education and development but not where someone decides to
“write the doctrinal manual for the Army and decides we are going to move towards
emotional intelligence.”
D’Arcy posits that the biggest constraint to success is the culture of the combined collective
behaviours of everybody in an organisation (Sewell, 2009), and this is where EI plays its
part by “connecting directly to the emotions” (D’Arcy). Bord na Móna has defined its terms
of behaviour for success and recognises the core competencies required to support people
in delivering organisation objectives, “We need good followers as well and to understand
what the characteristics of good followers are” (D’Arcy). Sreenan agrees and suggests that
the leader should attain the facility to understand the context, meet the needs of the
individuals and the DF while achieving the mission (Sewell, 2009).
Bar-On suggests that regression analysis is the way to create a model of EI for units in the
DF. This is carrying out an evaluation of high performers to “create a model that is like a

49
statistical mirror of high performance in that unit.” The resulting EI factors would then be
integrated into unit training along with the necessary military skills to increase EI and
overall performance. Bar-On is still effusive about EI after 32 years and feels “it is like
holding on to an electric wire, I cannot let go.” He reinforces that EI is ‘teachable and
learnable’(Goleman, 2004; Mayer et al., 2006; Bar-On, 2006) in that you can teach people
to be more calm, more controlled, more flexible, less flexible and better problem solvers
(Abrahams, 2007; Lackey, 2011).
Mangan and Sreenan through their experience have not found anything revolutionary about
the concept of EI. However, they agree that a coherent framework of intrapersonal and
interpersonal competencies is of benefit to leadership development (Sewell, 2009;
Abrahams, 2007). Sreenan suggests that EI “could be particularly useful in ensuring a
progressive approach to an officer’s career while bearing in mind that leadership is not an
exercise in learning skills and box ticking ...” The findings suggests that EI is teachable and
learnable and of benefit to the individual and the organisation.
No one leadership style encompasses all aspects of military leadership
Two former Chiefs of Staff, Mangan and Sreenan, concur that the coercive style of
leadership once prevalent in the DF has changed due to liberal changes in society over time.
Some literature (Hunter-Nolan et al., 2012) sees an autocratic style as a requirement for
military leadership. The primary data suggests that the autocratic style of leadership which
was coercive and dissonant is a thing of the past (McManus, D’Arcy, Sreenan, and
Mangan). McManus like Sreenan and Mangan has seen dramatic changes from the early
days of “I will tell you what to do and you do it” style of leadership. They welcome this

50
change where people wish to have a greater understanding of events. This finds DF
leadership is evolving.
“No one style of leadership is appropriate for all situations” (Bennett). Aiken agrees and
sees a military leader as a person of vision, adapting a style to suit the circumstances
(Goleman et al., 2002). He sees the high end of military activity as being 65 to 75 percent
leadership, the rest being management; while in the civilian sphere it is 65 to 75 percent
management for the one in control. Aiken’s opinion is that senior management is more
involved in process and we have lost the art of senior leadership. “The art and science of
true leadership in the DF has evolved into little more than a managerial role avoiding the
human dimension” (RP). Mangan suggests that “it’s all very well to be a manager”,
however, military operations are about leaders applying the right interpersonal technique as
the situation demands. Sreenan agrees and is of the opinion that an effective leader must
understand and be capable of drawing on an array of styles to meet different situations
(McKee et al., 2008; Boyatzis and McKee, 2005). Mangan concurs with Sreenan when he
contends that the resonant leadership model of EI leadership “appears a very useful model
to assist military leaders in their own development and also those charged with facilitating
leadership development.”
Mangan agrees with Aiken that there is a difference between leadership that is responsive
in a high intensity conflict environment and peacetime. Aiken sees overseas missions as a
way for the individual to progress his leadership skills by regularly stretching himself
within his ability. Bar-On from his military experience also sees a difference in the
performance of officers in combatant roles and non-combatant roles. Sreenan, Mangan,
Bennett and Aiken all agree that leadership is a situational, requiring different skill at

51
different times, which epitomises the EI leader (Goleman, 2004; 2006; Boyatzis & McKee,
2005; McKee et al., 2008; Mau and Wooley, 2008:55). The finding illustrates that EI
resonant leadership is suited for DF leadership.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter the research findings were presented and integrated with the literature
reviewed. The research confirmed the importance of EI to leadership in the DF. The
research highlighted the difference between leadership and management and the
implications for leadership development in the DF. The research showed that there are gaps
in DF leadership training that could be closed by the introduction of EI development.
The research also pointed to the need to address the issues of moral courage, education, the
need for empathy and development of interpersonal skill. This is an issue for those involved
in training and human resource management and for every individual. The findings support
the benefit of EI to DF leadership education and development. The findings tie in with the
literature review which reinforces interpersonal relationship as a vital part of leadership
which enhances the individual and creates synergy in an organisation. The research showed
that many aspects of EI are already present in the DF; however they have not been placed
in a framework to facilitate individual assessment or leadership development. There is a DF
need for individual coaching, and mentoring from outside the immediate chain of command
to personalise and sustain leadership development. The positive aspects of EI were evident
in the research and showed the benefits a self-directed learning programme of EI could
bring to DF leadership. This chapter adds to the value of learning as it establishes a

52
framework between EI and Military Leadership to assist further leadership programmes and
the development of a leadership model in the DF. The findings from this research should
assist those, who in the future will publish leadership doctrine.
Chapter Five will develop these findings by drawing conclusions, making
recommendations and suggesting further studies relevant to the DF.

