KLB4121

Proceeding - Kuala Lumpur International Business, Economics and Law Conference 4 (KLIBEL4)
Vol. 1. 31 May – 1 June 2014. Hotel Putra, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ISBN 978-967-11350-3-7
THE IMPORTANCE OF SUPERVISOR SUPPPORT AND PEER SUPPORT

IN TRANSFER OF TRAINING: CASE STUDY IN MYANMAR
Ms. Khin Marlar Maung
Ph.D candidate
Faculty of Business, Economics and Communications,
Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, 65000, Thailand.
E-mail: khinmarlarmaung78@gmail.com Tel: +66 825 680 372
Dr. Sujinda Chemsripong
Assoc. Professor
Dean, Faculty of Business, Economics, and Communications,
Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, 65000, Thailand.
E-mail: sujindac@hotmail.com Tel: +66 55 96 2113
The purpose of this study is to explore the importance of supervisor support and peer support in
the transfer of training. A substantial part of organizations’ investment in training is often wasted
because of the poor transfer of training. Transfer of training is a serious problem faced by the
organizations after the costly training programs. Transfer of training is considered not only
essential for training programs to be effective but also crucial for workplace advancement. The
success of training programs depends on actual transfer of the learned skills to the real work
environment. Without transfer, on-the-job performance of employees and organizational goals will
not be achieved. According to the transfer of training literature, there are several factors that can
create effective transfer of training. Among those factors, previous studies suggested that
supervisor support and peer support are important in the transfer of training and can influence
employees' decisions to apply their newly learned skills in the real workplace. Supervisor support
and peer support are mostly considered as work environment factors in transfer of training. In this
study, supervisor support and peer support are assumed to promote transfer of training with the
help of motivation to transfer. The significant role of motivation to transfer in transfer of training
is also explored. The present study covers private electrical transformer manufacturing firms in
Myanmar. This study expects to contribute to the literature of transfer of training, to understand
the importance of supervisor support, peer support, and motivation to transfer in transfer of
training to promote performance by the organizations, and to fulfill the research gap of the
country, Myanmar.
Keywords: supervisor support, peer support, motivation to transfer, transfer of training,
Myanmar
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
In recent years, both manufacturing and service organizations realize that they have to invest in
training activities to improve both the employees and the organizational performance (Bhatti and
Hoe, 2012). The training programs can provide several advantages such as higher productivity,
improved work quality, increased motivation and commitment, higher morale and teamwork, and
fewer errors (Seyler et al., 1998; Yamnill and McLean., 2001). The organization’s intended return
on training investment will be achieved when the trained skills are transferred to the workplace
(Nijman et al., 2006). The effectiveness of training depends ultimately on whether the learned

skills are used in the workplace or those skills are actually transferred to the real work
environment (Chiaburu and Lindsay, 2008; Chiaburu, et al., 2010). If the skills learned in training
do not transfer to the workplace by trainees, organizations may not benefit from the investment in
training programs (Grossman and Salas, 2011). Researchers have long examined the transfer
problem by using theoretical and empirical studies to explore the factors which are critical to solve
the transfer problem (Grossman and Salas, 2011).
Several studies focus on the importance of supervisor support and peer support in the transfer of
training (e.g., Saks and Belcourt, 2006; Zumrah et al., 2012; Chiaburu and Marinova, 2005;
Kirwan and Birchall, 2006; Martin, 2010). Traditionally, many studies focused on the large firm
context in developed countries (U.S., Canada, French, Germany, etc.) and developing countries
(Malaysia, Pakistan, etc.). There is a lack of empirical evidences on the study of the role of
supervisor support and peer support on motivation to transfer and transfer of training in one of the
least developed countries (LDCs) context, Myanmar. The present study expects to propose the
useful findings for practitioners to understand the importance of supervisor support and peer
support, to emphasize motivation to transfer, to create effective transfer of training, and to provide
necessary intervention in light of the country context, Myanmar. Thus, in this study, supervisor
support, peer support, and motivation to transfer are considered as significant factors in the
transfer of training process.

