The document discusses issues facing unwed mothers in Korea, including societal stigma, lack of support systems, and laws/policies that discourage mothers from raising children. It notes that while more unwed mothers are choosing to raise children in recent years, many still feel compelled to relinquish their babies due to financial hardship and stigma. The document advocates for greater support and legal protections for unwed mothers in Korea, arguing that it is a basic human rights issue. It summarizes the work of the Korean Unwed Mothers Support Network to raise awareness and effect policy changes to better support unwed mothers' rights and abilities to raise their own children.
The document summarizes China's one-child policy, which was introduced in 1979 to reduce China's population growth. It discusses how the policy was enforced through a bureaucracy that monitored families and imposed fines or forced abortions/sterilizations for extra children. It also notes issues that arose, such as families hiding undocumented children or skirting the rules in other ways. Some children of parents who broke the rules were allegedly taken and sold to orphanages for international adoption, victimizing vulnerable families. In general, the policy was intended to control population but its stringent enforcement sometimes caused human rights issues.
Child neglect is a serious problem that negatively impacts children's well-being and development. It is defined as the failure to meet a child's basic needs and can include neglecting medical, psychological, or developmental needs. Children who are neglected often suffer physically and emotionally and may struggle as adults. Achieving the goal of ending child neglect requires raising awareness about reporting abuse, educating the public on signs of abuse and neglect, and providing rehabilitation services for victims and abusive parents.
The document discusses various population policies adopted by different countries, including both pro-natalist policies aimed at increasing birth rates and anti-natalist policies aimed at decreasing birth rates. It provides examples of countries that have implemented pro-natalist policies like the USSR, Germany, Bulgaria, Quebec, and Iran initially. Examples of countries that have implemented anti-natalist policies include China with its one-child policy and Singapore with its "Stop at Two" campaign. Reasons for these different policies include addressing low fertility rates, replacing war casualties, addressing overpopulation concerns, and promoting economic development. Medals and incentives were often provided to encourage higher birth rates, while penalties and restrictions were used to discourage larger family sizes under anti-natal
The Chinese government introduced the One Child Policy in 1979 to address overpopulation issues stemming from previous encouragement of large families. The policy limited most urban families to one child and provided incentives for compliance but also penalties for violations like forced abortions. Exceptions existed for rural families and ethnic minorities. While the policy was initially successful in slowing population growth, it led to unintended consequences like sex-selective abortion and an aging population. In recent years China has begun relaxing the once strict One Child Policy.
This document provides an overview of a student's honors component focusing on the effects of poverty on child development. It discusses topics like child poverty statistics globally and in different countries, the history of poverty, and how informing students about these issues can help create change. The goal is to help students understand poverty's impacts in order to support efforts that address it and improve children's lives worldwide.
The one child policy was introduced in China in 1979 to control the country's large population growth. It restricted urban families to only one child and rural families to two if the first was a girl. This led to forced abortions and sterilizations to meet quotas. It also caused societal issues like a gender imbalance. While it achieved population control, it was also criticized for infringing on personal freedoms. Recent changes allow two children per family and ban forced birth control measures.
The one-child policy was introduced in China in the late 1970s under Deng Xiaoping to limit population growth and encourage families to only have one child. It aimed to reduce China's high population growth rate through strict family planning policies like incentives, sanctions, and even forced abortions and sterilization. Over time, exceptions were made for rural families and those whose first child was a girl. The policy led to a decline in fertility rates but also caused unintended consequences like a gender imbalance as sons were preferred and abandonment of baby girls. It remained in effect for nearly four decades before being replaced in 2015.
Grand families.org --14-state-of-grandfamilies-report-finalscreaminc
This document summarizes information about grandfamilies in the United States. It states that approximately 7.8 million children live in grandfamilies, often due to job loss, illness, death, substance abuse or incarceration of parents. Grandfamilies provide kinship care to keep children out of the foster care system, saving taxpayers over $4 billion per year. Grandparents and other relatives who take on caregiving duties unexpectedly face challenges in meeting the needs of the children, and they have higher rates of poverty than non-caregiving grandparents. The document discusses the needs of both children and caregivers in grandfamilies and outlines some of the supports available, such as government benefits, community programs, and tax credits.
The document summarizes China's one-child policy, which was introduced in 1979 to reduce China's population growth. It discusses how the policy was enforced through a bureaucracy that monitored families and imposed fines or forced abortions/sterilizations for extra children. It also notes issues that arose, such as families hiding undocumented children or skirting the rules in other ways. Some children of parents who broke the rules were allegedly taken and sold to orphanages for international adoption, victimizing vulnerable families. In general, the policy was intended to control population but its stringent enforcement sometimes caused human rights issues.
Child neglect is a serious problem that negatively impacts children's well-being and development. It is defined as the failure to meet a child's basic needs and can include neglecting medical, psychological, or developmental needs. Children who are neglected often suffer physically and emotionally and may struggle as adults. Achieving the goal of ending child neglect requires raising awareness about reporting abuse, educating the public on signs of abuse and neglect, and providing rehabilitation services for victims and abusive parents.
The document discusses various population policies adopted by different countries, including both pro-natalist policies aimed at increasing birth rates and anti-natalist policies aimed at decreasing birth rates. It provides examples of countries that have implemented pro-natalist policies like the USSR, Germany, Bulgaria, Quebec, and Iran initially. Examples of countries that have implemented anti-natalist policies include China with its one-child policy and Singapore with its "Stop at Two" campaign. Reasons for these different policies include addressing low fertility rates, replacing war casualties, addressing overpopulation concerns, and promoting economic development. Medals and incentives were often provided to encourage higher birth rates, while penalties and restrictions were used to discourage larger family sizes under anti-natal
The Chinese government introduced the One Child Policy in 1979 to address overpopulation issues stemming from previous encouragement of large families. The policy limited most urban families to one child and provided incentives for compliance but also penalties for violations like forced abortions. Exceptions existed for rural families and ethnic minorities. While the policy was initially successful in slowing population growth, it led to unintended consequences like sex-selective abortion and an aging population. In recent years China has begun relaxing the once strict One Child Policy.
This document provides an overview of a student's honors component focusing on the effects of poverty on child development. It discusses topics like child poverty statistics globally and in different countries, the history of poverty, and how informing students about these issues can help create change. The goal is to help students understand poverty's impacts in order to support efforts that address it and improve children's lives worldwide.
