kesselman comparative politicsCh1. Intro (3).ppt

Introducing
Comparative Politics
Chapter 1

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Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Introducing Comparative Politics

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The Global Challenge of
Comparative Politics (1 of 3)
• Introduction to Comparative Politics studies how countries shape and are
shaped by the world order created by watershed events
• Three dates, each defining a critical juncture, are markers for the current
era of world politics: 1989, 2001, 2008
• 1989 – Fall of Berlin Wall
– End of Cold War and beginning of current era
– Soviet Union weakened grip on East Central Europe
• Peaceful revolutions against communist party-states
• Regimes imploded and were replaced by governments proclaiming commitment to
democratic rule
– Failure of communism as alternative to liberal democracy
• Fukuyama’s “The End of History”
– Countries faced challenges adjusting to global economic system, building
democracy after authoritarian rule, historically rooted antagonisms
– Three Changes
• End of bipolar world
• Triumph of liberal democracy
• Gateway to globalization

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• After 1989, globalization provided lens for analyzing politics within
and among countries
– Key question was whether globalization would promote opportunity and
human development or reinforce the comparative advantages of
developed countries
– September 11, 2001 forced rethinking of globalization
• 2001 – Attack on World Trade Center
– Attention switched from economic and political impacts of globalization
to terrorism and security
• Although terrorism existed previous to the attacks, the scale of these attacks
was larger
• Not isolated attacks
– Resulted in changes to global alliances, foreign and domestic policies
– Triggered United States response with lasting consequences
• Toppled Taliban in Afghanistan provoked opposition
– Challenged to develop more complex understanding of globalization

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• 2008 – Price of crude oil topped $100 per barrel
– Oil fuels global economy
• Impact harder on low income
• Cost of food increased
– High price reflects four factors
• Finite supply of petroleum
• Competition for petroleum has increased
– China’s and India’s rapid economic and industrial growth
• Many major petroleum exporters have unstable regimes
• More dollars needed to purchase oil
– Greater attention to climate change and global
warming

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Globalization
and Comparative Politics
• Globalization and global era used to identify the growing depth, extent,
diversity of cross-border connections
– Economic – reorganization of production, redistribution of work force, increased
international trade, finance, foreign direct investment
– Movement of people – migration, business, educational opportunities
– New applications of information technology
• Globalization complicates politics and erodes ability of countries to control
their destinies
– New forms of international governance to regulate and stabilize the flows of
globalization
• Example: European Union, World Trade Organization
– Grassroots movements have challenged globalization
– States can no longer act in isolation
– Governments must address global problems nationally
• Ability of states to control domestic outcomes and assert sovereignty
impacted by regional and global forces
– Stability impacted internally and externally

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Making Sense of
Turbulent Times (1 of 2)
• Study of comparative politics can increase understanding of current
events
– Requires longer perspectives and complex analytic framework
• Introduction to Comparative Politics
– Analyzes government and politics of countries in detail
– Identifies common themes in their development that explain long-term
causes of changes and continuities
– Cross-national comparisons and explanations on four themes:
• Historical formation, internal organization, interaction of states within
international order
• Role of state in economic management
• Spread and challenges of democracy
• Sources and political impacts of collective identities
– Four themes also useful to:
• Indicate future political direction
• Illustrate use of comparative politics

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Making Sense
of Turbulent Times (2 of 2)
• Understanding politics requires looking beyond a
single national perspective
– Deep connections and divisions formed worldwide
– Explore politics of different countries and their
interdependence
• By comparing political institutions, values,
processes in other countries, learn analytical
skills that can be used at home

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What – and How – Comparative
Politics Compares (1 of 2)
• Comparison dates back to Aristotle
– Categorized Greek city-states according to their form of political
rule
• Single individual, few, all citizens
– Distinguished good from corrupt
• Whether those with power ruled in their own interest or for the
common welfare
• Modern comparative politics refines and systematizes
– Subfield within political science as well as approach to study of
politics
– Studies domestic politics of countries or people
– Although American Politics is separate subfield, United States
can be included in comparative studies

