Based on these research findings, both heredity and environment play a role in intelligence, but heredity seems to have a slightly stronger influence. Identical twins raised together or apart show high correlations, suggesting a strong genetic component. However, environment also influences intelligence as unrelated children raised together are more similar than those raised apart, and correlations decrease for siblings and parents/adopted children who do not share genes. Overall, an interactionist perspective seems most accurate - both nature and nurture impact intelligence.

1. INTELLIGENCEINTELLIGENCE

2. This section of the work will cover:
• What intelligence is
• Assessing intelligence
• Use of IQ tests
• The role of heredity and environment

3. A.A. What Intelligence IsWhat Intelligence Is

4. 1.1. DEFINING INTELLIGENCEDEFINING INTELLIGENCE
• “adaptive thinking or action” - Piaget (1950)
• “the ability to learn quickly, solve problems,
understand complex and abstract issues and
generally behave in a reasonable, rational
and purposeful manner” – Mwamwenda
(1995)

5. 1.1. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE (cont.)DEFINING INTELLIGENCE (cont.)
• “ the capacity to acquire knowledge, the ability to
think and reason in the abstract, and the capability
for solving problems” – Sternberg
• “the global capacity of the individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally and to deal
effectively with the environment” – Wechsler (1975)
• “the human ability to solve problems or to make
something that is valued in one or more cultures” –
Gardner

6. 2.2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCETHEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
2.1. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of
Intelligence (1927)
• g-factor or general trait
• s-factor or specific traits

7. 2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)
2.2. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (1938)
Identified seven factors or types of intelligences or mental
abilities:
1. spatial ability
2. perceptual speed (quick processing of visual
information)
3. numerical reasoning
4. verbal meaning (defining words)
5. word fluency (speed at recognising words)
6. memory
7. inductive reasoning (forming a rule that
describes a set of observations)

8. 2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)
2.3. Cattell and Horn’s Fluid and Crystal Intelligences
Fluid Intelligence:
• reflects a person’s innate mental ability
• refers to one’s ability to solve the type of novel and abstract
problems that are not taught and are relatively free of cultural
influence
Crystallised Intelligence:
• refers to the ability to solve problems that depend on knowledge
gained as a result of education and life experiences.

9. 2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)
2.4. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect
Describes intelligence as the intersection of
four content areas, five cognitive operations
and six products.

10. 2.4. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect
(cont.)
CONTENTCONTENT
figural symbolic semantic behavioural
evaluation
convergent production
OPERATIONSOPERATIONS divergent production
memory
cognition
units
classes
relations
systems
transformation
implications
PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

11. 2.4. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect
(cont.)
• Intelligence depends on what we are thinking
(contents), how we are thinking (cognitive
operations), and the product or end result of
our thinking.

12. 2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)
2.5. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences2.5. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
He proposed 8 relatively independent types of
intelligence:
1. Linguistic Intelligence is the capacity to use
language, e.g. poets, lawyers
2. Logical-mathematical Intelligence is the ability
to understand the principles underlying a causal
system, e.g. scientists, mathematicians

13. 3. Spatial Intelligence refers to the ability to
represent the spatial world internally in your
mind, e.g. pilot, architect, painter, sculptor
4. Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence is the
capacity to use your whole body or parts
thereof to solve a problem, make something
or put on some production, e.g. athletes,
dancers, actors
5. Musical Intelligence is the capacity to think
in music, e.g. musicians

14. 6. Interpersonal Intelligence is understanding
other people, e.g. salespersons, therapists,
teachers, politicians
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence refers to having an
understanding of yourself.
8. Naturalist Intelligence refers to the human
ability to discriminate among living things
(plants, animals), as well as sensitivity to other
features of the natural world (clouds, rock
formation), e.g. farmers, geologists, botanists

15. Gardner’s Definition of Intelligence:
It is the human ability to solve problems or to
make something that is valued in one or more
cultures

16. With regard to the 8 intelligences, Gardner believes:
• Most people can develop each intelligence to an adequate
level thru’ environmental enrichment.
• For most people, our abilities across the 8 intelligences lie
on a continuum.
• There are multiple ways to demonstrate proficiency in one
intelligence., e.g. an athlete may be an excellent sprinter,
but unable to dance coherently to any rhythm
• The 8 intelligences may be relatively independent on paper,
but in reality they work together in complex ways, e.g.
driving a car – logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily
kinesthetic intelligences may come into play.