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM, QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES
Because of the establishment of special economic zones and several industrial zones in Myanmar,
this situation creates a growing demand for the electricity. The government supports the private
electrical transformer manufacturing firms to use advanced technologies, to carry out the training
programs to promote the employees and firms’ performance, to get high quality products, to save
foreign currencies by substituting the imported electrical transformers from abroad, and to provide
cheaper electrical transformers for the power requirement of the country. To achieve those
objectives and to fulfill the electricity requirements of the country, the private electrical
transformer manufacturing firms use several strategies, including training. However, these firms
could not effectively emphasize on the important of supervisor support and peer support to give
trainees the ability to transfer the trained skills, and to reinforce and support the trainees' beliefs in
their ability to apply those skills in the workplace.
Based on the previous studies, the present study uses the integrated model of supervisor support,
peer support, motivation to transfer, and transfer of training. The creation of successful transfer of
training is the expected outcome of the private electrical transformer manufacturing firms in
Myanmar. According to the research problem, the two research questions are set forth:
I. How do supervisor support and peer support relate to motivation to transfer and transfer of
training?
II. How does motivation to transfer relate to transfer of training?
The specific objectives of this research are:
(a) To explore the relationship between supervisor support, peer support, motivation to
transfer and transfer of training to gain the greatest return on training investment by private
electrical transformer manufacturing firms in Myanmar
(b) To examine the relationship between motivation to transfer and transfer of training with
the empirical data


2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The survival of the organizations need to promote the knowledge, skills and abilities of their
employees through training which is one of the critical human resource functions (Hussain, 2011).
Training consists of an organization’s planned efforts to help employees acquire job-related
knowledge, skills, abilities, and behaviors with the goal of applying these on the job (Noe et al.,
2011, p. 223). Increased productivity and sales volume, enhanced quality and market share,
reduced turnover, absence, and conflict are the expected results of the training programs (Huselid,
1995; Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Tabassi et al., 2012). Although these training outcomes
can promote firm’s performance in the long term, investments in training programs often fail to
create the desired and expected outcomes for the organizations (Kontoghiorghes). For the
effectiveness of training or the success of the training, trainees are needed to ensure that they will
be able to apply the new skills learned during the training back on their jobs (Kim and Lee, 2001).
Thus, transfer of training or the actual application of training outcomes is an essential requirement
for all organizations.
According to the previous studies, there are several effective factors that can influence transfer of
training in the individual and organizational contexts. Different researchers have identified
different factors that directly or indirectly affect the transfer of learning in the real workplace
(Bhatti et al., 2013). Among those factors, the different results of supervisor support and peer
support in the transfer of training are explored by several researchers. Thus, based on the
significant impacts of supervisor support and peer support on motivation to transfer and transfer of
training of previous studies, the present study will explore the importance of supervisor support
and peer support in motivation to transfer and transfer of training.
2.1 SUPERVISOR SUPPORT
In the organizational context, supervisor support can be described as the extent to which
supervisors-managers support and reinforce the use of newly learned knowledge and skills on the
job (Holton et al., 2000). The supervisors’ capacity and propensity can influence their
subordinates to participate in training program, to provide encouragement and opportunities to
improve employee performance and to attract them to apply their trained skills in the workplace
for the effectiveness of training program (Facteau et al., 1995; Chiaburu and Tekleab, 2005). Most
of the literatures of supervisor support on training transfer suggested that the more the trainees
perceive that their supervisors support the application of newly developed knowledge and skills,
the more they are likely to transfer these competencies back to the job (e.g. Bates et al., 2000;
Brinkerhoff and Montesino, 1995; Noe, 1986; Tracey and Tews, 2005).
Supervisors can create the opportunity for trainees to use their newly learned knowledge, skills,
abilities, and attitudes in the real work situation and can provide praise about their performance,
better assignment to improve their performance, and other extrinsic rewards to fully utilize their
new skills (Baldwin and Ford, 1988). The importance of supervisor support described by Cohen
(1990) was that supervisors can encourage the employees to attend training, learn the material, and
transfer the trained skills to the workplace. Kontoghiorghes (2001) revealed that supervisory
support for the application of new skills is important for the training effectiveness and transfer.
As a longitudinal analysis, Chiaburu et al. (2010) studied the importance of social support in the
workplace and training transfer. Their result indicated that supervisor support has a significant
relationship with all three individual difference variables: training self-efficacy, learning goal

