Jking Honors Thesis

Big Wonders, Small
Wonders: A Paradigm Shift

Jade F. King

May 2010

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Part 1: Examination of the Wonders
There are many world wonders that captivate the fascination of the world’s
cultures. World wonders can be divided into two main categories: man-made and natural.
As impressive as the natural wonders are, people still seem preoccupied with the man-
made ones. The man-made wonders can be further divided into three subcategories:
ancient, medieval, and modern. Ancient wonders of the world include the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon, Colossus of Rhodes, Lighthouse of Alexandria, Pyramids of Giza,
Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of
Maussollos at Halicarnassus. These structures represent the pinnacle of human
achievement within their respective times. The original list was compiled by Herodotus
in the year 225BC and was housed in the famous Library of Alexandria. A second list
was compiled which contained the wonders of the Medieval world. This list contains the
Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hagia Sophia, the Taj Mahal, the Great Wall of China, the
Colosseum, the Leaning Tower of Pisa, and Stonehenge. In November 2006, a list was
compiled containing the wonders of the modern world.1
Of these lists of the wonders of
the world, the most popular from an American viewpoint seem to be the medieval
wonders.
Each of these wonders are distinctive from other constructs of the time period and
exhibit dissimilar functional purposes. The Great pyramid was constructed for a god-king
to spend his afterlife. Stonehenge was a monument to a people and the gods they
worshiped. The Colosseum was built to honor the city of Rome and as an illustration of
the Roman might. The leaning tower of Pisa was a bell house for the church in Pisa
1
United Nations. World Votes for New Seven Wonders. 8 July 2007. 18 March 2009
<http://www.un.org/partnerships/YNewsNew7Wonders.htm>

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which stands when it should not. The Hagia Sophia was built as a testament of one man's
devotion to his religion. The Taj Mahal was built to show the city and ultimately the
world the extent of one man's love for his wife. The Great Wall of China was built to
show the strength of the Chinese empire to their enemies and as the ultimate defense for
its people. However, to truly appreciate the grandeur of these wonders, their individual
stories must be told.
The Great Pyramid was a monument to the dead. It was built to honor the pharaoh
Khufu, also known as Cheops. There are multiple, valid theories that contribute to the
enigma of the Great Pyramid. However, a variety of aspects concerning the pyramid
astound both ancient and modern people alike. Herodotus was awed by the pyramid and
gave it a spot on his list of wonders. It was then carried over to the list of medieval
wonders because there was nothing then that could rival the architectural grandeur.
In order to gain a better grasp on the magnificence of the pyramid, some of the
details that leave researchers amazed must be examined. It is believed that the Great
Pyramid was built within a 14 to 20 year period. At the time of completion the Pyramid
stood 480 feet into the air. The base was 754 feet on each side. It is calculated from these
dimensions, the density of the stone, and the spaces within the structure that the pyramid
weighs 5.9 million tons. At that tremendous weight the Egyptians would have built at a
rate of 800 tons per day.2
The stones making up most of the pyramids are limestone and
were brought from many different quarries along the Nile River. It is believed that there
are as many as 2.3 million stones carefully placed to make up the Great Pyramid. The
burial chamber was built out of a single granite stone that was shipped from the Aswan
2
Lepre, J.P. The Egyptian Pyramids: A Comprehensive, Illustrated Reference. Boston: McFarland &
Company, Inc., 1990.

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region of Egypt, which is over 500 miles away.3
The stones shipped each weighed over
50 tons each, equivalent to the weight of a train engine. The pyramid was the tallest man-
made structure in the world for over 3800 years until the 1300s.4
Another element in the building of the Great Pyramid is that of its position and
religious themes. The Great Pyramid’s points are aligned with only 0.05 degrees
deviation from true north. True north differs from magnetic north because it is based on a
celestial position directly above the North Pole rather than on the magnetic field of the
earth. It is very amazing that the Egyptians were able to ascertain true north rather than
magnetic north. There are also passages within the pyramid that illuminated at certain key
astronomical times of the year. These “windows” were long and designed to capture and
direct light from a particular star during a very precise time of the year. The Egyptians
were very close watchers of the stars and were very religious and believed that there was
knowledge to be obtained by watching and predicting the paths of stars in the sky.
Because of the careful attention to detail and the skilled hands of over 100,000 men, the
Great pyramid of Khufu champions significant architectural achievements.
Stonehenge
Another highly celebrated medieval world wonder is Stonehenge. It is a world
wonder for many similar reasons as the pyramids. Stonehenge is made of massive stones,
the stones had to be quarried from very far away, the exact methods as to how the
builders constructed it remains unknown, the grounds were originally used for burial
purposes, and it was probably built for religious purposes.
3
Marrucchi, G and S Pierallini. The Great Mysteries of Archaeology: The Pyramids. New York: Metro
Books, 2007
4
Smyth, Piazzi. The Great Pyramid: Its Secrets and Mysteries Revealed. New York: Gramercy Books,
1995