17.  It is valuable for teachers to assess the
‘real’ intelligence of their learners and not just
that which is perceived thru’ tests and exams
and then to adjust class activities to cater for
all intelligences, e.g. time for acting, drawing,
sport, etc.

18. 2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)
2.6. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory and Process Model
 This theory focuses on how people gather and use
information (information processing).
 Identified a three-part (triarchic) theory with three kinds
of intelligences:
– Componential intelligence – refers to the processes that
form the basis for behaviour.
– Experiential intelligence – shows the ability to relate to
new tasks or ideas in one’s environment.
– Contextual intelligence – reflects one’s ability to adapt,
select or shape one’s environment.

19. 2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)
2.8. Perkins’ Thinking Frames
• Believed that we could improve
intelligence by teaching learners better
thinking skills.
• Urged teachers to avoid a narrow view
of intelligence.

20. Perkins believed that modern psychologists have adopted one
of three concepts of intelligence:
– Power theory of intelligence or generic interpretation
– believe that the neurological function of the brain is
the sole contributor to intelligence.
– Tactical theory of intelligence – Those that have more
tactics (skills) to use their minds effectively are the
ones who are more intelligent.
– Content theory of intelligence – The mastery of factual
material (content) is at the heart of thinking and
problem-solving.

21. • Perkins believes all three are important and together they
form the cornerstones of intelligence.
• Perkins pointed out that schools and educators could not do
anything about the power theory of intelligence.
• He also felt that schools have already contributed too much
to the content theory of intelligence.
• Thus he suggested that the focus be on the tactical theory of
intelligence. He proposed the term, thinking frames to
describe the “tricks” that make up tactical intelligence.

22. • Thinking frames are guides that organise and support thought
processes.
• These thinking frames can be learnt through a three-stage
process involving acquisition, internalisation and transfer:
– Acquisition refers to direct instruction or invention (finding out things by
yourself) and forms the basis of the thinking frame.
– For Internalisation to happen, practice and use of many examples are
important. Meaningful practice and memory leads to automatic
processing.
– Transfer refers to the ability to use the frame in order to solve aide variety
of similar problems. Transfer of generalisation does not happen
automatically, but must be taught.

23. B. Assessing IntelligenceB. Assessing Intelligence

24. 1.1. Pioneers in IntelligencePioneers in Intelligence
• Sir Francis Galton – father of intelligence
testing
• Alfred Binet – developed a test which
would determine who was school-ready
and who needed a remedial programme.
His test measured the ability to pay
attention, memory, judgement,
reasoning, and comprehension. He came
up with the concept of mental age, i.e.
our thinking age/level.

25. 2.1.2.1. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleThe Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• (Theodore) Simon-Binet designed an intelligence
test order to determine “average” intelligence.
The test was later revised at Stanford University
(USA) and renamed the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale and the concept Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) was added.
• The test is a standardised test of intelligence
composed of different subtests (memory, verbal
skills and mathematical skills, etc)

26. 2.1.2.1. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleThe Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (cont.)(cont.)
• The test can be used to determine the mental age
of learners and then using a formula, the IQ can
be determined.
• Research has shown that results of the Stanford-
Binet test correlate well with school success and
teachers’ evaluation of intelligence.
• The test was revised again in 1986 to incorporate
stratification according to economic status, race,
geographic region and community size.

27. Formula for IQ
Intelligence Quotient = Mental Age X 100
Chronological Age
Thus, IQ = MA/CA x 100

28. Calculating IQ – Example:
1. A child of 6 years has a mental age of 6 years
IQ = 6 X 100 = 100
6
Such a child is considered to have average
intelligence.

29. Calculating IQ – Example:
2. A child of 6 years has a mental age of 8 years
IQ = 8 X 100 = 133
6
Such a child is considered to have above-
average intelligence.