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What – and How – Comparative
Politics Compares (2 of 2)
• Distinction between comparative politics and international relations
– Comparative politics studies domestic political institutions, processes,
policies, conflicts, attitudes in different countries
– International relations studies foreign policies and interactions among
countries, role of international organizations, influence of global actors
– Studies overlap; distinction important because political activity occurs
within state borders and states still fundamental political building block
• Comparative approach focuses on selected institutions and
processes when analyzing similarities and differences among
countries
– Must look at more than one case to make reliable statement
– Look at two or more cases selected to isolate common and contrasting
features
– May analyze broad issues or institution, policy, process through time

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Level of Analysis (1 of 2)
• Comparisons useful for political analysis at several different levels
– Specific institutions in different countries
• Countries historically most important source of collective political identity and
major arena for organized political action
– State = key political institutions responsible for making, implementing,
enforcing, adjudicating policies
– National executive is most important state institution
• President and/or prime minister and cabinet
• Sometimes includes other leaders depending on participation in government
decisions
• Legislative and judiciary also comprise state power
• Military, police, bureaucracy are other key institutions
– Political legitimacy required for long term stability
• Affected by economic performance and distribution of economic resources
• May require some level of democracy

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Level of Analysis (2 of 2)
• Not all states are the same
– Variance in organization of institutions
• Differences impact political, economic, social
• Process of state formation influences political differences
– Variance in extent to which citizens share a common sense of
nationhood
• Nation-state when state boundaries and national identity coincide
• Source of political instability when they do not coincide
• Nationalist movements challenge existing boundaries
– Conflicts intense when the nationalist movement has distinctive ethnic,
religious, linguistic ties
– Goals may be pursued peacefully or violently

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Causal Theories (1 of 3)
• Countries and states are the two critical units for comparative
analysis
• One approach is to develop causal theories
– Hypotheses expressed as “If X happens then Y will be the result”
• Include factors (independent variables) that are believed to influence the
outcome (dependent variables)
• Inverse correlation – X and Y vary in the opposite direction
– Even without hypotheses try to identify similarities and differences to
discover patterns
• Limits on “scientific” political science
– Two differences between “hard” and social sciences
• Social sciences study people who have free will
– Choices made in context of material constraint, institutions, culture which can be
studied
• Experimental techniques cannot isolate factors

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• Debate over whether or not social sciences should seek scientific
explanations
– Some believe political science should develop covering laws to explain
political outcomes
– Critics feel that social world is different from natural world
• Some argue in favor of identifying patterns, mechanisms, structures
• Others argue in favor of identifying unique configuration of factors that
coexist in a particular case
• Others argue in favor of “thick description”
– Highlight role of political culture
• Rational choice theory borrowed from economics
– Individuals act strategically to achieve goals and maximize interests
– Deductive and quantitative methods used to construct models
– Criticized for explaining complex phenomena through individual choices
and dismissing variations in history, culture, identities, institutions

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• Most comparativists agree on middle-level theory
– Individual countries would be study of isolated cases and unable to
identify significant factor
– Universal claims would ignore important national differences
– Instead focus on specific features of the political world or classes of
events
• Study of democratic transitions identifies influence of variables on political
stability
– Process in which authoritarian governments such as military dictatorships develop
more democratic regimes
– Identify common patterns that make sense of political events and link experiences
– Will not achieve definitive explanations
• Challenges to comparative politics
– Complexity of subject matter
– Pace of change
– Impossibility of manipulating variables or replicating conditions

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Themes for Comparative Analysis
• Four themes used to organize information
– Help explain continuities and contrasts
– Help understand patterns that are applicable to group
of countries or specific to a country
– Highlight particular puzzle
• Warnings
– Four themes cannot capture the varied experience of
politics
• Presents guide to understanding
• Interpretations should be challenged
– Builds on existing theory

