The document provides an overview of human development across the lifespan from prenatal development through adulthood and aging. It discusses physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development at each stage. Key topics include prenatal influences on development, infant attachment, childhood cognitive stages, adolescent physical and identity development, adult age-related changes, and theories of aging. The document also reviews states of consciousness and how psychoactive drugs and alterations like hypnosis can influence consciousness.

1. Chapter 4 Human Development

2. Development The pattern of continuity and change that occurs throughout the lifespan Physical processes Cognitive processes Socioemotional processes

3. Nature and Nurture Nature – Biological Inheritance Nurture – Environmental Experiences Optimal experiences – Individuals take active roles in their own development Early Experience versus Later Experience

4. Prenatal Development Conception: Fertilization Zygote – fertilized egg Germinal Period: Weeks 1-2 Embryonic Period: Weeks 3-8 Fetal Period: Months 2-9

6. Prenatal Development Parental Age Teratogens: Agents that cause birth defects Rubella Thalidomide Heroin Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Effects of teratogens depend on… Timing of exposure Genetic characteristics Postnatal environment

7. Physical Development Reflexes – genetically wired behaviors that are crucial for survival Grasping Sucking Stepping Startle Few reflexes persist throughout life Allow for neurological diagnosis Most replaced by voluntary control over their behavior.

8. Physical Development Perceptual and Motor Skills Hearing, vision, touch Humans Infants and Imitation Preferential Looking Give “choice” and measure preferences Habituation – Decrease in responding to a stimulus after repeated presentations

9. Brain Development Myelination continues after birth Visual pathways: 6 months Auditory pathways: 4-5 years Dramatic increase in synaptic connections

10. Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Children actively construct their cognitive world using… Schemas – concepts or frameworks that organize information Assimilation – incorporate new info into existing schemas Accomodation – adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information

11. Piaget’s Theory Sensorimotor Stage: Birth - 2 years Coordinate sensations with movements Object permanence Preoperational Stage: 2 - 7 years Symbolic thinking/Intuitive reasoning Egocentrism Concrete Operational Stage: 7 – 11 years Operational thinking (e.g., conservation) Classification skills Logical thinking in concrete contexts Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 years Lasts through adulthood Abstract and idealistic thought Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

12. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought Emphasized stages and ignored individual differences Culture and environment also influence development

13. Socioemotional Development Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Theory emphasizes lifelong development Eight stages, each with a developmental task Crisis that must be resolved Personal competence or weakness

14. Erikson’s Theory First 4 Stages: Childhood Trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Industry versus inferiority

15. Erikson’s Theory

16. Evaluating Erikson’s Theory Development is a lifelong challenge Adolescents more than just sexual beings Primary focus on case-study research Omitted important developmental tasks

17. Infant Attachment The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver Typically develops during first year of life May provide important foundation for subsequent development Attachment intensifies at 6-7 months

18. Infant Attachment Harry Harlow – Infant rhesus monkeys What matters? Nourishment or contact Choose between two surrogate “mothers” Cold wire mother versus warm cloth mother Infants preferred cloth mother across situations Contact comfort is critical to attachment

19. Infant Attachment Mary Ainsworth – Strange Situation Procedure: Caregivers leave infant alone with stranger, then return Secure Attachment Insecure Attachment Avoidant, ambivilient, disorganized

20. Temperament An individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding Three clusters of temperament Easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up

21. Parenting Styles Authoritarian Parents are controlling and punitive Correlated with lack of initiative, poor communication skills, social incompetence Authoritative Parents encourage independence with limits Correlated with social competence, social responsibility, and self-control Authoritarian Parents are controlling and punitive Correlated with lack of initiative, poor communication skills, social incompetence Authoritative Parents encourage independence with limits Correlated with social competence, social responsibility, and self-control

22. Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses Preconventional Behavior guided by punishments and rewards Conventional Standards learned from parents and society Postconventional Standards of society and abstract principles (personal moral code)

23. Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Reasoning ≠ Moral Behavior What we say and do are not always consistent Women generally score lower than men Justice perspective (men) Focus on the rights of the individual Care perspective (women) – Carol Gilligan Focus on interpersonal communication Interconnectedness with other people

24. Gender Development Gender influenced by nature and nurture Biological Influences (Nature) Androgens – primary male sex hormones Estrogens – primary female sex hormones Social Role View (Nurture) Gender Roles – Expectations for how males and females should think, feel, and act How do social experiences and culture influence gender development? Traditional male and females gender roles Gender: Nature or Nurture?

