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caused relations to rapidly deteriorate.120
As a result, as the Soviet Union invades, China is providing
weapons to mujahideen.121
China has also increased its military presence near Afghanistan in the
province of Xinjiang and requested military equipment from the United States to fend off a potential
Soviet attack.122
United States
Beginning in the 1950s with the start of closer relations between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union,
the United States has voiced concern over the ties between these two nations. One U.S. Embassy
document from 1955 stated that: “The US has observed that Soviet penetration [in the world]… in
some instances has led to a loss of independence.”123
However, initially the US did not strongly
express these reservations. In 1954, the United States National Security Council drafted a document
outlining how the United States would act given a Soviet attack on Afghanistan. The document
stated that the US would attempt to bring about the withdrawal of Soviet forces through diplomatic
measures and, in the event that the US was unsuccessful, would determine at the time given the
circumstances if further action should be taken.124
The United States at that time was not more
concerned about the presence of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan than it would be about a Soviet
presence in any other state.
However, as the decades passed, the United States became more interested in the situation in
Afghanistan. By July of 1979, the United States through the Central Intelligence Agency was
providing support to the Afghan insurgents by means of financial support and military equipment.
The aid was only worth several hundred thousand dollars.125
While the United States is most
preoccupied now in 1979 with the goings on in Iran, particularly the Hostage Crisis that occurred on
4 November of this year, the United States is condemning the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan as
its events unfold and is dedicated to providing support for the insurgents.126
The US charge d’affairs reported very recently (1979) to the State Department:
We have been observing for 18 months how this Marxist party (the PDPA) has been
destroying itself...By way of illustration: if you take the list of ministers who were confirmed
in April 1978 there have been 25 changes among them. The number of changes among
deputy ministers is even greater – 34. One purge follows another and it is difficult to imagine
how the regime manages to survive. Part of the answer to this question is, of course, the
brutal repression of the identified opposition. The number of murdered political prisoners
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
120 S. Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland (M. E. Sharpe, 2004) 157.
121 Warren Kinsella. Unholy Alliances (Lester Publishing, 1992).
122122 S. Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland (M. E. Sharpe, 2004) 157.
123 David Gibbs, “Reassessing Soviet Motives for Invading Afghanistan: A Classified History,”
Critical Asian Studies 38, No. 2 (2006): 239-263, accessed 6 June 2014,
http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:15304/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=d6294679-ac15-42eb-b344-
8f9f644ac884%40sessionmgr4004&vid=22&hid=4110.
124 Ibid.
125 Ibid.
126 Mike Jacobs and Shou Zhang, “The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan,” last modified Dec 2001,
accessed 11 July 2014, Http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/2002-
p4/baker_p4_12-01_mj_sz/#invasion.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/86a2b800-4130-4b88-af1b-95cc8154d090-160508232201/85/HSC-Background-Guide-35-320.jpg)
HSC Background Guide
- 1. Historic Security Council HSC NationalHigh School Model United Nations New York City | March 04-07, 2015 IMUNAInternational Model United Nations Association Background Guide NHSMUN
- 3. Shirley Wu Secretary-General Princeton University LilyO’Connell Director-General University of Pennsylvania Brody Duncan Conference Director McGill University Alec Guertin Director of Security University of California, Berkeley Jason Toney Chief of External Relations Bard College Laura Beltran-Rubio Chief of Staff Parsons The New School for Design Jinny Jung Under-Secretary General of Administrative Affairs University of Michigan Helen Robertson Under-Secretary General University of Virginia Joe Sherlock Under-Secretary General Bowdoin College Erin Corcoran Under-Secretary General Harvard University Costanza Cicero Under-Secretary General University of Bologna Alyssa Greenhouse Under-Secretary General Duke University Paula Kates Under-Secretary General Tufts University NHSMUN is a project of the International Model United Nations Association, Incorporated (IMUNA). IMUNA, a not-for-profit, all volunteer organization, is dedicated to furthering global issues education at the secondary school level. NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL MODEL UNITED NATIONS T h e 4 1 s t A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e • M a r c h 4 – M a r c h 7 , 2 0 1 5 November 2014 Dear Delegates, Welcome to Specialized Agencies of NHSMUN 2015! My name is Paula Kates, and I will be your Under-Secretary General for the duration of this conference. This is my third year on staff at NHSMUN, having previously served as the Assistant Director for the International Court of Justice (2013), and then as the director of that same committee (2014). Both years I had an amazing experience, full of incredible delegates and debate. I look forward to making this year's committees just as wonderful (if not even better!) as last year's. Currently I am a junior at Tufts University, majoring in International Relations. As an active competitor in Latin and Rhythm dance during my time at Tufts, and former captain of the Tufts University Ballroom Dance Team, after a semester spent studying abroad in Switzerland, I’m still figuring out what exactly I should be doing with my free time. What has remained constant is my love of listening to music, eating, and having absurd amounts of fun with my friends. In high school I was an active MUNer, both participating in conferences as a delegate, and running a middle school MUN program within my town. That was where I first discovered how fun it could be to teach Model UN to others – a passion which I follow up on every day through my work with NHSMUN. The Specialized Agencies (Specials) provide an experience like no other within the NHSMUN framework. The