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Theme 1: A World of States (1 of 4)
• States have been primary actors for about five hundred years
– Individuals, international organizations, transnational corporations may play
crucial role
– Rulers of states conquer other states
– Legal codes of states allow business to operate
– States provide for citizens, regulate movement of people
– Policies of international organizations represent balance of power among states
• States have been affected by globalization
– Increasing overlap between international relations and comparative politics
• Two components
– State’s relationship to international arena
• Impact of domestic politics on ability to compete economically and politically with other
states
– State’s internal development
• Analyzes the importance of regime variations
• Similarities and contrasts in state formation and institutional design
• Critical junctures, political institutions and relationships

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• State is primary political institution in exercise of power
– States cannot shape world as it desires
– States cannot achieve aims autonomously
– States affected by external influences
• International organizations and treaties challenge national sovereignty
– United Nations, European Union, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, North
American Free Trade Agreement
• Political borders do not protect people from global influences
– Technology, immigration, cultural diffusion impact domestic policies and
challenge state supremacy
• Global media increased knowledge about international
developments
– May increase demands on local governments to intervene
– May cause local governments to be held to international standards of
human rights and democracy

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• States may collapse when rulers are challenged or
violate rule of law
– “Failed states”
– Political situation approaches anarchy
• All states are experiencing increased pressure from
external influences
– Do not have same impact on all states
– Some states can shape structure and policy of international
organizations
• States with greater level of economy, military, and resources have a
greater global influence and benefit more from globalization
• Countries with fewer advantages more dependent on states and
international organizations and benefit less from globalization

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• Puzzle: To what extent can powerful states
preserve their autonomy and impose their will on
other states? Or are all states loosing their
power to control policy-making and secure
political outcomes?
– Politics and policies of states increasingly influenced
by international factors
– Constituencies also challenging power and legitimacy
of central governments

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Theme 2: Governing
the Economy (1 of 2)
• Ability to ensure adequate volume of goods and services affects
state’s ability to maintain sovereign authority and control
– Inadequate economic performance important reason for rejection of
communism
– Success in promoting economic development major factor in survival of
Communist Party in China
• How state “governs the economy” is key element in overall pattern
of governance
– Difference in balance between agriculture and industrial production
– Strategies to improve economic performance
– Competition in international markets
– Importance of private market forces versus government direction of the
economy
• Political economy: How governments affect economic performance
and how economic performance affects politics
– Believe domestic and international economy affects politics

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Theme 2: Governing
the Economy (2 of 2)
• There is no one right way to manage the economy
– European powers developed distinctive ways to promote
industrialization based on place in sequence of industrializing powers
• Britain first allowing slow development of laissez-faire
• Later developers had to catch up requiring crash programs but no single
formula for success
• Agreement on practices that hinder economic development
– Corruption, tax rates that discourage economic activity, failure to
provide public goods
– No consensus on policies that should be adopted
– Some factors beyond state’s control
• No clear measure of economic success
– More countries emphasizing sustainable development
• Puzzle: What is relationship between democracy and successful
national economic performance?
– Both democratic and authoritarian regimes successful

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Theme 3: The Democratic Idea (1 of 3)
• Democratic idea: claim by citizens that they should exercise
substantial control over government and state decisions
– Strong appeal and rapidly spreading
– Hard for authoritarian governments to survive persistent and
widespread pressure for democratic participation
• No guarantee for pro-democracy success
• Growth and stagnation of democracy
– Little consensus
– No one path to democracy
• Political contenders for power may compromise on democracy
• Democracy’s stability, affluence, freedom may appeal to citizens in
authoritarian regimes
• Regional effect
• Some warn of dangers associated with democracy
– Dominated by short-term perspective

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• Necessary or sufficient conditions for democracy
– Secure national borders, stable state, minimum level of economic
development, acceptance of democratic values, agreement on rules
– Institutional design
• Parliamentary system produces more consensual outcomes than
presidential
– Democracy also occurs under unfavorable conditions
• Gulf between transition to and consolidation of democracy
– Transition occurs when authoritarian regime toppled and democratic
foundations established
– Consolidation requires adherence to democratic procedures and stable,
durable democratic institutions
– Reversal of democratic regimes to authoritarian rule
• Powerful groups fear threats democracy poses
• Disadvantaged groups see democracy as unresponsive
• Comparative politics does not support one democratic point to which
all countries will converge