The one child policy was introduced in China in 1979 to control the country's large population growth. It restricted urban families to only one child and rural families to two if the first was a girl. This led to forced abortions and sterilizations to meet quotas. It also caused societal issues like a gender imbalance. While it achieved population control, it was also criticized for infringing on personal freedoms. Recent changes allow two children per family and ban forced birth control measures.
The one-child policy was introduced in China in the late 1970s under Deng Xiaoping to limit population growth and encourage families to only have one child. It aimed to reduce China's high population growth rate through strict family planning policies like incentives, sanctions, and even forced abortions and sterilization. Over time, exceptions were made for rural families and those whose first child was a girl. The policy led to a decline in fertility rates but also caused unintended consequences like a gender imbalance as sons were preferred and abandonment of baby girls. It remained in effect for nearly four decades before being replaced in 2015.
Grand families.org --14-state-of-grandfamilies-report-finalscreaminc
This document summarizes information about grandfamilies in the United States. It states that approximately 7.8 million children live in grandfamilies, often due to job loss, illness, death, substance abuse or incarceration of parents. Grandfamilies provide kinship care to keep children out of the foster care system, saving taxpayers over $4 billion per year. Grandparents and other relatives who take on caregiving duties unexpectedly face challenges in meeting the needs of the children, and they have higher rates of poverty than non-caregiving grandparents. The document discusses the needs of both children and caregivers in grandfamilies and outlines some of the supports available, such as government benefits, community programs, and tax credits.
China implemented its one child policy in 1979 to reduce rapid population growth. The policy used penalties to discourage families from having more than one child. It advocated for delayed marriage, childbearing, and fewer healthier babies. Exceptions were made for ethnic minorities and couples where both parents were only children. Benefits were given to families with one child like preferential education, healthcare, housing and wages. However, the policy also led to issues like sex-selective abortion, a rising gender imbalance, and the "little emperor syndrome" with single children. While it helped control population, rural areas were more reluctant due to needs for old age support and child labor. The future of the policy is uncertain with some speculation that it may change after affecting one
1) Rapid population growth, especially among the poorest, poses difficulties for development and poverty reduction in the Philippines. Official data shows higher poverty incidence and lower human capital investment in larger families.
2) The poor prefer smaller families but are unable to achieve their preferences due to lack of access to family planning. Over half of pregnancies among the poor are unintended and unwanted births represent unmet need.
3) Ensuring access to modern family planning methods and information can help address both private and social costs of unintended pregnancies while respecting individual choice. Reproductive health and family planning programs offer benefits to individuals, the economy, and the environment.
China introduced its one child policy in 1979 to alleviate social and economic problems caused by rapid population growth. The policy limited urban families to one child and rural families to two if the first was a girl. It has prevented over 250 million births but caused gender imbalance as families aborted female fetuses. As fewer young people now support an aging population, China will face soaring healthcare costs and worker shortages in coming decades.
The document discusses China's population trends and policies over recent decades. It notes that China implemented strict population control policies from the 1970s, including limiting families to one child, to address overpopulation concerns. This resulted in China's total fertility rate declining significantly below replacement level. While the one-child policy achieved its goal of slowing population growth, it has also led to challenges like a rapidly aging population and gender imbalance due to a cultural preference for sons. China is now grappling with supporting its growing elderly population with fewer children.
The one-child policy in China aimed to control population growth and encourage development. It allowed most couples to have only one child and enforced strict penalties for violations. However, it led to unintended consequences like a gender imbalance as families preferred sons, abandonment and killing of baby girls, and social issues with a aging population. While it helped increase living standards and development, the policy faced criticism for being inhumane and restricting personal freedom.
This document provides information about population growth rates in less developed countries (LDCs) and developed countries (DCs). It discusses the high population growth rates in LDCs due to factors like early marriage, high child mortality rates, lack of family planning education, and religious beliefs. This leads to issues like overcrowding, food shortages, and pressure on social services. Ways to reduce high growth include economic development, birth control programs, and increasing literacy. DCs have slower or declining growth due to lower birth rates from family planning, education, higher costs of living, and preferences for smaller families.
The document summarizes demographic data and policies regarding population control in China. It notes that in 2006, China's population was 1.3 billion with a growth rate of 0.6%. It describes China's one-child policy introduced in 1979 to limit population growth, and exceptions to the policy. The policy has contributed to a skewed sex ratio and human trafficking issues. While helping control population, the long-term policy could increase elderly dependency on one working generation.
China recently relaxed its one-child policy slightly to allow couples to have a second child if one partner is an only child. If China maintains its one-child policy in coming decades, its population will begin to decrease, peaking around 2030 at 1.46 billion before falling to 1.3 billion by 2050. Experts see this slight reform as a potential opening to further changes given concerns about a shrinking workforce and rapidly aging population.
China has officially abandoned its One Child Policy amid deepening demographic crisis of shrinking workforce and aging population in the world’s second largest economy.
The new law allows couples to have two children from January 1, 2015 and marks the ending its over three decades old One Child Policy.
During the 1940’s the Chinese government encouraged people to have large families, to gain military strength and for the people to help with agricultural production led to OVERPOPULATION in china.
Therese Hesketh, One Child Policy: impacts on reproductive health and attitudesWellcome Collection
Since its introduction in 1979, the one child policy has had a direct impact on the lives of over one-fifth of the world’s population. The policy has influenced reproductive choice, preferred family size and access to abortion. In a country where preference for male offspring is common, and where there is easy access to abortion, it has also contributed to an excess of male births. Some relaxation of the policy has started, and this is expected to continue.
Therese Hesketh is Professor of Global Health at the UCL Centre for International Health and Development. She trained in paediatrics and public health in the UK and has extensive experience as a clinician and health researcher in Asia. She has taken the lead on a number of large collaborative population studies in China: in health system reform, the health needs of rural-urban migrants, reproductive health, and the demographic, health and social effects of the one child policy.
Presentation by Emebet Mulugeta (Ph.D.), Associate Professor at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, and Director at Nia Center for Children and Family Development, during the "Expert Consultation on Family and Parenting Support," Florence, Italy 26-27 May 2014.
The one-child policy in China has led to unintended consequences over the past 30 years such as a gender imbalance and declining fertility rate. While the policy was introduced to curb population growth, experts now believe the fertility rate has fallen below replacement level and the gender imbalance means tens of millions of Chinese men may not find wives by 2020. Some are calling for changes to the policy to address these issues and encourage couples to have more children.