orientation and motivation to transfer and also proved that supervisor support significantly
influences on motivation to transfer. Their finding was perfectly support by Hussain (2011).
Supervisor support can enhance the motivation of trainees to use their newly acquired knowledge
on workplace (Hussain, 2011). In the study of Zumrah et al. (2012), if the employees receive the
support from their supervisor to apply the new learned knowledge, skills, and attitudes on the job,
they will be more motivated to learn and to master the learning content and can create positive
transfer of training. The importance of supervisor support after the training was also supported by
Ma and Chang (2013) in which supervisors should affirm the value of their employees and inform
these employees about the importance of the jobs after employees complete their training courses.
Supervisors can create supportive work environment to give help and feedback on the employees’
performance. Moreover, supervisors need to show their interest in the implementation of new
work practices by employees to build confidence of employees in training transfer (Lancaster et
al., 2013).
Although several studies indicated that supervisor support is a critical variable in motivation to
transfer and transfer of training (Brinkerhoff and Montesino, 1995; Bates et al., 2000; Lim and
Johnson, 2002; Saks and Belcourt, 2006; Zumrah et al., 2012; Lancaster et al., 2013), the
unexpected result of Velada et al. (2007) was that supervisor support did not significantly predict
transfer of training. Seyler et al.’s (1998) study explored the factors that affect motivation to
transfer training in which supervisor support did not showed as a significant predictor of
motivation to transfer. In two different sources of studies (German Bank and Dutch international
banking organization), although employees who participate in training program aim at a better
performance of their regular tasks, there is no effects of supervisory behavior on trainees’
performance. It means that there is no convincing evidence for the impact of supervisory behavior
on the transfer of training in both studies (Van der Klink et al., 2001).
Furthermore, the expected result that the higher the degree of supervisor support in the work
environment, the higher the transfer motivation did not fulfill in the empirical study of
Liebermann and Hoffmann (2008). According to their finding, supervisor support does not have
significant influence on motivation to transfer. If organizations cannot achieve the expected return
on training investment or the success of transfer of training, these organizations need to explore
the requirement in training program or the lack of support for training transfer (Laker, 1990).
Some empirical results have no clear relationship between supervisor support and transfer
outcomes and contain dissimilar findings (Nijman et al., 2006). Thus, the present study uses
supervisor support as one of the factors that has positive relationship with motivation to transfer
and transfer of training.

H1(a): Supervisor support is positively related with motivation to transfer.
H1(b): Supervisor support is positively related with transfer of training.
2.2 PEER SUPPORT
Holton et al. (1997) described that peer support reinforce peers to apply learning on the job by
trainees, to help trainees set goals to use the training result, to give trainees some assistance, and to
offer positive feedback for the use of learning skills. According to several studies, peer support has
a significant impact on motivation to transfer and transfer of training. The result of positive impact
of peer support on training transfer was shown by Facteau et al. (1995) and Hawley and Barnard
(2005). Seyler et al.’s (1998) empirical finding described that peer support, one of the work
environment factors, has a positive influence on motivation to transfer.

Empirical research on the importance of peer support relative to motivation to transfer and transfer
of training has increased in recent years (e.g., Bates et al., 2000; Chiaburu and Marinova, 2005;
Kirwan and Birchall, 2006; Martin, 2010). In the study of Hawley and Barnard (2005), peer
support is an important work environment factor influencing positive transfer. Among the
conceptual and empirical models, by testing the Holton model, peer support shows the most
significant relationship with motivation to transfer (Kirwan and Birchall, 2006). Holton et al.
(2007) stated that peer will support opportunity to apply the learned skills through training on the
job, encourage each other, and show patience and appreciation to use those skills. Trainees in a
more favorable workplace environment with great peer support show the achievement of greater
performance improvement than those in an unfavorable climate with less peer support (Martin,
2010).
On the other hand, there are some inconsistent and puzzling findings about peer support.
Unexpected result about peer support is occurred in the study of Facteau et al. (1995). In their
study, although peer support is positively related with perceived transfer measure, there is no
significant relationship between peer support and motivation. Because of the lack of uniform
results or the mixed findings of the past studies about the effects of supervisors and co-workers or
peers supports on motivation and training transfer, more research is needed to understand the
significant effects of these variables in learning transfer (Bates et al., 2000; Bhatti and Hoe, 2012).
Based on the different findings of previous studies, the following hypotheses are tested in this
study.