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• Must examine incompleteness of democracy even in countries with
long experience of democratic government
– Political conflicts fueled by gap between democratic idea and
democratic functioning
• Citizens turn against the state when living standard threatened
• Social movements target actions, inaction
• Social movements organize because political parties perceived as out of
touch
– Democratic idea invoked to make government more responsive and
accountable
• Puzzle: Is there a relationship between democracy and political
stability?
– Democracy permits opposition making political life turbulent and
unpredictable
– Legitimacy of political opposition deepens state support and promotes
state stability
– Once adopted, odds are democratic regime will endure

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Theme 4: The Politics
of Collective Identity (1 of 2)
• At one time comparativists believed that social class was the most
important source of collective identity
– Believed groups would mostly pursue interests in ways that were not
politically destabilizing
• Formation of group attachments and interplay of collective identities
more complex
– In many long-established democracies identity based on class declining
but still important politically and economically
– Non-class identities growing in significance
• Politics of collective identities involves struggle to mobilize groups to
be politically influential
– Constant struggle among groups over relative power and influence
– Issues include inclusion, political recognition, representation, resource
allocation, ability to shape public policies
– Political leaders often try to mobilize support by exploiting identity
related rivalries and manipulating issues
• Struggles have material and nonmaterial stakes

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Theme 4: The Politics
of Collective Identity (2 of 2)
• Issues about collective identities never fully settled
– Identity-based conflicts appear in every multiethnic society
• Particularly intense in post-colonial countries
– Colonial powers forced ethnic groups together and drew borders with little regard to
existing identities
– Political conflicts between and within religious groups
• May cross national boundaries and involve globalization
• Political orientation of religious community not predetermined
• Puzzle: How does collective identity affect country’s distributional
politics?
– Most groups desire material benefits and political influence
– Analytical difference between material and nonmaterial useful
– Compromise may be difficult in situation of extreme scarcity
– Nonmaterial demands may be harder to satisfy through distributional
politics

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Classifying Political Systems (1 of 2)
• Over two hundred states with distinctive political regimes
– Create typology to facilitate comparison within and between types of states
– Most different case analysis to compare across types
• Typologies are artificial constructs
– Analyst selects basis for classification
• Downplays importance of other features
– Helpful to the extent that they allow comparison that provides useful knowledge
• From World War I until 1980s consensus on “Three Worlds”
– First World was Western industrial democracies
• Countries somewhat democratic, not industrialized
– Second World was communist states
• Nearly disappeared today
• Remaining have developed market-based policies
– Third World was economically less developed
• Countries share few features
• May be useful for “developing” classification although this can be further divided

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Classifying Political Systems (2 of 2)
• Lively debate as to alternative typology
– Authors suggest basing typology on extent to which
governments are democratic
• Consolidated democracies
• Transitional democracies
• Authoritarian regimes

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What Is the Meaning – or Rather,
Meanings – of Democracy?
• Contentious debate over meaning
– Procedural definition versus provision of substantive equalities?
• Rough consensus over minimum features
– Free and fair elections to select highest public offices
– Political parties free to compete
– Government policies developed according to rules that include transparency,
accountability
– Civil and political rights and liberties for all citizens
– Independent judiciary
– Elected government exercises supreme power
• Qualifications:
– Does not claim electoral outcomes rational or equitable
– No government has fully lived up to democratic standards
– Interpretation, implementation of features politically contentious
– Economic inequalities influence politics
– Political institutions vary
• Presidential versus parliamentary versus hybrid

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A Typology of Political Systems (1 of 2)
• Criteria to distinguish between consolidated and transitional
democracies
– Whether or not democratic institutions have been solidly and stably
established for a period of time
• Length of time open to interpretation
– Extent of democratic practice
• Consolidated when relatively consistent adherence to six democratic
principles
– Violations of democratic norms occur
• Democratic institutions may only be façade in transitional democracies
– Hybrid of democratic and authoritarian
• Authoritarian regimes lack six democratic principles
– Power highly concentrated in person, group, or institution
– Those in power claim exclusive right to govern and impose will
– Varieties include communist party-states, theocracies, monarchies,
military or personal dictatorships
– Frequently claim to embody democracy