committees are smaller and more focused, which allows for greater depth and detail within debate. Our committees represent some of the most influential and exciting bodies within the UN, and every topic is important and relevant to the world today. From historical scenarios, like the revolution in Iran or the creation of modern-day Cameroon, to current difficulties such as the situation in Ukraine or the land dispute over the Senkaku Islands, to the fast-paced crises focused on Nigeria and Southeast Asia, every committee in Specials will expect delegates to look at these scenarios in a new and fresh way. The staff of NHSMUN works incredibly hard to prepare this conference for all the delegates who attend it; your directors spent a large part of their summers working on the Background Guides you have all read in preparation for this week, and your Assistant Directors worked tirelessly to help them in the months leading up to the conference. On Specials you will have the unique experience of getting to know your dais pair – use this opportunity well! I know they are all excited to meet you and get to work with you. I look forward to meeting you all come March! Until then, good luck with all of your research and preparation. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me or anyone else on staff! "Special" Regards, Paula Kates Under-Secretary General, Specialized Agencies specials.nhsmun@imuna.org
- 4. Shirley Wu Secretary-General Princeton University LilyO’Connell Director-General University of Pennsylvania Brody Duncan Conference Director McGill University Alec Guertin Director of Security University of California, Berkeley Jason Toney Chief of External Relations Bard College Laura Beltran-Rubio Chief of Staff Parsons The New School for Design Jinny Jung Under-Secretary General of Administrative Affairs University of Michigan Helen Robertson Under-Secretary General University of Virginia Joe Sherlock Under-Secretary General Bowdoin College Erin Corcoran Under-Secretary General Harvard University Costanza Cicero Under-Secretary General University of Bologna Alyssa Greenhouse Under-Secretary General Duke University Paula Kates Under-Secretary General Tufts University NHSMUN is a project of the International Model United Nations Association, Incorporated (IMUNA). IMUNA, a not-for-profit, all volunteer organization, is dedicated to furthering global issues education at the secondary school level. NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL MODEL UNITED NATIONS T h e 4 1 s t A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e • M a r c h 4 – M a r c h 7 , 2 0 1 5 November 2014 Dear Delegates, I am absolutely thrilled to be welcoming you to NHSMUN 2015 and the Historic Security Council. My name is Nika Arzoumanian and I will be your Director this year. This will be my fifth time attending NHSMUN and my second as a member of staff: I was a delegate on the Legal Committee, the Economic and Financial Committee, and the present day Security Council, and last year I was the Assistant Director of the Council of the European Union. I hail from the windy city of Chicago where I was an active member of my high school’s Model UN team for three years. Now, I am a sophomore at New York University majoring in History and minoring in Politics and Spanish. Outside of the classroom, I’m a member of the editorial board for NYU’s Journal of Politics and International Affairs and various pre-law student organizations. In my free time, I love going to concerts, traveling, playing card games (and winning), and being an unabashed bookworm. One of my favorite parts of being a staff member at NHSMUN is witnessing you delve deep into the topics we’ve given you, draft resolutions reflective of your long hours of research, and display your skills as delegates. Both topics you will be researching are set in December 1979 and are both representative of that moment in history. The first topic is the Situation in Iran. I selected this topic because I’ve always been fascinated by revolution—specifically post- revolution reconstruction. Since the Iranian Revolution itself occurred in February 1979, our committee will focus on the compelling aftermath of this monumental political shift. Our second topic, the Situation in Afghanistan, is equally riveting. On Christmas Eve of 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Firstly, I selected this topic because it will provide you all with a unique perspective on the Cold War dynamic that dominated international politics as the 1970s came to a close. Secondly, since our committee takes place in December of 1979, the invasion will be occurring as our committee takes place. This will certainly give debate a sense of urgency and will give you all an opportunity to think on your feet and really show off your skills as delegates. The background guide enclosed is intended to provide you with a platform for you to begin your research on our topics. However, I encourage you all to take your research a step further; don’t let your studies of these events end here! If you have any questions at all, whether it is about research, something you’ve read, or even about the committee itself, please feel free to contact me via e-mail. Also, make sure to follow the committee twitter account @NHSMUN_HSC for news updates. Good luck with your research! Sincerely, Nika Arzoumanian Director, Historic Security Council @NHSMUN_HSC hsc.nhsmun@imuna.org
- 5. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC TABLE OF CONTENTS A Note on the NHSMUN Difference .................................................................................................... 1! A Note on Research and Preparation.....................................................................................................3! Committee History .................................................................................................................................4! Simulation...............................................................................................................................................6! Topic A: The Situation in Iran (1979).....................................................................................................8! Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................8! History and Description of the Issue..........................................................................................................................8! Iran Under the Reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi..........................................................................................................8! The Coup of 1953....................................................................................................................................................10! The White Revolution.............................................................................................................................................11! Demonstrations Against the Shah (1977-1978)..................................................................................................12! The Shah Flees.........................................................................................................................................................13! 11 February 1979 .....................................................................................................................................................13! Current Status ...............................................................................................................................................................14! Bloc Analysis.................................................................................................................................................................16! United States.............................................................................................................................................................16! United Kingdom......................................................................................................................................................17! France........................................................................................................................................................................17! Soviet Union.............................................................................................................................................................18! Middle East...............................................................................................................................................................18! Committee Mission......................................................................................................................................................18! Topic B: The Situation in Afghanistan (1979)...................................................................................... 20! Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................20! History and Description of the Issue........................................................................................................................20! Afghan-USSR Relations Prior to 1978.................................................................................................................20! Saur Revolution........................................................................................................................................................22! Afghan-USSR “Friendship Treaty” ......................................................................................................................22! Mujahideen ...............................................................................................................................................................24! Developments in the Past Year.............................................................................................................................25! Current Status ...............................................................................................................................................................26!
- 6. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC ! Bloc Analysis.................................................................................................................................................................27! Soviet Union.............................................................................................................................................................27! China..........................................................................................................................................................................27! United States.............................................................................................................................................................28! United Kingdom......................................................................................................................................................29! Post-Colonial and Developing Countries ............................................................................................................29! Committee Mission......................................................................................................................................................29! Appendix A: Map of Soviet Air Corridor into Kabul ............................................................................ 31! Research and Preparation Questions................................................................................................... 32! Topic A ..........................................................................................................................................................................32! Topic B ..........................................................................................................................................................................32! Important Documents .......................................................................................................................... 33! Topic A ..........................................................................................................................................................................33! Topic B ..........................................................................................................................................................................33! Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 35! Committee History and Simulation...........................................................................................................................35! Topic A ..........................................................................................................................................................................35! Topic B ..........................................................................................................................................................................39!