25. Resilient Children Resilience – A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times Resilient children become capable adults Advantages possessed by resilient children Individual factors Family factors Extrafamilial factors

26. Understanding Adolescence Transition from childhood to adulthood Balance positive and negative aspects Marked by the search for identity

27. Physical Development Puberty Rapid skeletal and sexual maturation Occurs two years earlier for girls than for boys Testosterone (boys) Genital development, height, voice changes Estrogen (girls) Breast, uterine, and skeletal development

28. Cognitive Development Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage Abstract, idealistic, and logical thought Hypothetical-deductive reasoning Adolescent Egocentrism The belief that others are as preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is Sense of uniqueness Sense of invincibility  risky behaviors

29. Socioemotional Development Erikson: Psychosocial Development Stage 5: Identity versus identity confusion James Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses Exploration and Commitment Identity diffusion Identity foreclosure Identity moratorium Identity achievement

30. Adult Development and Aging Emerging Adulthood Five Key Features Identity exploration Instability Self-focused Feeling in-between The age of possibilities Health and well-being generally improves

31. Physical Changes in Adulthood Early Adulthood Most reach the peak of physical development Middle Adulthood Most lose height, many gain weight Menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s) Late Adulthood Life expectancy has increased, life span has not

32. Biological Theories of Aging Both look within our body’s cells Cellular-Clock Theory Maximum # of cell divisions are possible Predicts human life span of about 120 years Free-Radical Theory Unstable oxygen molecules within cells Cause DNA and cell damage

33. Alzheimer’s Disease A progressive irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration in Memory, reasoning, language Physical functioning Disease marked by pronounced Tangles (tied bundles of proteins) Plaques (deposits in brain’s blood vessels) Acetylcholine deficiency

34. Cognitive Development Early adulthood Marked by relative and reflective thinking Considerable variation influenced by education Middle adulthood Crystallized intelligence increases Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills Fluid intelligence begins to decline Our ability to reason abstractly

35. Cognitive Development Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research Studies produce slightly different findings Peak performance for both types of intelligence may actually occur in middle adulthood Late Adulthood Speed of processing generally declines Memories fade and retrieval skills fail Wisdom might actually increase in some individuals

36. Socioemotional Development Erikson’s Theory: Last 4 Stages Identity versus role confusion (adolescence) Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Integrity versus despair

37. Marriage and Parenting Women and men are marrying later Principles for Successful Marriages Nurturing fondness and admiration Turning toward each other as friends Giving up some power Solving conflicts together Parenting can  Generativity (Erikson)

38. Socioemotional Development Midlife Crisis or Midlife Consciousness? Research reveals that midlife Is not particularly tumultuous, mostly positive Is relatively low in experienced anxiety Adults show resilience and good coping skills Brings few illnesses, but poor physical fitness Awareness of gap between young and old

39. Socioemotional Development Activity  Satisfaction and Good Health Value Emotional Satisfaction Spend time with family and friends Narrow Social Interactions Restrict contact with less familiar individuals Positive Psychology and Aging

40. Chapter 5 Sensation and Perception

41. Basic Principles Sensation The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment Transduction The process of transforming physical energy into electrochemical energy (action potential) Perception The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

42. Sensory Thresholds Absolute Threshold The minimum amount of energy an organism can detect 50% of the time Subliminal stimulation Noise – Irrelevant and competing stimuli Varies by individual: Sensory abilities, age, etc.

43. Sensory Thresholds Difference Thresholds Just Noticeable Difference (JND) How much stimulus change is necessary for detection? Weber’s Law Large stimuli needs a greater change to be noticeable Smaller stimuli needs less of a change to be noticeable

44. Signal Detection Theory Decision making when uncertain involves Information acquisition Criterion Influenced by Motivation and costs/rewards Weight of a false detection vs. missing it Fatigue

45. Factors Affecting Perception Attention Selective attention Cocktail party effect Novelty, size, color, movement Sensory Adaptation Evolutionary vs. Everyday value

46. Intersection: Ethnicity and Perception Do expectations influence perception? Harmless objects or deadly weapons? Ethnicity and perceptual errors Reactions influenced not by personal prejudice but by knowledge of cultural stereotypes Does practice reduce ethnic bias?