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A Typology of Political Systems (1 of 2)
• Both democratic and authoritarian states change
and evolve over time in response to domestic
and international influences
• Some countries may straddle categories or
political experiences may cause change in
category
– No automatic path of political development

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Organization of the Text
• Country case studies selected:
– Significance in terms of comparative themes
– Provide interesting samples of political regimes,
economic development, geographic regions
• Studies make comparative references but
primarily provide detailed descriptions and
analysis of countries
• Common section and subsection headings

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1: The Making of the Modern State
• Overview of forces that shaped character of the state
• “Politics in Action” uses specific event to illustrate recent
history and highlight critical issues being faced
• “Geographic Setting” locates country in regional setting
and discusses related political implications
• “Critical Junctures” looks at major stages and turning
points in state’s development
• “Themes and Implications” shows how past patterns
continue to shape the current political agenda
• “Historical Junctures and Political Themes” applies the
core themes
• “Implications for Comparative Politics” discusses
significance of country for comparative politics

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2: Political Economy and Development
• Looks at issues raised by theme of governing the economy
• Analyzes how economic development has affected political change
• “State and Economy” discusses organization of country’s economy
– Emphasizes role of state in managing economy
– Relationship between government and other actors
– Analyzes the state’s welfare policies
• “Society and Economy” examines social and political implications of
the economic situation
– Who benefits from economic change
– How economic development creates or reinforces cleavages
• “The Global Economy” considers the country’s global role

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3: Governance and Policy-Making
• Describes state’s policymaking institutions and
procedures
• “Organization of the State” describes principles on which
political system and distribution of power are based
• “The Executive” describes key offices at the top of the
political system
– How they are selected and use their power to make policy
– Analyzes bureaucracy, its relationship to the executive, its role in
policy-making
• “Other State Institutions” looks at military, judiciary,
semipublic agencies, subnational government
• “The Policy-Making Process” summarizes how policy is
made and implemented

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4: Representation and Participation
• Describes the relationship between the state and society
– How do groups organize, participate, get represented, influence policy-
making
• “The Legislature” describes representation of interests and its role in
policymaking
• “Political Parties and the Party System” describes the organization
of the party system and major parties
• “Elections” describes the election process, recent trends in electoral
behavior, significance of elections for participation and change
• “Political Culture, Citizenship, and Identity” examines how people
perceive themselves as members of the political community, nature
and sources of political values and attitudes, how different groups
understand their relationship to the state
• “ Interests, Social Movements, and Protests” describes pursuit of
political interests outside the party system

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5: Politics in Transition
• Analyzes the major challenges reshaping the
world and study of comparative politics
• “Political Challenges and Changing Agendas”
identifies the major unresolved issues facing the
country and assess which will likely dominate in
the near future
• “Politics in Comparative Perspective” highlights
implications of the country for the study of
comparative politics

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Key Terms & Suggested Readings
• List of terms considered important for students
of comparative politics to know
– Terms are bolded the first time they appear in the
chapter
– Terms are briefly defined in the Glossary
• Suggested readings emphasize books that
would be interesting and accessible

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Key Terms (1 of 26)
• Critical Juncture: An important historical moment when political
actions make critical choices, which shape institutions and future
outcomes.
• Communist Party State: A type of nation-state in which the
Communist Party attempts to exercise a complete monopoly on
political power and controls all important state institutions.
• Regime: A term that is generally synonymous with government or
political system.
• Cold War: The hostile relations that prevailed between the United
States and the USSR from the late 1940s until the demise of the
Soviet Union in 1991. Although an actual (hot) war never directly
occurred between the two superpowers, they clashed indirectly by
supporting rival forces in many wars occurring in the Third World.