H2(a): Peer support is positively related with motivation to transfer.
H2(b): Peer support is positively related with transfer of training.
2.3 MOTIVATION TO TRANSFER
Motivation to transfer can be described as the trainees’ desire to use the knowledge and skills
mastered in the training program on the job (Noe, 1986, p. 743). The effectiveness and success of
training depends ultimately on training method, supports, reinforcement, motivation, and focus of
trainees to decide whether the learning outcomes (knowledge, skills and abilities) are used
effectively in the workplace (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Motivation is a process that
determines how energy is used to satisfy needs (p.502) and is seen as a future-oriented concept in
which people expect the outcomes they received after applying their skills that will satisfy their
needs (Latham and Pinder, 2005). Thus, motivation is important for trainees to occur successful
transfer of training in their real jobs (Noe and Schmitt, 1986). Without motivation to transfer,
successful transfer of new knowledge, skills and abilities will not appear in the real workplace and
thus, transfer motivation is a key element in the training transfer (Bhatti and Kaur, 2010).
Motivation to transfer will help the employees to use new skills and knowledge more effectively
on the job (Holton et al., 2007). It also measures how individuals are motivated to utilize the
learned knowledge, skills, and abilities in their workplace and thus, the organizations need to set
the plans to use new skills by employees to perform their tasks more effectively on the real job
(Yamkovenko et al., 2007). For future investigation of motivation to transfer studies, Gegenfurtner
et al. (2009) developed an integrative model of motivation to transfer training in which motivation
is an essential requirement for the newly trained knowledge and skills to be applied on the job.
Motivation to transfer is the intended effort towards utilizing the skills and knowledge learned in a
training atmosphere to the real world work situation (Seyler et al., 1998, p.4). Their empirical
result showed that peer support, one of the work environment factors, has the strong influence on

motivation to transfer and the training transfer process. Additionally, motivation to transfer is the
deliberate intention, enthusiasm, and readiness of trainee to apply the knowledge, skills, and
abilities acquired from training program on the job (Hussain, 2011). Motivation to transfer, one of
the strongest predictors of transfer of training, has significant relationship with training outcomes
and can improve work performance through learning (Grossman and Salas, 2011).
In the empirical study of Chiaburu and Lindsay (2008), motivation to learn and motivation to
transfer are important for skill transfer and perceived training transfer is mainly predicted by
motivation to transfer. Bhatti et al. (2013) emphasized on the variables such as supervisor support,
peer support, instrumentality, retention and learner readiness, transfer motivation and transfer of
training. Based on the Malaysian bank employees, their study found that transfer motivation
mediates the relationship between support, learner readiness, instrumentality, and training transfer.
One of their hypotheses is the higher the transfer motivation, the higher the transfer of training
content on the job and which is supported in their study.
In some studies, there is no relation between motivation to transfer and training transfer. Contrary
to their expectation, Chiaburu and Tekleab (2005) found that there is no direct relationship
between training motivation and training transfer and generalization is not supported. Thus, the
present study will focus on the relationship between motivation to transfer and transfer of training
by using the following hypothesis.