The present status report includes issues of rights to survival and development, these being health, early childhood development and education. A major section is devoted to child protection since the issues to be addressed are far too many. While there is a chapter dedicated to violence against children, separate chapters deal with child sexual abuse, juvenile justice, child labour and trafficking. The last two years have seen large scale de-housing of children and their families. As an addition this time we have included a section on right to adequate housing as it is a right that cuts across survival, development and protection issues. Given that a large number of children are growing in situations of emergency – human made or natural, it was critical to address their situation separately. Even as we write this report a new disaster has struck the country. Thousands have died or been rendered homeless in Jammu & Kashmir due to the earthquake. The rights of the disabled child have always been marginalised. But since little has changed since our last report, we have addressed issues of disability in the chapters on health and education.
HAQ: Center for Child Rights
B1/2, Ground Floor,
Malviya Nagar
New Delhi - 110017
Tel: +91-26677412,26673599
Fax: +91-26674688
Website: www.haqcrc.org
Facebook Page: https://www.facebook.com/HaqCentreForChildRights
The document summarizes China's one-child and two-child population policies. The one-child policy, introduced in 1979, aimed to limit population growth through restrictions on family size and late marriage. It was effective but also caused negative effects like gender imbalance and population aging. In 2016, China introduced a universal two-child policy to address these issues and balance the population structure. The two-child policy may help ease aging pressures and boost the labor force, but could also increase household costs and housing demand. Overall the document recommends continuing the two-child policy with measures to relieve living pressures for young families.
The one child policy was introduced in China in the 1970s to control its rapidly growing population. The goal was to limit China's population to 1.2 billion by 2000, though it exceeded that number. Before the policy, the average number of children per woman was 6. This high fertility rate led to overpopulation issues as resources could not sustain such rapid growth. While the policy helped reduce China's growth rate, it also led to gender imbalance and other social issues. The policy remained in effect until 2015.
The one child policy was introduced in 1979 by the Chinese government to slow rapid population growth. It allowed urban families to have only one child while rural families could have two to support farming. The policy provided benefits like free education and healthcare to only children. However, it also led to forced abortions if families tried to have more children. While the policy aimed to control population, it received criticism for these human rights violations.
China implemented its One Child Policy in 1979 to address concerns over its large and growing population. The policy limited urban couples to one child and rural families could have a second child if the first was a female. Those who violated the policy faced punishments like forced abortions, sterilizations, and fines. While the policy succeeded in slowing population growth, it has contributed to issues like a gender imbalance from sex-selective abortions and a shrinking workforce to support an aging population. The Chinese government has begun relaxing the policy in recent years.
The One Child Policy was introduced in 1979 in China to address overpopulation concerns from rapid population growth in previous decades. The policy aimed to limit couples to only one child and advocated for delayed marriage and childbearing. Those who complied received benefits while non-compliance resulted in penalties like fines or loss of employment. Exceptions allowed ethnic minorities and rural families to have two children. The policy reduced China's population by 300 million but also led to issues like sex-selective abortions and a skewed gender ratio. The policy ended in 2015.
Socialization and China's One Child PolicyAileen Ye
China's one-child policy aimed to limit population growth but had unintended consequences. Son preference resulted in sex-selective abortion, leading to a shortage of women. This created demand for human trafficking of women and girls into China. The policy changed family structure by limiting siblings and straining the "sandwich generation" who care for young and old. Proposed solutions like cash for girls programs are limited and do not address underlying gender inequality and valuation of sons. Overall, the policy shaped families by reducing family size and socialization while increasing emotional strain, and connected to human rights issues abroad.
This document discusses teen pregnancy rates and factors in the US and around the world. In the US, 1/3 of teenage girls become pregnant, and daughters of teen mothers are more likely to also become teen mothers. African American and Hispanic teenagers have higher pregnancy rates than whites. Globally, 16 million teenagers give birth each year. The top 5 countries for teen pregnancy rates are Niger, Chad, Mozambique, Mali, and Liberia. These countries often have high rates of child marriage and lack of sexual education and healthcare access. The document also discusses resources and programs available to support teen mothers.
The poll Time to care: generation generosity under pressure shows that grandparents have given a total of £8 billion in the past year to pay for a range of grandchildren’s needs, and that nearly two million grandparents have given up a job, reduced their hours or taken time off work to look after their grandchildren.
The poll Time to care: generation generosity under pressure shows that grandparents have given a total of £8 billion in the past year to pay for a range of grandchildren’s needs, and that nearly two million grandparents have given up a job, reduced their hours or taken time off work to look after their grandchildren.
China implemented its one child policy in 1979 to reduce rapid population growth. The policy used penalties to discourage families from having more than one child. It advocated for delayed marriage, childbearing, and fewer healthier babies. Exceptions were made for ethnic minorities and couples where both parents were only children. Benefits were given to families with one child like preferential education, healthcare, housing and wages. However, the policy also led to issues like sex-selective abortion, a rising gender imbalance, and the "little emperor syndrome" with single children. While it helped control population, rural areas were more reluctant due to needs for old age support and child labor. The future of the policy is uncertain with some speculation that it may change after affecting one
1) Rapid population growth, especially among the poorest, poses difficulties for development and poverty reduction in the Philippines. Official data shows higher poverty incidence and lower human capital investment in larger families.
2) The poor prefer smaller families but are unable to achieve their preferences due to lack of access to family planning. Over half of pregnancies among the poor are unintended and unwanted births represent unmet need.
3) Ensuring access to modern family planning methods and information can help address both private and social costs of unintended pregnancies while respecting individual choice. Reproductive health and family planning programs offer benefits to individuals, the economy, and the environment.
China introduced its one child policy in 1979 to alleviate social and economic problems caused by rapid population growth. The policy limited urban families to one child and rural families to two if the first was a girl. It has prevented over 250 million births but caused gender imbalance as families aborted female fetuses. As fewer young people now support an aging population, China will face soaring healthcare costs and worker shortages in coming decades.
The document discusses China's population trends and policies over recent decades. It notes that China implemented strict population control policies from the 1970s, including limiting families to one child, to address overpopulation concerns. This resulted in China's total fertility rate declining significantly below replacement level. While the one-child policy achieved its goal of slowing population growth, it has also led to challenges like a rapidly aging population and gender imbalance due to a cultural preference for sons. China is now grappling with supporting its growing elderly population with fewer children.
