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LEAD 901 Chapter 8
- 1. Chapter 8 Data Analysisand Representation
- 2. Questions for Discussion •What ethical issues may arise during data analysis? • What are common data analysis strategies used in qualitative research? • How might the overall data analysis process be conceptualized in qualitative research? • What are specific data analysis procedures used within each of the approaches to inquiry, and how do they differ? • What are the procedures available in qualitative computer analysis programs and how would these procedures differ by approach to qualitative inquiry? 2Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 3. Ethical Considerations forData Analysis • Protection of participants from harm – Avoid disclosing potentially harmful information – Situations where data might be identifiable • Disclosure of comprehensive findings – Limited access to analysis procedures – Siding with participants – Disclosing only positive results 3Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 4. General Steps toAnalysis • Preparing data – E.g. transcripts • Reducing data – Coding and condensing into themes • Representing data – Figures, tables, and discussion 4Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 5. Three Analysis Strategies •Madison (2005, 2012) – Interpretive framework from critical ethnography • Huberman & Miles (1994) – Systematic approach • Wolcott (1994) – Traditional approach from ethnography and case study 5Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 6. Analysis Strategies bySelect Authors 6Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 7. The Data AnalysisSpiral • Data analysis – Custom-built, revised, ‘choreographed’ (Huberman & Miles, 1994) • Data collection, data analysis, and report writing – Interrelated & simultaneous • 3 “I’s” of qualitative research – Insight, intuition, and impression (Dey, 1995) • Contour of analysis = data analysis spiral 7Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 8. Data Analysis Spiral(2) 8Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 9. Managing and Organizingthe Data • Organize digital files and create file naming systems • Decide appropriate text units and audiovisual representations • Consider impact on future analysis 9Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 10. Reading and MemoingEmergent Ideas • Read to gain a sense of the whole database • Write notes or memos in margins • Memos: short phrases, ideas, or key concepts that occur to the researcher • Recommendations – Prioritize memoing throughout the analysis – Develop a system to organize memos – Embed sorting strategies to retrieve memos 10Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 11. Describing and ClassifyingCodes into Themes • Forming codes and categories (interchangeable term) • Detailed description • In situ: in setting of person / place / event • Coding – Aggregating text or visual data into small categories – Seeking evidence for the code – Assigning a label to the code • Lean coding 11Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 12. Coding Issues • Countcodes? • Preexisting or a priori codes? – ‘Prefigured’ or ‘emergent’ (Crabtree & Miller, 1992) • Origin of code names – In vivo: exact words or segments – Codes that represent information researchers expected, found surprising, was conceptually interested • Types of information to code – E.g., Stories, experiences, processes, cultural themes, and detailed description 12Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 13. Deconstruction Dismantling a dichotomy Examiningsilences Attending to disruptions & contradictions Focusing on peculiar elements Interpreting metaphors Analyzing double entendres Separating group & general sources of bias 13Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 14. Classifying Codes IntoThemes • Themes (also called categories): broad units of information that consist of several codes aggregated to form a common idea • 5-7 general themes • Strategies – Use memoing to capture emerging themes – Highlight noteworthy quotes – Create diagrams that represent relationships – Draft summary statements of recurring or striking aspects 14Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 15. Developing and AssessingInterpretations • Making sense of data, the “lessons learned” • Interpretation: abstracting beyond the codes and themes to the larger meaning • Link to larger research literature • Tentative, inconclusive, and questioning for postmodern and interpretive researchers • Peer feedback and audit trails 15Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 16. Representing and Visualizingthe Data • In text, tables, or figures • Creating matrix displays – Search data and select level and type of data to display (e.g., quotes) – Sketch and seek feedback on initial formatting – Assess completeness and readability: ambiguous data, reduce number of rows and columns (5-6 max) – Note patterns and possible comparisons and clusters – Revisit text to ensure it offers explanations and conclusions 16Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 17. Levels of Abstraction 17 Creswell,Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018. Source: Asmussen and Creswell (1995).
