Intellectual development

INTELLECTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
H I N A J A L A L
( P H D S C H O L A R )

Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar)_@AksEAina
INTELLIGENCE
The term intelligence has been described differently by different experts with little agreement over what factors
or dimensions comprise its structure (Berk, 2013; O'Donnell, Reeve, & Smith, 2012; Woolfolk, 2014). This is
because it is an abstract and broad concept which is not directly measurable like some other human traits such
as height, weight etc.
Generally, intelligence is thought of a combination of different attributes, for example, the ability to solve
problems and adapt and learn from experiences, creativity, and interpersonal skills. Although many experts
agree that intelligence has several characteristics, there is a little consensus about the nature of these
characteristics.
Intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects in psychology, there is no standard definition of what
exactly constitutes intelligence. Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability,
while others believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents. Current
conceptualizations tend to suggest that intelligence involves the level of ability to do the following:
• Learn: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important component of intelligence.
• Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify possible problems in the
environment that need to be addressed.
• Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to come up with a useful solution
to a problem they have noticed in the world around them.

Definition of intelligence
• “Ability to deal with abstractions (Stanford Binet);
• “the capacity to carry out abstract thinking” (Terman, 1921);
• “the capacity for knowledge, and knowledge possessed” (Henmon, 1921);
• “the capacity to learn or profit by experience” (Dearborn, 1921);
• “the capacity to acquire capacity” (Woodrow, 1921);
• “what is measured by intelligence tests” (Boring, 1923);
• “The aggregate or global capacity of individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and deal effectively with his
environment” (Wechsler, 1942);
• “purposive adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of real-world environments relevant to one’s life” (Sternberg, 1984);
• “the ability to use optimally limited resources, including time, to achieve goals” (Kurzweil, 1999);
• “cognitive ability” (Herrnstein and Murray);
• “Goal directed adaptive behaviour” (Sternberg & Salter);

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
i. Triarchic theory of intelligence.
Robert Sternberg proposed that intelligence is composed of three basic components including analytical,
creative, and practical components.
1. Practical intelligence, as proposed by Sternberg, is sometimes compared to “street smarts.” Being
practical means, you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your
experiences. This type of intelligence appears to be separate from traditional understanding of IQ;
individuals who score high in practical intelligence may or may not have comparable scores in creative and
analytical intelligence (Sternberg, 1988).
2. Analytical intelligence is closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations. Sternberg says
that analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyse, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast.
When reading a classic novel for literature class, for example, it is usually necessary to compare the
motives of the main characters of the book or analyse the historical context of the story.
3. Creative intelligence is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation.
Creativity in this realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or
producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story.

ii. Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligence
In contrast to the view that
intelligence is composed of a
single or a small number of
overarching abilities, Howard
Gardner suggests that an
individual may exhibit several
types of intelligences. He
categorized these intelligences
into eight identifiable forms and
argues that there could be
possibly more than these forms.

Cont.
Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligence

 Louis L. Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead
of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven
different primary mental abilities. The abilities that he described include:
 Verbal comprehension
 Reasoning
 Perceptual speed
 Numerical ability
 Word fluency
 Associative memory
 Spatial visualization

 Raymond Cattell’s general intelligence:
In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general intelligence into two
components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963).
• Crystallized intelligence is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you
learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized intelligence. You use crystallized
intelligence all the time in your coursework by demonstrating that you have mastered the information
covered in the course.
• Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your
way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your
fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas
crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems

Charles Spearman: General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence or
the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman
concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test
tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He
concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed. These
include:
• Visual-spatial processing involves such abilities as putting together puzzles and copying complex shapes.
• Quantitative reasoning involves the capacity to solve problems that involve numbers.
• Knowledge involves a person's understanding of a wide range of topics.
• Fluid reasoning involves the ability to think flexibly and solve problems.
• Working memory involves the use of short-term memory such as being able to repeat a list of items.

MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
 Francis Galton
He is considered the ‘father’ of the study of individual differences. In the late 1800s, he suggested reaction
time as a feasible approach and pursued various sensor-motor measurements. He also tried to find
correlations between head-size and reaction time of the tested individuals.
 Alfred Binet
He is celebrated in history as the man who created the first ‘intelligence test’ in the form we know them
today. He is commonly known as the ‘father of IQ testing’. In 1904 he produced the Binet-Simon scale (with
Theodore Simon) – the first intelligence test comprising 30 short tasks related to everyday problems of life.
He developed the concept of mental age (MA) which represents a child's mental development in relation to
the other children. His test consisted of 30 items to assess mental processes and behaviors. Later, in 1912,
William Stern introduced intelligence quotient (IQ).

 David Wechsler
Another commonly employed intelligence test is called the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV
(WISC-IV). It targets the children aged between 6 to 16 years and offers a measure of both general
intelligence as well as other intellectual factors such as verbal reasoning, perceptual reasoning, working
memory and processing speed. Besides, an age-appropriate version is also available for children aged
between 2.6 years till 7.3 years, and is He designed an instrument with subtests to measure both verbal and
nonverbal abilities. In 1949, he produced the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and in
1955 he revised the latter version to be used with adults and named it the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS).
 Charles Spearman
He analysed the relationship among experimental intelligence tests using ‘factor analysis’. “He proposed a ’two-factor
theory of intelligence’:
 General Ability (g): required for performance on mental tests of all kinds, (he called this a kind of ’mental energy’
that underlies the specific factors).
 Specific Abilities (s): required for performance in just one kind of mental test.

 Group intelligence tests
A rather quick and cost-effective way of measuring students' intelligence is to conduct the test in a group.
This helps to reduce the related expenses and saves time. There are tests that are specifically designed for
this purpose, for example, the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test and the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test
(OLSAT).
 Lewis Terman
He revised the test by adapting some items, adding other ones and establishing new age norms. This
became the Stanford-Binet revision (1916), in which the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) first appeared. To
determine IQ, he used the following formula developed in Germany by Wilhelm Stern:
IQ =
Mental Age x 100
Chronological Age

Intellectual development

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