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Even though the scale of Stonehenge is much smaller than that of the pyramids its
complexity is highly intricate. Stonehenge was built as early as 3100BC on the Salisbury
plains of England. Its builders were likely a group of people known as the Druids.
However, many other theories have emerged of giants, aliens, and Merlin as the creator
of this structure. In recent years archeological projects indicate that Stonehenge was
originally used as a burial site for cremated remains. It is believed that the site was
actively utilized for burial for 500 years after construction.5
The structure that is now known to be Stonehenge is only a skeleton of its former
self. The Stonehenge that was intended for use was much larger and contained many
more stones. The stones were placed in three different construction phases. In the first
phase, which took almost 800 years, the ditch was dug and stones lining the inner portion
of the ditch. The second phase is only partially seen today as the outermost stones known
as outer sarsen ring. The third and final phase contains the inner “bluestone” ring. It is
believed that the stones were transported from almost 250 miles away from the Salisbury
plain. It is also believed that there were nearly 3000 men involved in the transportation of
these stones.6
Once the stones were transported to the site, holes were dug and the stones were
placed almost 3 feet within the earth. On the vertical stones a mortar and pestle grove was
placed between it and the two horizontal stones creating the cap. This groove was to
stabilize the horizontal stones and prevent them from falling from the tops of the vertical
stones. The two horizontal stones had jigsaw grooves which connected them to each other
and prevented disconnection between the two horizontal stones further stabilizing the
5
Balfour, Michael D. Stonehenge and Its Mysteries. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1980.
6
Chippendale, Christopher. Stonehenge Complete. New York: Cornell UP, 1983.

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structure. This structure is an amazing architectural feat even before one considers that
each stone weighs almost 50 tons.7
Hagia Sophia
The Hagia Sophia is a medieval wonder found in Istanbul, Turkey. The mosque
first came into existence as a Greek Orthodox Church. It was originally built in 360 AD
by Constantius II when the city was called Constantinople. The building has gone
through numerous reconstructions to be the structure seen standing today. In the year 404
AD the Hagia Sophia was destroyed by fire the first time. It was rebuilt in 415 AD by
Theodosius II but was decimated by fire once again in 532 AD. The current building,
which is also fireproof, was built from 532 to 537 AD by the Emperor Justinian. The
large dome was destroyed by an earthquake in the year 558 AD, was rebuilt in 563 AD,
and remains intact today.8
It was in 1453 when Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks that the
city was renamed Istanbul. The Turks brought with them their religion of Islam and
converted the Hagia Sophia from a church to a mosque. Minarets were placed around the
building, the Christian decorative ceilings were covered by plaster, an addition was
created facing east and Santa Sophia was finally transformed into an Islamic center for
worship. The Republic of Turkey succeeded the Ottoman Empire as the controller of
Constantinople, which they renamed Istanbul. In 1935, almost 500 years of being used as
a mosque, the Republic of Turkey declared the Hagia Sophia a national museum.9
The
building underwent an intensive restoration project to remove the plaster covering the
7
Chippendale, Christopher. Stonehenge Complete. New York: Cornell UP, 1983.
8
Nelson, Robert S. Hagia Sophia, 1850-1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument. Chicago: University of
Chicago, 2004
9
Mainstone, Rowland. Hagia Sophia: Architecture, Structure and Liturgy of Justinians's Great Church.
London: Thames and Hudson, 2001

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artwork on the ceiling. However, two groups arose with ideas of how to deal with the
interior of the building. One group of Turks opposed the removal of the plaster on the
ceiling stating the museum should be left in its current condition. The other group
believes that the building should be restored to its original state.
One of the most architecturally impressive parts of the Hagia Sophia is the
massive dome in the center of the building. The dome is suspended using pendentives
which until its construction were not used on domes of this size. Pendentives are used to
support large domes and consist of massive arches atop pillars. Buttresses are used to
support the side domes along the perimeter of the large dome. There is a series of domes
which surround the main dome and lead upwards towards it. The main dome is 131 feet
in diameter and the top is 184 feet high. The dome remains partially uncovered due
primarily to the indecisiveness of the Turkish government to determine whether or not to
restore the building. At the time of its creation, the Hagia Sophia was the largest church
in the world. It was used for over 900 years as the seat of the Orthodox Patriarch of
Constantinople and was used for countless church councils and imperial ceremonies.10
Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal was built in 1648 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a mausoleum
to honor his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal who died during childbirth. It was built in the
previous capital of Agra. The building took a total of 12 years to be built. Mumtaz Mahal
was Shah Jahan’s third and favorite wife.11
The construction of the Taj Mahal is a great
love story. Upon the death of his wife, Shah Jahan ordered the building of the mausoleum
from the finest marble that existed. The marble came from the quarry at Makrana which
10
Yerasimos, Stephane. Constantinople Istanbul's Historical Heritage. Langenscheidt Pub, 2008.
11
Koch, Ebba, and Richard André. Barraud. The Complete Taj Mahal. London: Thames & Hudson, 2006.

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was over 220 miles away. The marble had to be brought to the Taj on carts and carved at
the site. The Taj Mahal is typically thought of as the tomb alone; however, the Taj Mahal
is the entire complex encompassing the mosque, the guest chambers, the garden and the
gate. The Tomb is adorned on the exterior primarily by white marble. However, inlaid
into the white marble is black marble and semiprecious stones all cut and inlaid by hand.
Many flowers are carved into the white marble itself creating multiple floral motifs.
Around the main entrance of the tomb are verses from the Koran written in Arabic of
black marble inlay. The overall theme of the Taj Mahal is symmetry. Everything from the
flowers on the tomb, to the surrounding buildings, to the plants in the garden is in
symmetry with one another. If a flower is carved a certain way on one side of the
building, on the exact opposite side of the building, the flower will be mirrored perfectly.
This theme is carried inside the buildings as well. The tomb displays perfect symmetry
around the caskets in ornate decorations along the walls, floors, and ceiling. To the east
of the tomb is a mosque which mirrors exactly the guesthouse on the west side of the
tomb.
Shah Jahan used these words to describe the Taj Mahal:
Should guilty seek asylum here, like one pardoned, he becomes free from
sin. Should a sinner make his way to this mansion, all his past sins are to
be washed away. The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs; and
the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes. In this world this edifice
has been made; to display thereby the creator's glory.12
12
Arnold, Caroline, Madeleine Comora, and Rahul Bhushan. Taj Mahal. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda,
2007.