H3: Motivation to transfer is positively related with transfer of training.
2.4 TRANSFER OF TRAINING
According to Xiao (1996), transfer of training has been defined as the application to the job of
knowledge, skills and attitudes learned in training and subsequent maintenance of them over a
certain period of time. Transfer of training refers to the new skills, behaviors, and attitudes that are
acquired from the training environment and they are generalized or carried over to the job and
then significantly applied and maintained over time (Laker, 1990). The majority of training
transfer research relies mainly on the Baldwin and Ford’s (1988) transfer of training model,
Holton et al.’s (2000) Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) model and Vroom’s (1964)
expectancy theory. In recent years, HRD researchers pay more attention on the training transfer
that provides several research opportunities (Kontoghiorghes, 2004). The transfer outcomes
achieved by the trainees who apply their acquired skills through training back to the job can
benefit both for employees and for organizations (Cheng and Ho, 2001). Thus, to achieve the
return on training investment through transfer of training, the effective and efficient transfer of
training strategies should be considered by the organizations as an essential requirement for
training programs (Nijman et al., 2006).
Among the training transfer practitioners, the significantly and severely cited transfer of training
model is Baldwin and Ford (1988) which is one of the most influential models for future training
transfer research. This model proposes a theoretical framework to conduct research on training
transfer and provides a critical analysis of the existing transfer literature and suggests directions
for future research. Xiao (1996) presented a model of the relationship between organizational
factors and the transfer of training in the workplace. In the model, the factors that determine the
output of the transfer of training are training achievement, the five organizational variables
(application orientation, matching KSAs (knowledge, skills and attitudes) with work design,
rewards, supervision, and peer relationship) and worker characteristics. Among the five

organizational variables, supervision and matching trainees’ KSAs with work design are the most
influential factors of the transfer of training.
Not only Baldwin and Ford’s (1988) training transfer model but also Holton et al.’s (2000)
Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) model is significantly applied by several researchers
to explain the importance and effectiveness of training transfer in the organizational context
(Khasawneh et al., 2006; Yamkovenko et al., 2007; Devos et al., 2007; Yaghi et al., 2008). The
purpose of the Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) is to achieve the goal of a general
transfer system instrument by expanding the concept of the learning transfer system and by
creating the construct validation of an instrument to measure factors affecting transfer of learning
(Holton et al., 2000).
Based on Kontoghiorghes’ (2002) model, Kontoghiorghes (2004) attempted to examine the
validation of a new systemic model of learning transfer with work environment variables.
Supervisor and coworker support, task cues, job and career utility, training accountability,
opportunity to practice/use new skills and knowledge, and intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for using
new skills and knowledge are described as training transfer climate factors in that model. The
results showed that organizational environment factors have significant impact on individual or
organizational performance and have a moderation effect on successful training transfer
(Kontoghiorghes, 2004). Burke and Hutchins (2008) proposed a transfer model about the study of
best practices in training transfer. Their study reported that supervisor support, coaching and
opportunities to practice new skills and knowledge are the best practices in training transfer. Thus,
the transfer of training that acts as a link between training and performance improvement remains
a critical requirement for the successful training initiatives (Hutchins, 2009).
To understand the effectiveness of transfer of training in the organizational context, several factors
are needed to be considered such as the reasons why employees want to apply their knowledge,
skills, and attitudes in their work setting, and what factors are important to create a high level of
transfer of training (Yamnill and McLean, 2001). The answers for those conditions, several
theories of human behavior will help to understand and predict behaviors that contribute to
individual performance at real work situation. Based on previous theories and conceptual
frameworks of transfer of training, they suggested that motivation to transfer, transfer design, and
transfer climate theories will help the organizations and HRD professionals to understand the
significant transfer of training factors and the effectiveness of these factors on behavior change
and performance of individuals (Yamnill and McLean, 2001).
The learned skills must be transferred to the workplace to maximize the utility of training and to
improve individual and organizational performance through training (Bhatti and Kaur, 2010). For
this purpose, they suggested a conceptual framework based on the literature to provide the factors
affecting transfer of training. Motivation to transfer plays a critical role in the transfer of training
process (Bhatti and Kaur, 2010) and it is the trainee’s desire to use the knowledge and skills
learned in the training program in the work setting (Axtell et al., 1997). In the transfer of training
literature, Scaduto et al. (2008) also studied the importance of training transfer, training
maintenance, and training generalization as three training performance outcomes. They tested the
direct positive relationships between training motivation and these three training outcomes, and
outcome expectancy and these three training outcomes. Their hypotheses were supported with the
empirical data. For the successful training transfer, the organizations should provide employees
with condition to use their learned skills immediately after training on the job (Lim and Morris,
2006). If employees can apply their new skills more immediately in the real work environment,

the increased level of motivation and training transfer will be clearly demonstrated (Vo and
Hannif, 2012).
According to the literature, there are several factors affect the transfer of training in different work
environment settings at different time periods. Thus, in this study, supervisor support, peer support
and motivation to transfer are selected to demonstrate their positive relationship with transfer of
training to create successful application of training outcomes and to gain high performance for the
organizations.