53
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This thesis set out to examine the benefit of EI to leadership education and development in
the DF. Chapter One introduced EI and DF leadership and posed the question, ‘How can EI
contribute to DF leadership education and development?’ It outlined the relevance of this
topic to the DF and personal relevance to the researcher. Chapter Two conducted a
comprehensive review of relevant literature, formed a framework for the study and
identified the appropriate themes that required further study. It drew from the fields of
sociology, philosophy and psychology. Chapter Three outlined the methodology used and
explained my epistemological stance. Chapter Four presented and analysed the data to
provide findings which confirmed existing knowledge and departures or additions to
existing knowledge. I was predisposed to the positive aspects of EI for personal
development but was surprised to find such a positive relevance for EI in leadership
development. This chapter will present my findings, the conclusions drawn from these
findings, their implications and associated recommendations.
Findings
In leadership development, self-awareness was found to be the stepping stone for
leadership and important for DF leadership development. There was a lack of formal
leadership doctrine which was also evidenced by the literature review. It found doctrine

54
must change in tandem with the circumstances which influence the evolution of society and
organisations. Mentoring and coaching were found to be deficient and not taken seriously
by commanding officers. Education in leadership development was not readily facilitated
by the DF and the onus was placed on the individual for self-development.
It was revealed that interpersonal relationship is the most important requirement for
leadership and it is missing from DF leadership development. Communications were also
found to be an important interpersonal skill that is not fully explored in DF leadership
education.
It was found that all leaders need empathy to be successful and empathy is greatest in close-
knit operational units. It is hard for one to interact if the other people have no empathy, and
this adds to previous knowledge. Also, too much empathy is undesirable in a leader,
especially a military leader as it is considered to be on the dark side of EI. The dark side
was seen as the opposite side of good EI competencies.
Moral courage although sometimes difficult to muster in a hierarchical organisation should
be promoted actively. The findings show that EI promotes synergy in an organisation and is
both teachable and learnable. EI benefits the individual and the organisation and can be
used to create doctrine. The findings show that there has been a progression from coercive
leadership in the DF and leadership is evolving with a positive view towards a resonant
type of leadership model.

55
Implications for the DF
By promoting the development of self-awareness, the DF enhances the individual and the
organisation as we are all both leaders and followers. This key factor is critical for effective
leadership in a complex and dynamic DF especially in the present climate of
transformation, where more is expected and required of leaders.
In evaluating the need for a formal doctrine it was found that like a leadership paradigm all
things are subject to change and that doctrine facilitates this change and is not a dogma.
Formal doctrine and philosophy are necessary to enable DF encapsulate a common sense of
leadership values which can facilitate change. There is an urgent need for leadership
doctrine to be published in order to promote a solid foundation for leadership development.
The DF requires this doctrine to avoid ambiguity in officer appraisal or leaders reinforcing
their own prejudices.
Officers require more from the DF in terms of leadership education and development and
the DF must deliver, especially in the development of younger officers. Officers will not
buy into the organisation unless the DF fosters a climate of leadership awareness. The DF
requires a proactive approach to mentoring and coaching to develop leadership and pass on
life skills in order to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of personnel in achieving
their mission.
The DF must educate personnel in interpersonal relationships as it is the most important EI
requirement for effective leadership and organisational synergy. The DF has in place a
comprehensive procedure for the resolution of complaints; however a requirement for
interpersonal skills training exists, to increase conflict resolution. Of course the implication

56
is that the DF must initially develop a self-awareness culture. At an early stage the DF must
take the responsibility to develop the communication skills of all its personnel in order to
increase the professionalism and proficiency of the organisation.
In the current climate of DF transformation there is a necessity to increase leadership
awareness of the importance of empathy, as it becomes critical to transformation success,
with numbers reducing and added pressures being placed on both DF personnel and their
families. The DF need to foster moral courage to encourage more decisive moral
leadership.
The DF already develops some EI competencies without a structured framework in place or
an overall concept of the EI construct. EI and leadership can be taught and learned and is of
paramount importance to the DF especially in the realm of overseas missions which
encompasses multicultural military and civilian customs and mindsets. As is evidenced
from this thesis many gaps in officer training can be filled by a self-reporting system such
as EI.
The implications for the DF are clear, that it must develop EI leaders with resonant
leadership qualities to progress the calibre of its leaders in modern leadership paradigms or
risk being left behind in society.
Recommendations
The DF should review leadership education and development in light of the findings and
implications put forward in this thesis.

57
A conscious effort should be made to fully integrate self-awareness education into all
programmes for training and development in the DF to aid mission achievement and
personal development. A comprehensive, consistent, holistic, and proactive approach to
mentoring and coaching by Commanding Officers is recommended to improve
professionalism. In the current financial climate, mentoring from outside the organisation
may not be feasible, however mentoring should be from outside the chain of command.
The DF should create a comprehensive formal leadership doctrinal framework that
encapsulates the most important DF leader competencies, using validated and predictive
criteria conducive to DF leadership development. EI competencies should form part of this
framework. This doctrine should be broad in principle to avoid stagnation of thought, and it
must be constantly updated to keep pace with the evolution of society.
To progress leadership in pace with society, the DF should foster a culture of openness,
where moral courage and integrity can flourish without fear of repercussion in a
hierarchical organisation.
It is also recommended that a comprehensive quantitative study of EI be undertaken to
ascertain the leadership needs of the individual and the organisation. It is recommended that
a pilot system of EI development as a self-directed programme is introduced into DF
leadership training to correct the deficit in interpersonal skills within the organisation. DF
psychologists could develop a self-directed learning programme based on the requirements
for a DF leader. This could be conducted on the existing DF computer network as a cost
effective way of developing EI for the benefit of the organisation.

Main thesis

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