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Once a year, on the anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal’s death, Shah Jahan would feed the
poor and homeless people of Agra in celebration of her life. He wanted everyone to come
and feel the things he had felt for his favorite wife. One of the easily recognizable parts of
the Taj Mahal is the reflecting pool in the garden. The reflecting pool is long and narrow
and is connected to the Celestial Pool of Abundance. The pool of abundance is a square
pool with a fountain in the middle which overflows into the reflecting pool. The
reflection pool has been seen in countless photographs reflecting, like a mirror, the
beauty of the mausoleum. The mirror pool is the dividing line for the line of symmetry of
the Taj Mahal. Even in the garden leading up to the mausoleum the symmetry is
preserved. Every bush, every tree, and every bench is reflected perfectly across the line of
symmetry through the center of the Taj. 13
Colosseum
In the center of Rome there is a world wonder which is a monument to a spectrum
of things not limited to: death, life, the power of the Roman Empire, and to the people of
Rome itself. This monument is called the Roman Colosseum. It is one of the most readily
recognized buildings around the world. Although many other colosseums were built by
the Romans during the same time The Roman Colosseum was the largest and most
popular ever built. 14
The construction of the Roman Colosseum began during the reign of the Emperor
Vespasian somewhere between 70 AD and 72 AD. It has been estimated that the
Colosseum was able to hold approximately 50,000 people. 15
13
Preston, Diana, and Michael Preston. Taj Mahal: Passion and Genius at the Heart of the Moghul Empire.
New York: Walker, 2007.
14
Hopkins, Keith, and Mary Beard. The Colosseum. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2005.
15
Coarelli, Filippo, and Ada Gabucci. The Colosseum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2001.

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Many people who owed money to the government at the time were forced to
perform in the Colosseum to pay off their debt. If they survived a certain number of
games and earned the money to pay their debt, they would be freed. Yet some of the most
successful slaves chose to become professional gladiators, risking their lives for the sport.
For them, being a gladiator was an honor. They were the bravest people in all of Rome
and some of them were the most popular as well. 16
The Colosseum was the livelihood for many professional gladiators. Across the
road from the Colosseum was the Ludus Magnus. The Ludus Magnus was the home for
the gladiators. It was also a school where those who wanted to become gladiators
professionally. The men who chose to be trained were not common prisoners or slaves
but free men who sought fame and fortune.17
In 217AD, the Colosseum was damaged by a fire caused by a lightning strike and
was not fully repaired until 240AD. It was damaged again by an earthquake in 443AD
and was repaired again. Gladitorial combat was ended in 435 due to the high costs of
maintaining the structure.
After the gladitorial games were ended, the Colosseum was used for many
different purposes. Parts of the Colosseum were used as a church during the late 6th
century and the arena was used as a cemetery. Many other places in the building were
rented out as housing and workshops for craftsmen. In the year 1200, a wealthy family
bought the Colosseum and fortified it to use as a castle.18
16
Coarelli, Filippo, and Ada Gabucci. The Colosseum. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2001.
17
Meijer, Fik, and Liz Waters. The Gladiators: History's Most Deadly Sport. New York: St. Martin's
Griffin, 2007.
18
Bomgardner, D. L. The Story of the Roman Amphitheatre. London: Routledge, 2000.

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In modern times, many people have tried to find something productive to do with
the Colosseum. Leaders throughout the 16th and 17th centuries have suggested many
ideas ranging from bullfights to a factory for employment of Rome's prostitutes.
Currently, the Colosseum is a historical site which recieves millions of visitors anually.19
Great Wall
It is in far away China where the last of the medieval wonders looms. The Great
Wall of China has stood for over 2500 years as a monument to the people. In Chinese the
wall is called Wànlǐ Chángchéng which literally means “The long wall of 10,000 Li.”
The Li was an ancient unit of measurement equivalent to 500 meters. The Great Wall is
listed at over 8,800km therefore the name, indicating a 5600km wall, is not truly accurate.
However, in the Chinese language 10,000 Li is used as an idiom meaning “infinite” in
length. 20
The construction of the Great Wall of China began in the 5th
century BC on the
northernmost borders of China to prevent the invasion of the Xiōngnú, a people thought
to be Mongolian in origin. The wall was built and rebuilt continuously as it was made
from wood and mud which was susceptible to erosion. The wall is a testament to the
power of a united people. However, the wall was not originally built by a unified China
but a highly divided one the northernmost wall was not the only one built during this time
period in China. The time from the 5th
century BC to 221 BC was known as the Warring
Period. This is the period when China was divided into many states. The states Qi, Yan,
19
"Colosseo Biglietti Online." Biglietti Online. Musei, Mostre, Parchi Divertimento, Eventi in Italia. Web.
10 Jun. 2010. <http://www.ticketclic.it/HTML/musei/colosseo.cfm>.
20
Yamashita, Michael S., and William Lindesay. The Great Wall: from Beginning to End. New York:
Sterling, 2007.