The one-child policy in China aimed to control population growth and encourage development. It allowed most couples to have only one child and enforced strict penalties for violations. However, it led to unintended consequences like a gender imbalance as families preferred sons, abandonment and killing of baby girls, and social issues with a aging population. While it helped increase living standards and development, the policy faced criticism for being inhumane and restricting personal freedom.
This document provides information about population growth rates in less developed countries (LDCs) and developed countries (DCs). It discusses the high population growth rates in LDCs due to factors like early marriage, high child mortality rates, lack of family planning education, and religious beliefs. This leads to issues like overcrowding, food shortages, and pressure on social services. Ways to reduce high growth include economic development, birth control programs, and increasing literacy. DCs have slower or declining growth due to lower birth rates from family planning, education, higher costs of living, and preferences for smaller families.
The document summarizes demographic data and policies regarding population control in China. It notes that in 2006, China's population was 1.3 billion with a growth rate of 0.6%. It describes China's one-child policy introduced in 1979 to limit population growth, and exceptions to the policy. The policy has contributed to a skewed sex ratio and human trafficking issues. While helping control population, the long-term policy could increase elderly dependency on one working generation.
China recently relaxed its one-child policy slightly to allow couples to have a second child if one partner is an only child. If China maintains its one-child policy in coming decades, its population will begin to decrease, peaking around 2030 at 1.46 billion before falling to 1.3 billion by 2050. Experts see this slight reform as a potential opening to further changes given concerns about a shrinking workforce and rapidly aging population.
China has officially abandoned its One Child Policy amid deepening demographic crisis of shrinking workforce and aging population in the world’s second largest economy.
The new law allows couples to have two children from January 1, 2015 and marks the ending its over three decades old One Child Policy.
During the 1940’s the Chinese government encouraged people to have large families, to gain military strength and for the people to help with agricultural production led to OVERPOPULATION in china.
Therese Hesketh, One Child Policy: impacts on reproductive health and attitudesWellcome Collection
Since its introduction in 1979, the one child policy has had a direct impact on the lives of over one-fifth of the world’s population. The policy has influenced reproductive choice, preferred family size and access to abortion. In a country where preference for male offspring is common, and where there is easy access to abortion, it has also contributed to an excess of male births. Some relaxation of the policy has started, and this is expected to continue.
Therese Hesketh is Professor of Global Health at the UCL Centre for International Health and Development. She trained in paediatrics and public health in the UK and has extensive experience as a clinician and health researcher in Asia. She has taken the lead on a number of large collaborative population studies in China: in health system reform, the health needs of rural-urban migrants, reproductive health, and the demographic, health and social effects of the one child policy.
Presentation by Emebet Mulugeta (Ph.D.), Associate Professor at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, and Director at Nia Center for Children and Family Development, during the "Expert Consultation on Family and Parenting Support," Florence, Italy 26-27 May 2014.
The one-child policy in China has led to unintended consequences over the past 30 years such as a gender imbalance and declining fertility rate. While the policy was introduced to curb population growth, experts now believe the fertility rate has fallen below replacement level and the gender imbalance means tens of millions of Chinese men may not find wives by 2020. Some are calling for changes to the policy to address these issues and encourage couples to have more children.
The present status report includes issues of rights to survival and development, these being health, early childhood development and education. A major section is devoted to child protection since the issues to be addressed are far too many. While there is a chapter dedicated to violence against children, separate chapters deal with child sexual abuse, juvenile justice, child labour and trafficking. The last two years have seen large scale de-housing of children and their families. As an addition this time we have included a section on right to adequate housing as it is a right that cuts across survival, development and protection issues. Given that a large number of children are growing in situations of emergency – human made or natural, it was critical to address their situation separately. Even as we write this report a new disaster has struck the country. Thousands have died or been rendered homeless in Jammu & Kashmir due to the earthquake. The rights of the disabled child have always been marginalised. But since little has changed since our last report, we have addressed issues of disability in the chapters on health and education.
HAQ: Center for Child Rights
B1/2, Ground Floor,
Malviya Nagar
New Delhi - 110017
Tel: +91-26677412,26673599
Fax: +91-26674688
Website: www.haqcrc.org
Facebook Page: https://www.facebook.com/HaqCentreForChildRights
The document summarizes China's one-child and two-child population policies. The one-child policy, introduced in 1979, aimed to limit population growth through restrictions on family size and late marriage. It was effective but also caused negative effects like gender imbalance and population aging. In 2016, China introduced a universal two-child policy to address these issues and balance the population structure. The two-child policy may help ease aging pressures and boost the labor force, but could also increase household costs and housing demand. Overall the document recommends continuing the two-child policy with measures to relieve living pressures for young families.
The one child policy was introduced in China in the 1970s to control its rapidly growing population. The goal was to limit China's population to 1.2 billion by 2000, though it exceeded that number. Before the policy, the average number of children per woman was 6. This high fertility rate led to overpopulation issues as resources could not sustain such rapid growth. While the policy helped reduce China's growth rate, it also led to gender imbalance and other social issues. The policy remained in effect until 2015.
The one child policy was introduced in 1979 by the Chinese government to slow rapid population growth. It allowed urban families to have only one child while rural families could have two to support farming. The policy provided benefits like free education and healthcare to only children. However, it also led to forced abortions if families tried to have more children. While the policy aimed to control population, it received criticism for these human rights violations.
China implemented its One Child Policy in 1979 to address concerns over its large and growing population. The policy limited urban couples to one child and rural families could have a second child if the first was a female. Those who violated the policy faced punishments like forced abortions, sterilizations, and fines. While the policy succeeded in slowing population growth, it has contributed to issues like a gender imbalance from sex-selective abortions and a shrinking workforce to support an aging population. The Chinese government has begun relaxing the policy in recent years.
The One Child Policy was introduced in 1979 in China to address overpopulation concerns from rapid population growth in previous decades. The policy aimed to limit couples to only one child and advocated for delayed marriage and childbearing. Those who complied received benefits while non-compliance resulted in penalties like fines or loss of employment. Exceptions allowed ethnic minorities and rural families to have two children. The policy reduced China's population by 300 million but also led to issues like sex-selective abortions and a skewed gender ratio. The policy ended in 2015.