- 18. Analysis & Representationby Approaches (1) 18Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 19. Analysis & Representationby Approaches (2) 19Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 20. Narrative Analysis and Representation •5 elements of plot structure – Characters, setting, problem, actions, and resolution – Ollerenshaw & Creswell (2002) • 3-dimensional space approach – Interaction, continuity, & situation – Clandinin & Connelly (2000) • Chronological approach – Denzin (1989) • Report composition – Thematic, structural, dialogic, and visual analysis – Reissman (2008) 20Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 21. Phenomenological Analysis and Representation •Describe personal experiences • Develop significant statements • Group significant statements into ‘meaning units’ • Create ‘textural description’-what happened • Write ‘structural description’-how the experience happened • Write composite description 21 ‘Phenomenological reflection’ • Holistic, selective, detailed approach • van Manen, 1990, p. 77 Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 22. Grounded Theory Analysis andRepresentation • Strauss & Corbin (1990, 1998) – Open coding • “Saturate” categories • Subcategories called properties • Dimensionalize on continuum – Axial coding • Select single category as central phenomenon • Relate categories to central phenomenon – Selective coding • Generate propositions: Interrelate categories in coding paradigm – Conditional matrix (diagram) • Charmaz (2006): understanding vs. explanation 22Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 23. Ethnographic Analysis and Representation •Wolcott (1994) – Description: story-telling • ‘day in the life’ • Critical or key event – Analysis: patterned regularities • Compare, evaluate, and critique – Interpretation of culture-sharing group • Speculate, infer, and personalize • Poetry, fiction, and performance • Fetterman (2010) – Triangulating data, looking for patterns – Draw maps, charts, and design matrices 23Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 24. Case Study Analysis andRepresentation • Stake (1995) – Categorical aggregation, collection of instances – Direct interpretation: single instance, draw meaning – Patterns: between 2+ categories • Table • Cross-case synthesis (Yin, 2014) – Naturalistic generalizations 24Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 25. Comparing the 5Approaches • Most detailed – Grounded theory and phenomenology • Common analysis and procedures – Ethnography and case study • Least structured – Narrative 25Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 26. Computer Use in QualitativeData Analysis Advantages • Organize storage • Locate material easily • Look closely at data • Visual representations • Link memos with codes, themes, and documents • Collaborative analysis with a team Disadvantages • Time to learn • Distance or hinder creativity • Machine between researcher & data • Changing categories / moving information • Limited guidance • Selecting appropriate programs 26Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 27. How to DecideWhether to Use • What expertise do I bring to qualitative data analysis? • How proficient am I with any computer program in qualitative data analysis? • How complex is my study database? • What analysis features do I anticipate needing? • What is the anticipated researcher configuration for my study? (e.g., a team) 27Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 28. Sampling of ComputerPrograms 28 MAXQDA • Develop & test theories • Hierarchical code system • 4 windows: data, code systems, text, results ATLAS.ti • Organize text & audiovisuals • Code, annotate, compare segments • Drag & drop codes in interactive margin QSR Nvivo • Streamlined look • Secure storage in single file • Graphically display codes & categories HyperRESEARCH • Code, retrieve, build theories, analysis • Work with text, graphics, & audiovisuals • Code & retrieve with theory-builder Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 29. Use of SoftwarePrograms • Storing and organizing qualitative data • Locating and sorting text or image segments • Retrieving common passages or segments • Comparing and relating among code labels • Conceptualizing different levels of abstraction • Representing and visualizing codes & themes • Writing and managing memos • Creating and applying templates for coding 29Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 30. Template: Coding a NarrativeStudy 30Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 31. Template: Coding a PhenomenologicalStudy 31Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 32. Template: Coding a GroundedTheory Study 32Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 33. Template: Coding an Ethnography 33Creswell,Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 34. Template: Coding a (Multiple)Case Study 34Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
- 35. How to ChooseAmong the Computer Programs • Ease of integration • Diversity of data accepted • Reading and searching features • Memo writing features • Coding and reviewing features • Sorting and categorizing features • Diagramming features • Importing/exporting features • Merging, storing, security features 35Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design 4e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.