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and Zhao all constructed their own walls to prevent the invasion of each other.21
It wasn’t
until 221BC that the Chinese were unified under Qin Shi Huang who conquered the other
states and created the first dynasty of Chinese rulers. Qin Shi Huang ordered the
destruction of all of the inadequate northern walls and the construction of new, more
stable ones. The new walls were made from stone and mortar in the hills and packed
earth in the plains. Most of these walls are non-existent in present day. Each subsequent
dynasty had to rebuild and extend the walls to protect them incessantly.22
It was not until the Ming dynasty in the 1400s that the walls of China became the
Great Wall of China the modern world now knows. Technology greatly improved over
the 1200 years that had passed allowing the walls built during this period to be highly
durable. The wall built at this time was made from brick and mortar and was highly
durable and not susceptible to erosion like the previous walls. This “Great Wall” was
used primarily to deter the invasion of the Mongols in the area of Mongolia to the north
of China.23
In modern times the wall can be seen as one of the greatest achievements to
the abilities of man ever created. It is a stone wall 6 feet at the smallest portions and over
20 feet at its tallest, is as wide in most places as a two lane stretch of highway, and
stretches over 5,500 miles across mountains and plains. This is truly one of the greatest
structures and monuments to man of all time. 24
21
Rojas, Carlos. The Great Wall: a Cultural History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2010.
22
Michaud, Roland, Sabrina Michaud, and Michel Jan. The Great Wall of China. New York: Abbeville,
2001.
23
Lovell, Julia. The Great Wall: China against the World, 1000 BC-AD 2000. New York: Grove, 2007.
24
Waldron, Arthur. The Great Wall of China: from History to Myth. Cambridge [England: Cambridge UP,
1990.

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Part 2: Examination of the trip and what it means
In the summer of 2009 I had the opportunity to personally visit these wonders of
the world. In an effort to understand the feelings so many people have for the large
constructs of humanity's past, I wanted to witness these monuments first hand.
My travels first took me to Stonehenge. It is nestled in a large field surrounded
by other large fields. The closest town is approximately three miles away. In order to
preserve the stones, there is a fence which now keeps visitors about 200 feet from the
stones. Most of the people who see Stonehenge go on a guided tour. Interestingly, the
tour guides tend to allow less than an hour to take pictures and view the stones. This
struck me as odd since these massive stones are the focus point of most individuals on the
tour. Tourists are shuffled around the stone rings taking as many pictures as they can of
every conceivable angle of the structure. Then, they are encouraged to visit the gift shop
and take a small piece of their experience with them. In order to see the giant stone
structures up close, we arranged a private tour around the stones after the park had closed.
The stones have lichen growing on most parts of each surface. There are many different
varieties of lichen which grow on the stones giving them different shades of greens and
blues. It has been said that some species of lichen have not been seen anywhere else in all
of Great Britain. Interestingly, there is a particular species of lichen which turns red when
rained upon. This has the effect of turning the stones a deep red color. It is most
noticeable on the stone known as the Slaughter stone which is one of the vertical sarsen
stones fallen to its side. When rained upon, the Slaughter stone appears to be covered in
crimson blood stains. In addition to the lichen, ancient runes adorn the sides of the stones
and are now only slightly visible. Probably the most notable characteristic of Stonehenge

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is the size of the stones. Only until an individual is juxtaposed to the structure can they
appreciate the girth and enormity of the stones comprising Stonehenge. The tour I took
after the park closed was only available to fifteen people per day. It is disillusioning to
think that out of all people who visit these stones each day, only fifteen of them get to
stand next to these massive stones.
The Leaning tower of Pisa is considered one of the wonders of the medieval
world due to its counterintuitive ability to remain standing. There is only a 3m foundation
for a 55m building on shaky foundation. If a modern building were built with the same
parameters using current technology, the building would not exhibit the same
architectural persistence and would structurally fail much sooner. It is not difficult to get
to the small town of Pisa, one can either take a car or train. The church ground the tower
stands on is an unassuming part of the small town of Pisa. The area is surrounded by a
wall and one must pass through an entry way adorned with locals trying to sell small
trinkets to tourists. Through the arch is a walkway leading to the church, baptistery, and
tower. There were countless stalls of people selling the same small objects as those on the
outside. Each of them calling out for the tourists to buy something for them, offering
everyone "the best price." People are not allowed to be on the grass within these walls,
however, countless people are standing in the grass taking pictures. People stand with
their hands outstretched to look as though they are holding up the leaning tower. Only
tourists were participating in this game of holding up the wall. It must be quite amusing
for the locals to watch them all. There are many organized tours throughout the day to the
church, tower, and baptistery; none of which were free. I climbed to the top of the
Leaning tower. It is now supported with anchors to prevent further leaning and allow

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tourists inside. The stairwell winds around inside the tower. The stairs were worn from
the foot traffic but only on one side due to the leaning of the building. Once at the top
there were countless people taking pictures of the beautiful countryside surrounding Pisa.
The climb was arduous but the view was worth it all. I reflected on the history of the
tower. It was said that this tower was where Galileo dropped two cannonballs in order to
test theories concerning gravity. There is so much rich history in Pisa and with the tower
in particular. It is easy to see how so many people can be drawn to it every year.
The Colosseum of Rome was a sight to behold. It sits in the very middle of Rome
surrounded by untold amounts of history. The first thing people notice about the
colosseum is its size. The colosseum is as large as an American football field, however,
there is something quite special about the place. While people in America are quite
familiar with buildings larger than the colosseum, there is something that causes all
people to stand in awe. The colosseum was a tribute to the power of Rome at the time of
its construction. Countless people died on the battlefield against other men and even
animals. The men emerging victorious were the movie stars of that time. Modern day
gladiators and Roman guards are Roman citizens dressed up in costumes. These men and
women stand outside the colosseum and offer to have their picture taken with tourists
only to demand a fee afterward. They will use guilt to obtain "donations" from these
unsuspecting tourists. Once inside the colosseum the history is overwhelmingly evident.
Many statues and other structures are very well preserved. Tourists can walk all around
the two floors and can see vast amounts of Roman history before them. The Roman
government has been renovating the fighting floor of the colosseum in order to give
visitors an illustration to how it looked when originally used. The great Roman