Socialization and China's One Child PolicyAileen Ye
China's one-child policy aimed to limit population growth but had unintended consequences. Son preference resulted in sex-selective abortion, leading to a shortage of women. This created demand for human trafficking of women and girls into China. The policy changed family structure by limiting siblings and straining the "sandwich generation" who care for young and old. Proposed solutions like cash for girls programs are limited and do not address underlying gender inequality and valuation of sons. Overall, the policy shaped families by reducing family size and socialization while increasing emotional strain, and connected to human rights issues abroad.
This document discusses teen pregnancy rates and factors in the US and around the world. In the US, 1/3 of teenage girls become pregnant, and daughters of teen mothers are more likely to also become teen mothers. African American and Hispanic teenagers have higher pregnancy rates than whites. Globally, 16 million teenagers give birth each year. The top 5 countries for teen pregnancy rates are Niger, Chad, Mozambique, Mali, and Liberia. These countries often have high rates of child marriage and lack of sexual education and healthcare access. The document also discusses resources and programs available to support teen mothers.
The poll Time to care: generation generosity under pressure shows that grandparents have given a total of £8 billion in the past year to pay for a range of grandchildren’s needs, and that nearly two million grandparents have given up a job, reduced their hours or taken time off work to look after their grandchildren.
The poll Time to care: generation generosity under pressure shows that grandparents have given a total of £8 billion in the past year to pay for a range of grandchildren’s needs, and that nearly two million grandparents have given up a job, reduced their hours or taken time off work to look after their grandchildren.
Are you considering whether to raise your child or to make an adoption plan? Before you make this significant choice, it is important to take some time to think about whether or not raising a child is truly realistic for you at this time. What will having a baby mean for you, both now and down the road?
Adoptions With Love has created this infographic to help guide you through this important decision. We ask you to take the time to reflect on your current situation and on your future.
For more information, please visit: http://adoptionswithlove.org/birth-parents/reality-of-parenting-infographic
The document discusses adolescent pregnancy, unwed mothers, causes and risks. It defines adolescent pregnancy as affecting girls aged 19 or younger. Rates have declined due to increased condom use. Younger teens aged 12-14 are more at risk of unplanned sex. Unwed mothers face social stigma and economic hardship without family support. Preventive measures include education, easy access to contraceptives, and banning prostitution. Nurses can educate youth and advocate for the rights of unwed mothers.
At the Christian Alliance for Orphans annual gathering on May 1, 2015, Hope Through Healing Hands hosted a workshop entitled The Mother & Child Project: How to Prevent the Orphan Crisis. While most workshops were providing instructive guidance on the care of orphans and vulnerable children both at home and around the world, ours focused on the prevention side; that is, how can we stop the orphan crisis before it begins? How can we turn the tide over the next two decades?
COMMUNITY HEALTHggggggggggggggggggggggggggggPrakash554699
Female foeticide refers to the illegal abortion of female fetuses in India solely due to their sex. It is driven by social preferences for male children and beliefs that girls are a financial burden. The government has passed laws banning sex determination and female foeticide, but it remains a problem. If left unchecked, female foeticide could have significant impacts on future population sex ratios and society. Measures to address it include education, empowering women's rights, and abolishing practices like dowries that contribute to the problem.
This document discusses several topics related to adolescent health issues. It defines adolescent pregnancy as pregnancy in girls age 19 or younger. Key causes of adolescent pregnancy include lack of condom use, unplanned sexual intercourse among younger teens who are more susceptible to pressure, and older male partners. Teen pregnancy carries health risks for both mother and baby, such as prematurity and low birth weight. Options for pregnant teens include abortion, adoption or raising the child with support. Unwed mothers face social stigma and economic difficulties, while lack of sex education, poverty and prostitution contribute to unwed motherhood. Preventive measures include education, access to contraception and addressing the root causes that make women vulnerable.
Family Systems Trends and Transitions: What They Mean For Military Familiesmilfamln
Families are changing in response to large global trends. Military families are experiencing the same transitions which may be compounded by military service. Demographic changes will be discussed and the implications on family systems. In this webinar, participants share views of these changes, both personally and professionally.
Children born to teen parents face increased risks such as premature birth, low birth weight, developmental problems, abuse and neglect, and cognitive issues. Teen pregnancy rates have declined but still occur frequently. The children of teen parents are more likely to drop out of high school and repeat the cycle of teen pregnancy. Teachers can help by creating a supportive classroom environment, communicating with parents, and not making assumptions about students' abilities based on their parents' age.
There are an estimated 1.1 million orphans in Ghana, with many more vulnerable children who have at least one living parent. About 4,500 orphans live in orphanages, which face challenges but may provide better access to education, nutrition, and health than living with households. Ghana has made progress in helping caregivers, but more needs to be done as they struggle to afford health insurance, adequate meals, school supplies, and other basic needs for the children in their care.
Russia is facing a population crisis as birth rates have plummeted and death rates have risen, due to factors like poor prenatal care, smoking, alcoholism, and brain drain. Some solutions that have been tried include financial incentives for having children on Russia Day and for having a second child. Other countries face their own population challenges, with high birth rates linked to poverty in places like the Philippines where contraception is restricted, and low birth rates in aging societies in Japan and parts of Europe due to financial barriers and lack of family support systems. Regional differences within countries are also seen, for example with higher fertility in the southern Indian state of Kerala where women have more autonomy and education compared to northern states with practices like child marriage.
This document discusses foster youth and the challenges they face. It notes that there are nearly half a million foster youth in the US, many of whom do not graduate high school or college. Foster youth have high school graduation rates around 46% and college graduation rates around 2%. The researcher examined past literature on foster youth's educational outcomes through a review of qualitative and quantitative studies. The review sought to understand factors contributing to academic success or challenges for foster youth. It aimed to explore the role of the foster care system and how youth overcame obstacles to achieve academic success.
The document discusses the main causes of child poverty in Lancashire, including income-related poverty, worklessness, welfare dependency, health and educational disadvantages, family structure, and lack of social abilities. Child poverty rose in the 1980s and started declining in the 2000s. Income poverty has a huge effect, as working families on low incomes struggle to provide for their children. Children living in poverty face implications like long-term health issues and difficulties in education. The government needs new social policies and welfare reforms to better understand and address the causes of child poverty.