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Key Terms (2 of 26)
• Liberal Democracy: A political system that combines capitalist
organization of the economy with a democratic political system.
• Ideology: A set of fundamental ideas, values, or beliefs about how a
political, economic, or social system should be organized. Examples
of ideology include capitalism, communism, and socialism.
• Authoritarian: A system of rule in which power depends not on
popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political
authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms. It is
also characterized by near absolute power in the executive branch
and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls.
• Ethnic Cleansing: Concerted political violence akin to genocide
applied to a minority population in a country or region, usually to
force their expulsion or mass destruction.

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Key Terms (3 of 26)
• Genocide: The international and coordinated attempt to destroy a
people, defined in national, religious, racial, or ethnic terms.
• Globalization: The intensification of worldwide interconnectedness
associated with the increased speed and magnitude of cross-border
flows of trade, investment, and finance, and processes of migration,
cultural diffusion, and communication.
• European Union (EU): An an organization of European countries
created in 1958 to promote economic integration and political
cooperation among European states. At first, the EU’s mandate was
primarily to reduce tariff barriers among West European states.
Since then, more countries throughout Europe have joined the EU,
and its powers have vastly expanded to include promoting common
policies on immigration, technical standards, and economic and
monetary regulation.

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Key Terms (4 of 26)
• World Trade Organization (WTO): A global international
organization that oversees the “rules of trade” among its
member states. The main functions of the WTO are to
serve as a forum for its members to negotiate new
agreements and resolve trade disputes. Its fundamental
purpose is to lower or remove barriers to free trade. Most
of the world’s countries belong to the WTO. To join, a
country must agree to certain domestic and international
economic policies. WTO membership is voluntary, but
nations that don’t belong are at a great disadvantage in
the contemporary global economy.

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Key Terms (5 of 26)
• Sovereignty: A state’s claim to exercise authority and
effective political control of political decisions within a
given territory.
• Collective Identities: The groups with which people
identify, including gender, class, race, region, and
religion, and which are the “building blocks” for social
and political action. Any given individual has a variety of
identities, for example, a Muslim woman who is a
member of the Kurdish ethnic group of northern Iraq.
There is enormous variation regarding which collective
identities are uppermost for particular individuals, which
ones are influential within particular countries, and how
effectively political systems process conflicts among
collective identities. This question is among the most
important issues studied in comparative politics.

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Key Terms (6 of 26)
• Comparative Politics: The study of the domestic
politics, political institutions, and conflicts of countries.
Often involves comparisons among countries and
through time within single countries, emphasizing key
patterns of similarity and difference.
• Human Development Index: A composite number used
by the United Nations to measure and compare levels of
achievement in health, knowledge, and standard of
living. HDI is based on the following indicators: life
expectancy, adult literacy rate and school enrollment
statistics, and gross domestic product per capita at
purchasing power parity.

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Key Terms (7 of 26)
• Global Gender Gap: A measure of “the extent to which
women in 58 countries have achieved equality with men
in five critical areas: economic participation, economic
opportunity, political empowerment, educational
attainment, and health and well-being.”
• Environmental Performance Index: A measure of how
close countries come to meeting specific benchmarks for
national pollution control and natural resource
management.

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Key Terms (8 of 26)
• Corruption Perception Index: A measure developed by
Transparency International that “ranks countries in terms
of the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist
among public officials and politicians. It is a composite
index, drawing on corruption-related data in expert
surveys carried out by a variety of reputable institutions.
It reflects the views of businesspeople and analysts from
around the world, including experts who are locals in the
countries evaluated.” Range: 10 (highly clean) to 0
(highly corrupt).

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Key Terms (9 of 26)
• Freedom in the World Rating: An annual evaluation by
Freedom House of the level of freedom in countries
around the world measured according to political rights
and civil liberties through “a multi-layered process of
analysis and evaluation by a team of regional experts
and scholars.” Countries are ranked in .5 gradations
between 1.0 and 7.0, with 1.0–2.5 being “Free”; 3.0–5.0,
“Partly Free”; and 5.5–7.0, “Not free.”