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colosseum truly deserves its spot on the list of world wonders. The irreverence of the
Roman citizens to either the tourists interested in their history or the building itself was
striking. They could not care any less about the history, rather they are preoccupied with
the amount of money they could make from the tourists who flock to their city.
The fourth stop on the trip was Egypt. I traveled to Cairo and stayed in a hotel that
overlooked the pyramids. My first impression of the pyramids was indescribable. I have
never seen anything so massive in my life. My words cannot describe the feelings I felt
when looking upon something as old as these monuments. There is something very
humbling about having sand from the Sahara in your shoes and the desert sun baking
down on you while standing in front of the pyramids. My companions shared my
sentiments. We talked about how small we felt and how insignificant our buildings in
America seem by contrast. The Great pyramid can be seen from almost anywhere in
Cairo, there was not a single place I could go to escape its presence and it was a constant
reminder of where I was. The pyramids seemed so large but it was not until standing next
to them does one truly understand their magnitude. Americans are taught in kindergarten
that the pyramids are the greatest structures that mankind has ever built. All through
school we are taught how magnificent and how old these structures are. I also gained
access inside one of the pyramids to attempt to more intimately understand these
structures. Three things were immediately noticeable upon entering the pyramids: the
temperature, the smell, and the slope. Cairo, being nestled in the Sahara desert, was
110°F while the inside of the pyramid stayed a consistent 65°F. Once inside the tomb a
strong smell was immediately noticed. The smell burned in both my nose and throat and
smelled a lot like ammonia. There were vacuum pumps outside pumping in clean air. In

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order to get down into the main chamber of the tomb I had to descend a very steep slope.
The slope was approximately angled at 60° and the path downward was very small. The
slope was an amalgamation of a ramp and staircase, like nothing I had ever seen before.
Outside the pyramids there were Egyptians selling "Egyptian" gear such as head wraps
and jewelry souvenirs. There were also policemen riding around on camels with machine
guns. They would ask tourists if they wanted a picture of them and the camel, then the
police would not give the camera back until a fee was paid. It was in Egypt where I first
began to realize the true impact of my trip on my world view. I began to appreciate that
the locals really do not care as much about the historical significance of these massive
monuments as the tourists. While this may be an obvious concept, I think it is an
important one to confess. I began to wondered and still ruminate as to why they would
not recognize the grandeur in the monuments I traveled across the world to see.
Istanbul, Turkey was the next stop on my journey. I wanted to see the largest
Greek Orthodox Church as well as the largest mosque in history. The Hagia Sophia is
now a museum honoring both Christianity as well as Islam. There is nowhere else in the
world where both Christian symbols of Mary and Jesus can be found directly beside those
of Allah and the prophet Mohammed. It was novel to see the unification of these two
religions held together under a single roof. Currently it is not allowed for an individual to
openly pray from any religion due to the conflict from both Islam and Christianity. The
ceilings are covered in gold foil and are painted on to depict angels as well as Mary and
Jesus. However, in other places, the ceiling has discs with Islamic phrases concerning
Allah and the prophet Mohammed written in Arabic. Turkey was very different from
many of the other places I had visited because there was a paucity of people selling

18
souvenirs outside the monuments. There was a designated market where tourists could go
to buy trinkets and other items to take home. It was a very nice change. The whole city
seemed disinterested with the tourists spending money at shops. Instead, they focused on
offering quality products at fair prices and kept people coming back for more. The people
I met were all very kind and open to foreigners. They were hospitable and offered us
anything we could want. A very generous society, seemingly concerned with how the rest
of the world viewed them.
The sixth wonder of the medieval world is the Taj Mahal. Located in Agra, India;
the former capital, the Taj was a spectacular testament to human achievement. The Taj
Mahal is on a very large piece of land and consists of a mosque, a guest residence,
gardens, the mirror pool, stables, and other buildings. The most notable building on the
premises is the mausoleum. The tomb is an everlasting tribute to the love of a former
ruler of India for his wife. We took a tour around Agra as well as the Taj itself. The
grounds were so beautiful. A verse in Arabic of black marble was inlayed into white
marble along the perimeter of each gate. One of the most amazing architectural feats
concerning the Taj was the mirror effect. There is a long pool of water which divides the
grounds in half. Everything that is present on the left side is present, exactly mirrored, on
the right side. Every bench, shrub, tree, marble figure and even the carvings on every
structure mirrored exactly. To see this mirroring first hand was spectacular. On the
mausoleum itself, there were countless semi-precious and precious stones inlayed into the
structure both inside and out. The marble for each stone was hand carved as well as the
stone itself handcrafted to fit perfectly in its required place. There were a few people we
encountered, some young boys, who wanted to take a picture with us. They stood very