The document discusses the main causes of child poverty in Lancashire, including income-related poverty, worklessness, welfare dependency, health and educational disadvantages, family structure, and lack of social abilities. Child poverty rose in the 1980s and started declining in the 2000s. Income poverty has a huge effect, as working families on low incomes struggle to provide for their children. Children living in poverty face implications like long-term health issues and difficulties in education. The government needs new social policies and welfare reforms to better understand and address the causes of child poverty.
The document discusses the author's experience with pregnancy and maternal health. As a pregnant woman, the author has changed perspectives and now realizes taking care of the baby is most important. This involves being careful about diet, safety at work, and regular doctor appointments. The author recognizes having access to good prenatal care is a privilege not available to many women in other countries with fewer resources.
THE BREAKTHROUGH STRATEGY FOR ACHIEVING ALL THE MDGS INVESTING IN WOMEN AND GIRLS THE BREAKTHROUGH STRATEGY FOR ACHIEVING ALL THE MDGS Based on a speech by Jon Lomoy, Director of the OECD’s Development Co-operation Directorate, at the Helsinki High-level Symposium, United Nations 2010 Development Co-operation Forum, 4 June 2010 KEEP GIRLS IN SCHOOL 1 I believe that investing in women and girls in itself constitutes a breakthrough strategy for achieving the MDGs, and that almost any investment we make in women and girls will have multiplier effects across the Goals —Helen Clark, UNDP Administrator, 25 March 2010. W ithout a great leap forward towards achieving greater equality between women and men and increased empowerment of women and girls, none of the MDGs will be achieved. It is time to back up political promises with the investments and resources needed to do the job. Investing in women and girls has a powerful impact. It will make the world a better place for all – both women and men. Helen Clark has called it the breakthrough strategy for achieving the MDGs. The challenge is to identify how and where donor money can fuel that breakthrough strategy. There are four key areas where increased investments and attention could have catalytic and multiplier impacts on the lives of women and girls – and of future generations: • Keep girls in school to complete a quality secondary education • Urgently improve reproductive health, including access to family planning services • Increase women’s control over productive and financial assets (not just microcredit), and • Identify and support women leaders at all levels. Studies have shown that women with even a few years of primary education have better economic prospects, have fewer and healthier children, and are more likely to ensure that their own children go to school. Development would be accelerated if girls were kept in school to complete a quality secondary education. Education of girls is one of the most powerful tools for women’s empowerment, but discrimination continues to keep girls out of school. • In 2007, only 53 of the 171 countries with available data had achieved gender parity in both primary and secondary education1 . • Secondary school enrolment is very low in sub-Saharan Africa (24 percent of girls and 33 percent of boys). That means that girls are missing out – particularly when they live in rural areas and in poor households. Removing school fees and providing financial incentives for girls to attend school have proven to be effective. At the same time we need to build schools closer to remote communities, ensure that schools have quality teachers and adequate sanitary facilities and that they are safe places for girls. 1. United Nations (2009). The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009
Ch 7 eradicating poverty and stabilizing populationStart Loving
This document discusses strategies for eradicating poverty and stabilizing global population growth. It notes that China and India have lifted millions out of poverty through strong economic growth rates over recent decades. However, sub-Saharan Africa is facing increasing poverty, hunger, disease, and population growth that could undermine anti-poverty goals. Key strategies discussed include universal primary education, better access to reproductive healthcare and family planning, and nutrition programs like school lunches to improve education and reduce population growth. Iran is cited as an example of a country that rapidly reduced its population growth rate through a comprehensive national family planning program.
Ch 7 eradicating poverty and stabilizing population
Kumsnus
1. All Mothers Have the Right to Raise Their Own Children
- Richard Boas, MD, Founder and President of KUMSN
Korean Unwed Morthers Support Network
한국미혼모지원네트워크
2. UNWED MOTHERS IN KOREA
Unwed Mothers in Korea are Shunned by Society and Discouraged from Raising Their
Own Children
“…We don’t see a campaign for unmarried mothers to raise our own children,” said Lee Mee-
kyong, a 33-year-old unwed mother. “Once you become an unwed mom, you’re branded as
immoral and a failure. People treat you as if you had committed a crime. You fall to the bottom
rung of society.”
“Group Resists Korean Stigma for Unwed Mothers,” The New York Times, October 7, 2009
Despite the fact that unwed mothers in Korea view themselves as social outcasts, more unwed
mothers are choosing to raise their own children and civic groups and the Korean government
are stepping up to offer support and to change public policy.
More Unwed Moms are Raising Their Kids; More Say They Want To Raise Them
• The Ministry of Health, Welfare and Family Affairs states there are over 140,000
unwed mothers in Korea every year.
• In 2007, 19.2 percent of all unwed and single mothers in Korea were raising their
children, representing a substantial increase in the last ten years. In 2009, there
were 2,464 unwed mothers living with children aged two and below and 15,783
mothers with children 18 an d below, according to Korean Women’s Development
Institute. Despite societal pressures on unwed mothers to relinquish their babies,
an increasing number of unwed mothers in Korea say they want to raise their
children. In 1984, 5.8 percent of unwed moms said they wanted to keep their babies.
By 2007, that number had risen to 32 percent, according to Korean Women’s
Development Institute.
Many more might keep their children if there was more financial support and less societal
stigma.
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3. Miss Mamma Mia, a Group of Unwed Moms, Formed to Advocate
for Their Rights
A group of unwed mothers, calling themselves Miss Mamma Mia, has been meeting monthly
since March 2009. The group recently joined with single mothers and researchers to form the
Korean Unwed Mother Family Association. The organization, which will soon be registered
with the Ministry of Gender Equality, is working to change opinions about unwed mothers and
spearhead efforts to support legislation regarding the responsibilities of biological fathers and
rights of unwed moms.
Why this movement now?
More Babies in Korea are Born Out of Wedlock
• The number of children born out of wedlock has been rising steadily since 1989,
from 5,161 to 7,774 recorded in 2007, according to Korean National Statistical
Office, 2008 report, Vital Statistics.
• Today the number of children born out of wedlock in Korea is estimated to be
6,000 to 10,000 children per year. These babies represent 1.6 percent of all births,
according to the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Family Affairs (2008).
Korean Annual Birthrate Among the Lowest in the World, only 1.19 in 2009
Vast Proportion of Unwed Women in Korea End their Pregnancy in Abortion
• Government studies have estimated that in Korea, where abortion is illegal (except
in limited circumstances), there are approximately 350,000 abortion cases per year.