3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Supervisor support
H1(b)
H1(a)
Motivation H3 Transfer of
to transfer training
H2(a)
H2(b)
Peer support
Source: Own compilation
According to the proposed conceptual framework, supervisor support and peer support are tested
to have positive relationship with motivation to transfer and transfer of training and motivation to
transfer also has a positive relationship with transfer of training.
3.2 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT, KEY RESPONDENTS AND SAMPLE FIRMS
In this study, questionnaires are used to collect the primary data. Questionnaire is prepared in
English version and then translated into local language; in this case, Myanmar language is used for
the convenience of respondents. Except for the general information about the employees, all
variables are measured with twenty-three five-point Likert scale items (six items for supervisor
support, six items for peer support, another six items for motivation to transfer, and five items for
transfer of training).
Four hundred employees who attended the training program(s) are randomly selected as the
respondents. Those employees can explore their perspective on supervisor support and peer
support, motivation, and their desire and expectation in the application of training outcomes (new
knowledge, skills and abilities) on the job, and then the firms can achieve effective return through
successful transfer of training. It is expected that employees can provide their valuable perspective
on the importance of supervisor support and peer support in the workplace, motivation to transfer,
and transfer of training to apply the training outcomes based on their age, educational level and
work experiences. This study uses all private electrical transformer manufacturing firms in

Yangon region, Myanmar. All firms in this study are locally owned and formally registered at the
department of Industrial Supervision and Inspection, Ministry of Industry, Myanmar.

3.3 ANALYTICAL TOOL AND PROCEDURE
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with LISREL is used to test the proposed model with the
empirical data. Before doing the main analysis, the distribution of all variables is checked to see if
they violate the assumption underlying the chosen analytical procedures. For factor analysis,
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is carried out. CFA is an inseparable part of the SEM
technique because it provides a way to test a measurement model or the relationship of observed
variables to understanding constructs (Yamkovenko and Holton, 2010, p.396). The internal
consistency among the variables is checked with the Cronbach’s alpha. The structural equation
modeling (SEM) with LISREL is used as the main analytical tool for checking the statistical
significance of hypotheses.
3.4 EXPECTED RESULTS AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
The expected result of this study is to present the empirical evidence of the relationship between
supervisor support, peer support, motivation to transfer, and transfer of training and to promote the
actual application of training outcomes by employees or transfer of training through the creation
of effective supervisor support, peer support and motivation to transfer for both manufacturing
(including private electrical transformer manufacturing firms) and service sectors of the LDC
context, Myanmar. The findings of the study might have effective policy implications for
practitioners of several organizations to create effective supervisor and peer supports, to give the
opportunities to apply the learned skills by employees who attended the training programs, to
motivate employees to promote their positive behavior, and to adjust their satisfaction between the
expected and actual results. Moreover, for the successful transfer of training, organizations might
emphasize not only on supervisor and peer supports but also on motivational factors because
motivation to transfer might have different impacts on transfer of training to upgrade the
employees’ behavior in the workplace to promote the performance of the organizations.
3.5 LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTON FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
There are some suggestions or limitations which could give a better and deeper understanding to
this study and for future research. Firstly, only supervisor support and peer support are used as
significant factors that affect motivation to transfer and transfer of training. It is recommended that
future research shall determine the other factors such as trainee characteristics, training design,
and motivation to learn which affect motivation to transfer and the transfer of training to achieve a
complete picture of transfer of training. Secondly, additional studies should examine the proposed
model among different industries and service organizations in different regions of Myanmar to
understand the different perspectives of employees. Finally, the longitudinal study is highly
recommended to measure transfer outcomes (Cheng and Ho 2001). There is a requirement for
additional research that could use different time periods for data collection to detect the
application of training outcomes in real work environment to yield successful transfer of training.
Thus, this study would be necessary to certify with a theoretical underpinnings in different
environmental settings with different factors that have significant and different effects on transfer
of training.


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