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close and we noticed they were trying to pickpocket us. I had never had an issue with
pick pocketing before and this action made me realize the desperate situations many of
these people were in. I was told that the average yearly income for Indians is
approximately $400. India was the poorest place I have ever been, and I noticed a feeling
similar to the one in Egypt. We arrived at 4am and as we were driving around New Delhi,
the modern capital, we noticed cots lining both sides of the road. Sleeping in these cots
were countless homeless people. There were some who were starting to wake up and
were taking baths in the pot holes in the streets. I had never experienced poverty on a
scale this large.
The final stop in my journey was Beijing, China. The city of Beijing is
comparable to the city of New York or another large city. There were countless people
everywhere , however, many seemed quite friendly and eager to help in any way possible.
The section of the Great wall I went to was the farthest away but because of its rural
nature, it was also the least crowded. The Great wall is at the top of a very large hill.
There are two ways to reach the wall from the small town; walk up countless stairs or
take a cable car. Due to the limited time we had available, we took the cable car. The path
to the car was a steep road with locals selling everything from t-shirts to small metal
trinkets. They would call out in excellent English for tourists to buy things from them. It
was as I had seen it before in the other countries, the locals were not as interested in their
monument as they were preoccupied with making money. Although it was not
completely unexpected, the trend in attitude was interesting to note. It was a 10 minute
ride up to the wall, but the view from the top was spectacular .Once on the wall there
were many things to see. We decided to take off in a direction and see where that took us.

20
Most of the people on the wall were foreigners with the occasional Chinese man or
woman seeing the wall for the first time. At one point there was even a Chinese woman
taking wedding pictures on the wall. It was quite nice to see a local enjoying their
monument. It was very humbling to think of the countless people who had died building
this immense wall. The Chinese are credited with inventing the wheelbarrow just to make
the Great Wall of China. To know so much about this place allowed me to understand
better the significance and impression this wall has made on human history.
Both the Great pyramid and Stonehenge are architectural masterpieces which
continue to awe people from all over the world. Even after seeing these wonders first
hand, however, I feel that the world wonders should further be divided into two
subsections: big wonders and small wonders. This distinction may seem very trivial and
one might suggest that the Great pyramid is a big wonder and Stonehenge is a small
wonder. However, I would consider something much smaller to be considered among
world wonders. I would suggest that antibiotics should be listed as a candidate as a man-
made world wonder. I would also argue that these small wonders are the most important
wonders and have changed the entire world for the better. I would further argue that the
antibiotics more complicated in their construction and function than any other wonder on
the lists.

21
Part 3: Examination of the Biochemistry
In order to fully explain antibiotics and grasp their impact on humanity as a whole,
it is first necessary to discuss the biochemistry of the organisms they kill. Bacteria,
although very “simple” when compared with a multi-cellular organism, are highly
complex. Even though bacteria are only a few microns in length, they can multiply at a
high rate and can cause impressive amounts of irreparable damage to cells. For better or
worse, they are ubiquitous in human lives, present both in the lining of intestinal walls
and living within our mouths. It is estimated that there are 40 million bacteria living in 1
gram of soil and over a million in a single milliliter of water.25
Bacteria were first discovered in 1676 by Antoine van Leeuwenhoek using the
single-lens microscope he had invented. In 1859 Louis Pasteur proved that
microorganisms were responsible for fermentation and because of further investigation
advocated, along with Francis Lister and Robert Koch, a theory that “germs” were
responsible for diseases. In 1905 Robert Koch won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for
proving this germ theory and its relation to tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax.26
There are three main types of microorganisms: eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and
viruses. Bacteria are prokaryotes while humans’ cells are eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic
cells are very simple; comprised only of a cell wall, a plasma membrane, DNA, RNA,
proteins and many small molecules needed for life. Prokaryotic cells, unlike eukaryotic
cells, live alone or in small groups rather than in multicellular organisms. Prokaryotic
cells also outwardly look as different from each other as they do from eukaryotic cells.
For example, prokaryotic cells can be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral; and can vary in
25
Alberts, Bruce. Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science, 2008.
26
Nester, Eugene W. Microbiology: a Human Perspective. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

22
size from very small to very large. Bacteria were the first microorganisms to be
discovered because they are the largest of the microorganisms. Typically bacteria can
range in size between 0.5 and 5.0 micrometers(µm) in length. Although they are large
when compared to other prokaryotes, their size is still quite small. There are
approximately 25,000 micrometers in one inch. Therefore in one linear inch there can be
as many as 50,000 bacteria and in one square inch as many as 2.5 billion bacteria.27
One of the most important parts of bacteria is the cell wall. The cell wall provides
seminal protection against a harsh outside world. The cell wall of bacteria is very rigid
when compared to that of eukaryotic cells because eukaryotic cells do not possess the cell
wall. The rigidity comes from the peptidoglycan layer which gives support and a
structural frame to the prokaryotic cell. Peptidoglycan is a polymer of sugars and amino
acids which form a type of mesh outside the plasma membrane. The first component of
the peptidoglycan is N-acetylglucosamine which is derived from glucose. The other part
of the mesh is the N-acetylmuramic acid derived from lactic acid. In addition to the
peptidoglycan, bacteria have plasma membranes.28
The plasma membrane is a fat-like layer which is flexible and allows for the
uptake of nutrients and excretion of waste. These membranes have proteins embedded
within them which allow them to interact with their environment and communicate with
other bacteria.28
The proteins also act like pores and are responsible for the passage of
small molecules and water into and out of the bacterial cell. Only select small molecules
are allowed in and the proteins are highly specific for the right molecule to allow passage.
Therefore, the plasma membrane acts as a molecular sieve allowing only defined
27
28