• 42% of abortions are provided to unwed pregnant women, according to research on
abortion, carried out in 2005 by the Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs.
• The New York Times reported that, according to the Ministry of Health, Welfare
and Family Affairs, nearly 96% of unwed pregnant women in Korea choose
abortion.
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4. A Vast Proportion of Unwed Mothers in Korea Relinquish their Children for Adoption.
• 68.3% of unwed mothers give up their children for adoption, because of shame,
fear, and lack of support, according to Korean Women’s Development Institute
(2008).
• Only one percent of single mothers in the United States relinquish their children,
according to the National Center for Health Statistics, US.
• In 2008 nearly 90% of the 1,250 Korean children adopted abroad were born to
unmarried women. In case of domestic adoption, 81% of the 1,306 who were
adopted were born out of wedlock, according to the Ministry for of Health, Welfare
and Family Affairs (2009).
• More babies have been adopted
internationally from Korea than any
country in the world. Since 1958,
when South Korea started keeping
track of adoptions, 230,635 children
have been adopted. About 30 percent
of these children were adopted by
South Koreans. The rest were adopted
abroad (2008, MHWFA). Two-thirds of all foreign adoptees ended up in the
United States. The percent of children born to unwed mothers who were adopted
has doubled since the 1970s. The percentages from the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s-
early 2000s are 42%, 73.6%, and 84.7% respectively. South Korea has set a goal to
eliminate foreign adoptions altogether by 2012, according to the New York Times,
October, 2008. Foreign adoption is often perceived as shameful to Koreans.
• Finances play a role too; 34.4% of unwed mothers who gave up their children cited
“lack of financial means” as a reason. Another 29.8% noted they made the decision
“for the future of their children.” Only 7.4 % said they gave up their children ‘for
the future of themselves.’
• Well-educated Unwed Moms More Likely to Keep their Babies. Education and age
are often key factors in whether or not unwed mothers choose to raise or relinquish
their children, found a recent study published by the Korean Women’s Development
Institute. Mothers who choose to relinquish their children are relatively younger and
not as well educated.
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5. Services and Support for Unwed Moms: 12 Billion Won Allocated
to Help in 2010
Today, there are signs that the Korean government is recognizing the issues facing unwed
mothers and providing new levels of support.
• Previously, unwed and single moms faced extreme poverty, but The Ministry of
Health, Welfare and Family has recently passed a new budget to the Ministry of
Finance and Planning, with 12 billion won allocated to support unwed mothers. Last
year’s budget for unwed mothers was 1.6 billion won.
• Only unwed moms between the ages of 18-24 and living below poverty line will
receive the monies for childcare, medical expenses and housing. However all
possible supports are provided to adoptive families, regardless of their income.
• The monies are insufficient to support the unwed mom and her children. According
to Sisa-In Weekly (January 21, 2010) “As for a standard of support, there have
been no differences between now and twenty years ago, even though the number of
the child-rearing unwed mothers has increased. Based on the Single Parent Family
Welfare Act, the support from the government is limited to the low-income families.
In fact, the unwed moms desperately need supports such as child caring.”
• And, while unwed mothers may be guaranteed support, there are many unwed mothers
whose income is below the poverty line who do not receive support. In theory, young
mothers under 18 are supposed to be supported by their parents and covered by their
parents’ health insurance, even if their parents will have nothing to do with them. It
appears as if government welfare workers have a lot of discretion and may choose not
to enroll unwed moms for
certain benefits. Adding to
the problem, both national
and local budgets are
insufficient in many cases
to cover the needs of all
qualified individuals and
families, so funds may not
be available even when
unwed mothers qualify for
benefits.
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6. Here’s How Support Benefitted One Unwed Mom
Unwed mothers who receive support say that even the smallest amount can make a great deal
of difference.
One mother’s account as told to a representative at the Korean Foster Care Association, March
2009 and published in the Association’s booklet: “Korean Child Rearing Unwed Mothers’
Stories”
“Thanks to The Millennium Project, I was able to receive diapers, formula and
wet tissues for the baby, so I haven’t had to worry about that, but I still think that
to raise a baby alone in our country is still extremely hard. I am always exhausted,
because I alone have to be the baby’s mother, father, and friend, but when I’m sick
or tired, I have no one to talk to about it.
My current expenses, not including my child’s medical bills, total 660,150 won.
Although I try to spend as little as possible, after the fixed monthly bills are paid, it
is hard to even afford a piece of fruit. I wish that I could receive just a bit of aid in
living expenses. If I can receive some stipend, only then can I finish my education. I
would like to get a college degree and study more, but since I have to work and take
care of my child, I will probably have to wait until my child is independent.”
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7. Korean Laws Support Adoption
According to an article written by Jane Jeong Trenka, “Rethinking Birth Parent Consent to
Adoption,” Korean Adoption laws are written to support adoption. These are currently being
revised by the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Family. The Special Act on Adoption was
enacted in 1976 when the country was poor and international adoption was regarded as the best
way for children, has had its name changed to “Special Act Relating to Adoption Promotion and
Procedure Law.” The law provides simple procedures and qualifications to promote adoptions.
The article goes on to note:
One major point that both the government and activists agree upon is the need to lengthen the
deliberation period during which it is illegal for a mother to relinquish her child for adoption –
currently, mothers may relinquish a child while still in the womb.
However, the opinions of activists and the ministry differ greatly on the amount of time that
mothers are required to deliberate before making a life-altering decision for herself, her baby
and future generations. While the bill drafted by adoptees and unwed mothers demands 30 days
after birth for deliberation, the ministry proposes 72 hours after birth for domestic adoption,
followed by a court procedure. For international adoption, no court procedure is necessary.
Activists disagree with the ministry, for two reasons: First, 72 hours would continue to
give the legal base for preferring domestic adoption over family preservation. Second,
there is nothing in the bill that changes the way overseas adoptions are conducted. This
means that overseas adoptions are again being preferred over domestic adoption, which
is itself being preferred over family preservation. This
hierarchy is exactly the opposite of recommendations
by international laws on child welfare, which state that
family preservation must come first, followed by domestic
adoption, and finally international adoption as a last resort.”
Conventionally, adoption agencies ask unwed mothers to
sign a document giving up parental rights in the process
of adoption. However, Korean law states that the parental
right can not be given up without transferring that right to an
adoptive family. So, if a baby has not yet been adopted, the
unwed mother still holds the parental right. Despite the law,
most unwed mothers believe that they relinquish their rights
to their children simply by signing an agreement to give up
those rights.