30. 2. The Wechsler Scales
• Most widely used in the USA currently.
• Three versions of the test:
– One for children in pre- and primary school (ages
3–8)
– One for those in school aged 6 –16 (WISC-III)
– One for adults (over 16)
• The test has two parts: verbal and
performance subtests.

31. 2. The Wechsler Scales (cont.)
• The verbal subtest tests the child’s vocabulary, general
knowledge, understanding of ideas and concepts, arithmetic
reasoning, etc and questions are posed orally and the child
responds verbally.
• The performance subtest tests the child’s non-verbal skills
such as the ability to assemble puzzles, solve mazes. And
reproduce geometric designs with coloured blocks, and
rearrange pictures to tell a meaningful story.
• Results are given as a verbal IQ, a performance IQ and a full
scale IQ that is based on a combination of the first two
measures.

32. 3. The Wechsler Test
• Most popular intelligence test used today.
• 3 versions:
- pre-school-primary
- elementary
- adults
• Test is designed in 2 parts: verbal and
performance

33. 3. The Wechsler Test (cont.)
• Verbal Test: require a question to be posed orally
and the student to respond verbally.
• Performance Test: requires the student to
visually process test material (read) and to
respond motorically (write, draw, etc).
• While interpretation of the specific scales of the
test requires specialised training (Clinician), the
information may be useful to a teacher in
adapting teaching methods and materials to suit a
learner’s strengths and weaknesses.

34. NORMAL CURVE/BELL CURVENORMAL CURVE/BELL CURVE

35. 4.4. Interpreting IQ ScoresInterpreting IQ Scores
• On the Wechsler Intelligence test, the average
score is 100
• 50% of the population will score above 100
and 50% will score below 100.
• About 68% of the population will score
between 85 and 115
• Only about 16% will receive scores below 85%
and only about 16% will receive scores above
115.

36. 4.4. Interpreting IQ Scores (cont)Interpreting IQ Scores (cont)
• The correlation between scores on the Wechsler test and school
achievement is fairly strong, 0,65 (the closer a correlation is to 1,
the stronger it is).
• However, research has questioned the degree of correlation
between a person’s IQ and his success in later life, as factors such
as motivation, years of formal education, emotional stability, etc,
plays a role
• Intelligence and the intelligence test, however, play an important
role in defining a number of exceptionalities, including mental
retardation, giftedness, and specific learning disabilities.

37. C. Use of IQ testsC. Use of IQ tests
• IQ scores become relatively stable at age of 10 to 12.
• To be used with caution (test results may be
incorrect).
• Child can perform lower than actual potential (why?)
• Scores should be seen as confidential (not given to
child, parent or others since it may be wrongly
interpreted), e.g. A low IQ score may lead to lowered
expectations (child, teacher, parent).

38. AdvantagesAdvantages
• Students with special needs can be identified
(gifted, slow learners).
• Identification of learners with specific learning
difficulties and they can be assigned to certain
specialised programmes.
• Assist educational and vocational counsellors.
• Pre-school test can assist to see if children are
ready for school and can then be assisted in time.
• Prediction of academic achievement.

39. D. The role of heredity and environment
• Is intelligence a product of heredity or
environment?
• Environmentalists (eg. John Watson)
• Hereditists (eg. Jensen and Eyesenk)
• Interactionists (heredity sets the potential while
environment determines the extent to which it
will be fulfilled)

40. Comment on the role of heredity or environment (or
both) as related to the following research findings:
• Twins of the same sex are more alike than twins of the opposite sex.
• The correlation coefficient for IQ test scores of identical twins raised
together is 0.87 while that of identical twins raised apart is 0.75.
• Fraternal twins are more alike than other siblings as far as IQ-scores are
concerned.
• The IQ scores of adopted children and their non-biological parents show a
correlation coefficient of 0.20
• The correlation coefficient of ordinary siblings raised together is .55 while
that for ordinary siblings raised apart is .47
• The correlation coefficient for IQ test scores of unrelated children raised
apart is .00 while that of unrelated children raised together is .25