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Key Terms (10 of 26)
• United Nations: The association of some two hundred countries
headquartered in New York, charged with primary responsibility for
maintaining international peace and security and advancing the rule
of international law and prospects for economic and social
development.
• Comparativists: Political scientists who study the similarities and
differences in the domestic politics of various countries.
• Keynesianism: Named after the British economist John Maynard
Keynes, an approach to economic policy in which state economic
policies are used to regulate the economy in an attempt to achieve
stable economic growth. During recession, state budget deficits are
used to expand demand in an effort to boost both consumption and
investment, and to create employment. During periods of high
growth when inflation threatens, cuts in government spending and a
tightening of credit are used to reduce demand.

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• Neoliberalism: A term used to describe
government policies aiming to promote free
competition among business firms within the
market. Neoliberal policies include monetarism,
privatization, reducing trade barriers, balancing
government budgets, and reducing social
spending.
• Country: A territorial unit controlled by a single
state. Countries vary in the degree to which
groups within them have a common culture and
ethnic affiliation.

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• State: The state comprises a country’s key political
institutions that are responsible for making,
implementing, enforcing, and adjudicating important
policies in that country. States have also been defined as
those institutions within a country that claim the right to
control force within the territory comprising the country
and to make binding rules (laws), which citizens of that
country must obey.
• Executive: The agencies of government that implement
or execute policy. The highest levels of the executive in
most countries is a president or prime minister and
cabinet. The top executive officeholders supervise the
work of administrative departments
and bureaus.

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• Cabinet: The ministers who direct executive
departments. In parliamentary systems, the cabinet and
high-ranking sub-cabinet ministers (also known as the
government) are considered collectively responsible to
parliament.
• Legislature: One of the primary political institutions in a
country, in which elected members are charged with
responsibility for making laws and usually providing for
the financial resources for the state to carry out its
functions.
• Judiciary: One of the primary political institutions in a
country, responsible for the administration of justice and
in some countries for determining the constitutionality of
state decisions.

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• Bureaucracy: An organization structured hierarchically,
in which lower-level officials are charged with
administering regulations codified in rules that specify
impersonal, objective guidelines for making decisions. In
the modern world, many large organizations, especially
business firms and the executives of developed states,
are organized along bureaucratic lines.
• Legitimacy: A belief by powerful groups and the broad
citizenry that a state exercises rightful authority. In the
contemporary world, a state is said to possess legitimacy
when it enjoys consent of the governed, which usually
involves democratic procedures and the attempt to
achieve a satisfactory level of development and
equitable distribution of resources.

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• State Formation: The historical development of
a state, often marked by major stages, key
events, or turning points (critical junctures) that
influence the contemporary character of the
state.
• Nation-state: Distinct, politically defined territory
with its own state, relatively coherent culture,
economy, and ethnic and other social identities.
• Political Culture: The attitudes, beliefs, and
symbols that influence political behavior; often
defined in terms of specific national political-
cultural orientations.

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• Rational Choice Theory: An approach to analyzing
political decision-making and behavior which
presupposes that individual actors pursue their aims in
an effort to achieve the most positive net result. The
theory presupposes equilibrium and unitary actors.
Rational choice is often associated with the pursuit of
selfish goals, but the theory permits a wide range of
motivations, including altruism.
• Middle-level Theory: Seeks to explain phenomena in a
limited range of cases, in particular, a specific set of
countries with particular characteristics, such as
parliamentary regimes, or a particular type of political
institution (such as political parties) or
activity (such as protest).

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• Dictatorship: A system of rule in which power depends not on
popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political
authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms. It is
also characterized by near absolute power in the executive branch
and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls.
• Democratic Transition: The process of a state moving from an
authoritarian to a democratic political system.
• World Bank: (Officially the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development). The World Bank provides low-interest loans, no-
interest credit, policy advice, and technical assistance to developing
countries with the goal of reducing poverty. It is made up of over 180
nations. All members have voting rights within the Bank, but these
are weighted according to the size of each country’s financial
contribution to the organization. Thus, the United States and other
highly developed countries have near veto power over the
Bank operations.