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8. The Rights & Support for Unwed Mothers and their Children in
Other Countries
In Germany and Sweden, as well as many other developed European countries and Australia,
relinquishing children for domestic adoption is rare because there are adequate legal and
economic protections for single-parent families.
• The majority of developed nations have policies in place to support unwed mothers
and their rights to raise their children.
▸In Sweden unwed mothers are eligible to receive a childcare allowance,
housing subsidy, and paid childcare leave at the birth of a child through 15
months at 90% of her salary.
▸In Denmark, unwed mothers are protected under all of that country’s welfare
laws. And the the law requires that an unmarried father is responsible for
supporting his children.
▸Germany provides a child-care allowance for unwed mothers up to 24 months
after childbirth.
▸In Great Britain and the United States, programs are in place to prevent teen
pregnancy and to support teens should they become pregnant.
▸The United States offer public assistance to unmarried mothers whose family
has been designated as a mother and child family.
▸In Canada, unwed mothers receive social aid from the government and in
Australia, services in the social welfare system are provided regardless of
marital status.
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9. This is a Human Rights Issue
The rights of unwed mothers are not an adoption issue, they are a matter of basic human rights.
Keeping children with their original families is a valued goal in all cultures. The development
of adequate resources to assist people who choose to raise their own children is critical to
assuring that expectant parents are not coerced into making adoption decisions due to a lack of
support, including a lack of financial resources.
As Korea sorts out its fiscal responsibility towards unwed mothers, the country is bound by
international doctrine to provide support for women and children.
• As a member of the United Nations, Korea has ratified the Convention of the Rights
of the Child and the Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women. Both international treaties contain significant clauses outlining a
nation’s responsibilities towards women and children.
▸The CRC is the most widely ratified international human rights treaty.
Children have rights as individuals, and, importantly, these include the right
to be raised in their families and their culture.
▸The CRC further states that “In order to protect a child’s right to be raised in
the context of her family, State Parties to the CRC must render appropriate
assistance to parents and legal guardians in the performance of their child
rearing responsibilities,” and must “take appropriate measures to assist parents
and others responsible for the child to implement this right and shall in case
of need provide material assistance and support programs, particularly with
regard to nutrition, clothing and housing.”
▸The Convention of the Rights of the Child asserts the rights of the family to
raise children.
• Korea has also signed the CEDAW. Despite that, there remains significant
social and economic discrimination against women in families, education and the
workplace that set the context for unwed moms. Even married women struggle
with many issues related to child rearing, education and employment.
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10. The Korean Unwed Mothers Support Network
The Korean Unwed Mothers Support Network advocates for the rights of
unwed pregnant women, unwed mothers and their children in Korea. The
Network’s goal is to enable Korean women to have sufficient resources and support to
keep their babies, if they choose, and thrive in Korean society, rather than feel compelled
to give up their children for adoption or risk a life of poverty.
Founded by Dr. Richard Boas, an American father who adopted a Korean daughter
over twenty years ago, the Network’s primary focus is on raising awareness in Korea
and, amongst Korean groups in the US, to effect positive change. The Network works
to educate, inform and promote discussion of the difficulties facing unwed mothers and
their children in Korea in order to elevate their economic, political and social potential in
society.
After only two years,
KUMSN is making a
difference in Korea. We’ve
provided moderate grants
for scholarly research
and direct support for
some women and children
(including setting up a
community-based center
for them, which provides
counseling and crisis
intervention), as well as agencies advocating on their behalf. In addition to the workshops
and forums that we have sponsored, we have met with Korean academics, policymakers,
legislators, unwed moms and the organizations serving them, and the media- who are
now actively discussing the issue- and we have been well-received.
We have already seen positive changes, and the prospect for more change is real. But,
according to the Korean government, there are over 140,000 of these women. Our work
is only the beginning.
Right now, our program is unique to Korea, but we know there are women and children
worldwide who could benefit from similar work. Our program can serve as a model for
them and their respective countries.
Helping unwed Korean moms keep and raise their children- a basic human right- is part
of a larger issue, which the world sorely needs to address if it is to truly move forward.
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11. A b o u t D r. R i c h a r d B o a s , Fo u n d e r, K o r e a n U n w e d M o t h e r s S u p p o r t
Network
Dr. Richard Boas, 60, an American ophthalmologist, and his wife adopted a baby
girl from Korea over twenty years ago. After practicing medicine for many
years, Dr. Boas gave up his practice in 2001 to turn his attention full-time to philanthropy.
In October 2006, Dr. Boas visited Korea and met with unmarried, pregnant women, who
intended to give up their babies, and visited infant orphans who had been relinquished
by their mothers. He discovered that the majority of these women did not want to give up
their children for adoption; rather they felt compelled to relinquish them due to economic
and societal pressures. Dr. Boas realized that his daughter’s mother was likely one of
those women. This insight prompted him to found the Korean Unwed Mothers Support
Network (KUMSN).
Today, Dr. Boas is on a mission to not only help Korean women and their children by
supporting organizations set up to conduct research, but to effect a sea change in
attitudes, support and empowerment for unwed mothers and their children in Korean
society itself. He frequently travels to Korea to focus on having respectful discussions
about these issues with the political, policy-making, academic, adoption and not-for-profit
communities. Dr. Boas continues his campaign in the United States, where he frequently
networks within the adoption community.
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12. KOREAN UNWED MOTHERS SUPPORT NETWORK PRIORITES:
• Supporting unwed mothers to advocate for themselves
• Education, job training, counseling and resources that will help unwed mothers
make the best decisions- both for themselves and their babies.
• Scholarly research on the demographics, needs, and experiences of Korean unwed
women and their children is a necessary prerequisite to advocate for change and a
sound basis for government programs.
• Public awareness and public education about the situation and needs of unwed
mothers.
• Efforts to ensure equal treatment to all Koreans, no matter their family status, in
school and the workplace.
• Improved sex education in Korean schools so that all young Koreans are able to
make thoughtful choices about pregnancy.
“We have not chosen to be a social minority, but to raise our
children. If we have to fight to raise them, we will be happy
to. We do this because our children are not a burden, but our
strength.”
(Miss Mamma Mia, a group of Korean unwed mothers)
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