23
molecules which it needs and can use to enter while excluding potentially harmful
material.
There are two main subclasses for bacteria which describe the nature of their
cellular wall. These subclasses are called gram positive and gram negative. Gram positive
bacteria have their peptidoglycan layer on the surface of the cell cytoplasmic membrane.
Gram negative bacteria have both an inner and outer plasma membrane which surrounds
the peptidoglycan keeping it protected.29
29
There are four main classes of antibiotics that are categorized based on their
function. There are antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis, RNA polymerase synthesis,
DNA synthesis, and protein synthesis.29
Any one of these pathways effectively cripples
29

24
the bacterial cell and causes it to cease functions required to maintain viability.
Antibiotics are referred to as "bactericidal" meaning they kill bacteria. However, it should
be noted that there are many other substances known as "bacteriostatic" which prevent
bacteria from growing in a desired location. Microscopic coatings of silver on disposable
hospital items, such as urinary catheters to prevent bacterial growth, are a good example
of the bacteriostatic nature of silver.
In order for a bacterial cell to maintain important interactions with its
environment, the cell wall must function properly. A strategy for many antibiotics is
disruption of the cell wall, specifically by blocking cell wall synthesis. The cell wall must
be constantly maintained else the bacterial cell will destabilize and the cell will no longer
be able to function properly. One function of the bacterial cell wall is to provide support
for the high pressure system within the cell. The sugar polymer is maintained by
penicillin binding proteins which are inhibited by beta-lactam antibiotics. When the
binding proteins are inhibited, the cell enzymatically destroys the peptidoglycan,
30
compromising the integrity of the cell wall and prompting the cell to explode.
Penicillins, cephalosporins, and monobactams are all examples of beta-lactam antibiotics.
Gram positive bacteria are more susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics than gram negative.
Because the peptidoglycan is exposed to the environment in gram positive bacteria, they
are more susceptible to antibiotics introduced to the environment. 31
The central dogma of biology is that DNA is transcribed to RNA which is
translated to proteins. Proteins are imperative to the function of a cell. They are essential
30
31
Goodman, Alfred G, Lee E. Limbard and Joel G. Hardman. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological
Basis of Therapeutics. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2001.

25
for the regulation of all processes within the cell. RNA is synthesized from DNA by the
enzyme RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase is an enzyme consisting of multiple subunits;
bacterial RNA polymerase has five subunits. An enzyme is a protein which causes a
certain reaction to occur faster than it would in the absence of the enzyme. They are
biological catalysts meaning they are required for the reaction to occur at an appreciable
rate but are not consumed in the reaction. Without RNA polymerase, DNA would not
spontaneously form RNA based on a particular strand. Each of the RNA polymerase
subunits has a different role to play in the production of RNA from DNA. These subunits
form complexes with DNA at varying positions facilitating the enzymatic preventing
RNA polymerase from making RNA. The rifamycins are a unique class of antibiotics
which bind very strongly to the bacterial RNA polymerase preventing it from binding to
DNA. If the RNA polymerase cannot bind to DNA, it cannot make RNA and the cell
cannot create proteins which are integral for survival and propagation. Rifamycins are
able to target both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. For reasons unknown, the
plasma membranes of many bacteria are not selective against the rifamycins and
therefore allow them entry to the interior of the cell. 323334
Many antibiotics are produced from certain species of bacteria genetically
engineered to produce vast quantities of an antibiotic for which they have been made
resistant. A bacterium will produce an antibiotic against other bacteria because they are
highly territorial. In a sense, a bacterial colony wants to occupy the most space possible
and does not want to share that same environment with a different species of bacteria.
32
33
34

26
They will try to outcompete one another for space and resources. In order to overrun
another species, a bacteria colony will begin to secrete an antibiotic against other bacteria,
thus killing them off. Penicillins, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, and many other major
classes of antibiotics were derived from bacteria. 35
They were originally purified in a lab
setting and are now created by genetic engineering techniques. Antibiotics created by
isolating them from a natural source are referred to as natural product antibiotics while
antibiotics created solely by chemists are called synthetic antibiotics.
Synthetic antibiotics such as nitrofurans and oxozolidinones are made entirely in
an organic chemist's lab. These novel classes of antibacterial agents are revolutionary
because upon their conception, there were no bacteria with a natural resistance to them,
unless they were designed for a specific microbe. Since antibacterial resistances are
becoming increasingly common36
, it is important to have synthetic antibiotics where very
few microbes are resistant. A commonly prescribed synthetic antibiotic is nitrofurantoin.
This antibiotic is typically used in the treatment of urinary tract infections. It is highly
effective against many strains of E.coli. Nitrofurantoin actively causes damage to
bacterial DNA causing many mutations and eventually the destruction of the bacterial
cell. Another powerful antibiotic which is less frequently prescribed is linezolid.
Linezolid is a powerful antibiotic which is used as a treatment for persistent and highly
resistant bacterial strains. Microbes which are resistant to the powerful antibiotics
methicillin and vancomycin typically are not to linezolid due to its infrequent
35
Society for the Advancement of Education. ""Bad" Bacteria proves helpful - Antibiotics - Escherichia
coli used in manufacturing erythromycin." October 2002. 6 April 2009
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1272/is_2689_131/ai_92691060>.
36
"ONI BioPharma Inc. Announces Successful Antibiotic Synthesis Using DPOLT(TM) Technology."
Medical News Today: Health NEws. 5 March 2009
<http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/126166.php>