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• International Monetary Fund (IMF): The “sister
organization” of the World Bank also has over
180 member states. It describes its mandate as:
“working to foster global monetary cooperation,
secure financial stability, facilitate international
trade, promote high employment and
sustainable economic growth, and reduce
poverty.” It has been particularly active in helping
countries that are experiencing serious
economic problems. In exchange for IMF
financial or technical assistance a country must
agree to a certain set of conditions that promote
economic liberalization.

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• North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA): A treaty among the United States,
Mexico, and Canada implemented on January 1,
1994, that largely eliminates trade barriers
among the three nations and establishes
procedures to resolve trade disputes. NAFTA
serves as a model for an eventual Free Trade
Area of the Americas zone that could include
most nations in the Western Hemisphere.

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• Institutional Design: The institutional
arrangements that define the relationships
between executive, legislative, and judicial
branches of governments and between the
central government and sub-central units such
as states in the United States.
• Political Economy: The study of the interaction
between the state and the economy, that is, how
the state and political processes affect the
organization of production and exchange (the
economy) and how the organization of the
economy affects political processes.

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• Laissez-faire: The term taken from the French, which
means, “to let do,” in other words, to allow to act freely.
In political economy, it refers to the pattern in which state
management is limited to such matters as enforcing
contracts and protecting property rights, while private
market forces are free to operate with only minimal
state regulation.
• Sustainable Development: An approach to promoting
economic growth that seeks to minimize environmental
degradation and depletion of natural resources.
Advocates of sustainable development believe that
policies implemented in the present must take into
account the impact on the ability of future generations to
meet their needs and live healthy lives.

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• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total of all goods and
services produced within a country that is used as a broad measure
of the size of its economy.
• Gross National Product (GNP): A broad measure of the size of the
economy. Similar to gross domestic product but also takes into
account income from foreign sources. The World Bank started using
the term gross national income rather than gross national product in
its reports and statistics in 2002.
• Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): A method of calculating the value
of a country’s money based on the actual cost of buying certain
goods and services in that country rather than how many U.S.
dollars they are worth. PPP is widely considered to be a more
accurate indicator of comparing standards of living, particularly in
countries at very different levels of economic development.

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• Social Movements: Grass-roots associations that
demand reforms of existing social practices and
government policies. Social movements are less formally
organized than interest groups.
• Social Class: Common membership in a group whose
boundaries are based on a common economic location,
notably, occupation and income. Members of the same
social class often share similar political attitudes.
• Distributional Politics: The use of power, particularly by
the state, to allocate some kind of valued resource
among competing groups.

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• Typology: A method of classifying by using criteria that
divide a group of cases into smaller numbers. For
example, in this book, we use a typology of countries
that distinguishes among consolidated democracies,
transitional democracies, and authoritarian regimes.
• Most Different Case Analysis: The logic of most
different case analysis is that, by comparing cases that
differ widely, one seeks to isolate a factor or factors
(termed the independent variable or variables) that both
cases share—despite their differences in other
respects—that might explain an outcome (or dependent
variable).

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• Third World: Refers to countries with a low or relatively
low level of economic development, particularly as
measured by gross national income or gross domestic
product per capita. Synonymous with developing world.
• Consolidated Democracies: Democratic political
systems that have been solidly and stably established for
an ample period of time and in which there is relatively
consistent adherence to the core democratic principles.
• Transitional Democracies: Countries that have moved
from an authoritarian government to a democratic one.
Also referred to as newly established democracies.

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• Authoritarian Regimes: A system of rule in which power depends
not on popular legitimacy but on the coercive force of the political
authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms.
Authoritarian regimes are also characterized by near absolute power
in the executive branch and few, if any, legislative and
judicial controls.
• Totalitarian: A political system in which the state attempts to
exercise total control over all aspects of public and private life,
including the economy, culture, education, and social organizations,
through an integrated system of ideological, economic, and political
control. Totalitarian states are said to rely largely on terror as a
means to exercise power. The term has been applied to both
communist party-states including Stalinist Russia and Maoist China
and fascist regimes such as Nazi Germany.

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