47. Visual Perception Organizing and interpreting visual signals Dimensions Shape Depth Motion Constancy Shape: Figure-ground relationship

48. Visual Perception: Shape Gestalt Psychology Perceptions are naturally organized according to certain patterns Whole is different from the sum of the parts Gestalt Principles Figure-ground relationship Closure Proximity Similarity

49. Visual Perception: Shape

50. Visual Perception: Motion Humans have specialized motion detectors Apparent Movement – Phi Phenomenon Stroboscopic Motion Movement Aftereffects

51. Visual Perception: Constancy Perceptual Constancies Recognition that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input Size, Shape, and Brightness Constancies

52. Visual Perception: Illusions Discrepancy between reality and perception Incorrect, but not abnormal perceptions Müller-Lyer illusion Horizontal-vertical illusion Ponzo illusion Moon illusion Devil’s tuning fork

53. Müller-Lyer Illusion

54. Horizontal-Vertical Illusion

55. Ponzo Illusion

56. Moon Illusion

57. Chapter 6: States of Consciousness

58. The Nature of Consciousness What is consciousness? Our awareness of external events and internal sensations which occurs under conditions of arousal

59. Levels of Awareness

60. Levels of Awareness Higher-Level Consciousness Controlled processes Lower-Level Consciousness Automatic processes Daydreaming

61. Levels of Awareness Subconscious Awareness Parallel processing Sleep and Dreams Low levels of consciousness No Awareness Unconscious thought (Freud) Non-conscious processes Subconscious Awareness Parallel processing Sleep and Dreams Low levels of consciousness No Awareness Unconscious thought (Freud) Non-conscious processes

62. Sleep: Biological Rhythms Rhythms controlled by biological clocks Annual or seasonal 28-day cycles/24-hour cycles Circadian Rhythms Desynchronizing the clock Jet lag Shift-work problems Insomnia Resetting the clock Bright light Melatonin

63. Why Do We Sleep? Benefits of Sleep Important for physical and mental functioning Restorative Function Adaptive Evolutionary Function Growth and Development Memory

64. Sleep Deprivation Chronic sleep deprivation results in… Decreased alertness and cognitive performance Inability to sustain attention Less complex brain activity Adverse effects on decision making Research indicates we should get at least 8 hours of sleep each night!

65. Stages of Sleep EEG measures electrical activity in the brain Awake Stage 1: light sleep Stage 2: light sleep Sleep spindles Stage 3: deep sleep Stage 4: deep sleep Difficult to wake sleepers REM sleep

66. Stages of Sleep

67. REM Sleep Rapid-Eye-Movement Sleep = REM sleep Rapid eye movement; dreaming Stage 1-4: Non-REM Sleep Lack of rapid eye movement; little dreaming Dreams: Non-REM versus REM Sleep Developmental Changes in REM Sleep

68. Sleep Cycles 90-100 minutes per cycle Sleep patterns change during the night. Typical night 60% - Stages 1 & 2 sleep 20% - Stages 3 & 4 sleep 20% - REM sleep

69. Sleep Cycles

70. Sleep Disorders Insomnia Sleepwalking, Sleep Talking, Sleep Eating Nightmares versus Night Terrors Narcolepsy Sleep Apnea

71. Theories of Dreaming Historical, Personal, Religious Significance Cognitive Theory of Dreaming Information processing and problem solving Criticisms? Activation-Synthesis Theory Brain makes “sense” out of random activity Criticisms?

72. Hypnosis Hypnosis marked by Altered attention and awareness Unusual receptiveness to suggestions Four Steps in Hypnosis Distractions are minimized Told to concentrate on something specific Told what to expect Suggest events or feelings sure to occur

73. Explaining Hypnosis Susceptibility to Hypnosis Is hypnosis dangerous? Divided State of Consciousness Social Cognitive Behavior View\ Applications of Hypnosis

74. Psychoactive Drugs Various substances alter consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods Why do people take drugs? Continued use can lead to… Tolerance Physical dependence and withdrawal Psychological dependence Addiction

75. Drugs and the Brain The Brain’s Reward Pathway Dopamine Ventral tegmental area (VTA) Nucleus accumbens (NAc) Prefrontal cortex and limbic system These drugs increase DA transmission Agonist Antagonist

76. Psychoactive Drugs: Depressants Alcohol Barbiturates Tranquilizers Opiates

77. Depressants

78. Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants Caffeine Nicotine Amphetamines Cocaine Inhalants

79. Stimulants

80. Psychoactive Drugs: Hallucinogens Marijuana Ecstasy (MDMA) LSD

81. Hallucinogens

82. Critical Controversy Medicinal uses for psychedelic drugs? LSD Medical Marijuana Psychedelic Drugs, Insight, and Creativity