27
use.37
Linezolid is only effective against gram-positive bacteria and is then only used as a
last effort to quell the infection.38
The mechanism of action for linezolid is not
completely understood but it is known that it inhibits the synthesis of proteins within the
bacterial cell causing cellular death.
As mentioned previously, bacteria can develop resistances to one or multiple
antibiotics. Resistance can be induced in bacteria by the addition of a plasmid. Plasmids
are small circular pieces of DNA which are code for the production of proteins
responsible for genetic resistance to antibiotics. Sometimes bacterial colonies which are
resistant to certain antibiotics get engulfed by other species of bacteria. Once engulfed,
the bacteria now are able to be resistant to the same antibiotic as the bacterium it
consumed. This new resistance is caused by the DNA of the first bacterium merging with
the second allowing the bacterium to now be resistant. Some common mechanisms of
resistance are permeability barriers, efflux pumps, antibiotic target modification, and
inactivating enzymes.39
Permeability barriers are common mechanisms for the prevention antibiotics from
reaching their target. In order for antibiotics to be effective, they must reach their target
of action. Permeability into the cell is often caused by proteins expressed on the surface
which allow certain molecules to pass directly to the cell interior. Prevention of entry
involves removing the protein or adding additional specificity to it inhibiting the entry of
the antibiotic.
37
Departmetnts of Surgery, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Tennessee. "Pyrogenic
Exotoxins as Superantigens." Clinical Microbiology Reviews (1995): 411-26.
38
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Bacterial 'Battle For Survival' Leads To New Antibiotic." 27
February 2008. Science Daily. 4 March 2009
<http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080226115618.htm>.
39

28
Efflux pumps are highly specific for a particular antibiotic and pump it out of the
cell interior. This is very useful for the cell because permeability barriers can often cause
cells to deny themselves of the nutrients the proteins were allowing to enter. With the
efflux pumps, the cell can maintain the same permeability for the nutrient as well as the
antibiotic; however, the pumps will just pump out the antibiotic causing the cell no
harm.40
Sometimes bacterial cells will modify the antibiotic target. Antibiotics are very
specific for a particular target either on the cell wall or in the cell interior. Bacteria can
modify the antibacterial target causing it to no longer become the target, rendering the
antibiotic useless. For example, when antibiotics attack the RNA polymerase enzyme
they target a specific portion of the enzyme. Sometimes the bacteria can modify that
portion so that it is different enough that it can continue to function normally (i.e. binding
to DNA and synthesizing RNA) while still different enough to prevent the antibiotic from
binding. 41
One of the most common forms of antibiotic resistance are inactivating enzymes.
An example of an inactivating enzyme is beta-lactamase. Beta-lactamase is produced by
bacteria to completely render useless the class of antibiotics known as the beta-lactams.
The beta-lactam structure forms a ring which the beta-lactamase breaks open thus
eliminating the antibiotics effects. A diagram for antibiotics sites of action and
mechanisms of resistance are shown below.
40
Mulvey, M. R., and A. E. Simor. "Antimicrobial Resistance in Hospitals: How Concerned Should We
Be?" Canadian Medical Association Journal 180.4 (2009): 408-15.
41

29
42
It is very important to understand the significance of antibiotics and how they
have changed the modern world. In America, antibiotics are routinely prescribed after
surgery and with every small infection. This can create many problems as well as benefits.
The benefits are obvious, no infection after surgery and other infections are circumvented
earlier than normally possible. However, there exists the possibility for antibiotics to be
overprescribed. Antibiotics diminish the need for an immune response by destroying the
bacteria itself rather than forcing the body's immune system to adapt and destroy the
infection. This can cause the immune system to not be able to handle subsequent attacks
by bacteria.42
If a person is exposed multiple times to the same bacteria, and has no
immune system to combat it, they are poorly adapted to handle attack when the antibiotic
42

30
is not around. Unfortunately, bacteria are fully capable of evolving immunities to certain
antibiotics as was previously discussed. People are often forced to change their antibiotic
regiment for each subsequent infection. Eventually, the bacterial strain that keeps
resurfacing within their body will be completely refractory from every antibiotic
available. Once the bacteria are completely nonresponsive with respect to antibiotics, the
person will probably die from the infection.
Typically, bacterial infections can become resistant to certain antibiotics from
individuals not taking the entire prescribed dose and instead "saving some for later." If a
person does not take an antibiotic long enough to kill the entire population of bacteria
present, it can lead to the bacteria forming resistance to that antibiotic. 43
The resistant
bacteria will form colonies which will continue to grown and upon additional antibiotic
administered the effect is abolished. An illustration of antibiotic resistance from a single
antibiotic resistant organism is shown below.
44
43
Devitt, Terry. "Engineered bacterium churns out two new key antibiotics." 5 March 2009. PhysOrg.com.
10 January 2010 <http://www.physorg.com/news154193863.html>.
44

31
Part 4: Examination of what it all means…
It is very important for people to understand these tiny wonders and to appreciate
them to a greater degree. I would also like to further suggest that many people around the
world take for granted the wonders just as we do. I will give an example. Imagine an
American man standing in Egypt staring at the pyramids. He then pops a malaria pill into
his mouth not really caring what it does or how it can save his life. He is more
preoccupied with the pyramid and the intricacy involved in its construction. Meanwhile,
an Egyptian man is standing there watching the American; he wants the malaria pill to
keep his family safe. He could care less about the pyramids, he’s seen them before. He is
more fascinated that a small pill could prevent the death of his child or any other member
of his family. It is something that many do not understand and simply take for granted. I
feel that it is crucial to appreciate the medical advancements that keep us safe around the
world from the smallest of creatures. One of these microscopic wonders, I feel, is more
important and more amazing than all of the wonders, past and present combined.

Jking Honors Thesis

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