- 8. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 1 - A NOTE ON THE NHSMUN DIFFERENCE Esteemed Faculty and Delegates, Hello and welcome to NHSMUN 2015! My name is Lily O’Connell, and I am this year’s Director- General. I hope you are as excited as I am to experience the conference. Our staff has been working all year to ensure that you have an engaging, educational, and rewarding experience in committee. NHSMUN strives to assure that the quality of our debate and in-committee interaction is unmatched. NHSMUN focuses on the educational value of Model UN. We believe that the experiences in our committee rooms extend skills originally developed in the classroom, and prepare students to become future leaders. NHSMUN thrives on well-researched, realistic, and diplomatic debate. We are thrilled with the substantive program for NHSMUN 2015 and look forward to vibrant discussion and cooperation. NHSMUN Practices In order to fulfill our mission, our conference has adopted practices that are key to the continued tradition of excellence in our committees and the NHSMUN difference. NHSMUN prohibits the usage of personal electronics during committee in order to ensure that delegates do not gain an unfair advantage in debate. We feel strongly that the interpersonal connections made during debate are enhanced by face-to-face communication. Enforcing a strict no laptops policy also helps us to ensure that all our delegates have an equal opportunity to succeed in committee. The Dais is permitted a laptop for the purposes of communicating with respective Under-Secretary- Generals and other Senior Staff Members as well as attending to administrative needs. The Dais will only be limited to using their laptops for NHSMUN purposes, and the majority of their focus will be on the needs of the committee. In addition, we staff a dedicated team in our office to assist in typing and formatting draft resolutions and working papers so that committee time can be focused on discussion and compromise. An additional difference that delegates may notice about NHSMUN is the committee pacing. While each BG contains two topic selections, NHSMUN committees will strive to have a fruitful discussion on and produce resolutions on a single topic; prioritizing the quality of discussion over quantity of topics addressed. In order to respect the gravity of the issues being discussed at our conference as well as the intellect of our delegates, NHSMUN committees will focus on addressing one topic in-depth. BGs contain two topics in order to allow delegates to decide what problem ought to be prioritized, a valuable discussion in and of itself, and to safeguard against the possibility that an issue will be independently resolved before conference. NHSMUN uses a set of the Rules of Procedure that is standardized across all IMUNA-brand conferences. These rules provide a standardized system of operation that is easily translated across committee or conference lines. While the general structure and flow of committee will be familiar to any delegate who has previously participated in Model UN, there may be slight procedural differences from other conferences. All delegates are encouraged to review the Rules of Procedure
- 9. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 2 - before attending the conference in the Delegate Preparation Guide and are welcome to direct questions to any member of NHSMUN Staff. While NHSMUN does distribute awards, we feel that it is crucial to de-emphasize their importance in comparison to the educational value of Model UN as an activity. NHSMUN seeks to reward delegations that excel in the arts of compromise and diplomacy. We always prioritize a dedication to teamwork over solitary achievement. Directors will judge delegates on their ability and willingness to cooperate with their peers while always maintaining an accurate representation of country policy. At the core of the NHSMUN philosophy is an emphasis on education and compromise. As such, we do not distribute awards to individual delegates, with the exception of committees where students represent their own separate delegation (ICJ and UNSC, for example). Instead, awards will be distributed to delegations that exhibit excellence across all committees. The awards system is standardized so as to give equal weight to delegations of all sizes. Awards will also be offered for schools that demonstrate excellence in research and preparation based on the position papers submitted by their delegates. Detailed information on the determination of awards at NHSMUN will be available in the Faculty Preparation Guide and online in November. As always, I welcome any questions or concerns about the substantive program at NHSMUN 2015 and would be happy to discuss NHSMUN pedagogy with faculty or delegates. It is my sincerest hope that your experience at NHSMUN 2015 will be challenging and thought provoking. Best, Lily O’Connell Director-General, NHSMUN 2015 dg.nhsmun@imuna.org
- 10. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 3 - A NOTE ON RESEARCH AND PREPARATION Delegate preparation is paramount to a successful and exciting National High School Model United Nations 2015 Conference. We have provided this Background Guide to introduce the topics that will be discussed in your committee. These papers are designed to give you a description of the topics and the committee. This Guide is not intended to represent exhaustive research on every facet of the topics. We encourage and expect each delegate to fully explore the topics and be able to identify and analyze the intricacies of the issues. Delegates must be prepared to intelligently utilize their knowledge and apply it to their own country’s policy. You will find that your state has a unique position on the topics that cannot be substituted by the opinions of another state. The task of preparing and researching for the conference is challenging, but it can be interesting and rewarding. We have provided each school with a copy of the Delegation Preparation Guide. The Guide contains detailed instructions on how to write a position paper and how to effectively participate in committee sessions. The Guide also gives a synopsis of the types of research materials and resources available to you and where they can be found. An essential part of representing a state in an international body is the ability to articulate that state’s views in writing. Accordingly, it is the policy of NHSMUN to require each delegate (or double- delegation team) to write position papers. The position papers should clearly outline the country’s policies on the topic areas to be discussed and what factors contribute to these policies. In addition, each paper must address the Research and Preparation questions at the end of the committee Background Guide. Most importantly, the paper must be written from the point of view of the country you are representing at NHSMUN 2015 and should articulate the policies you will espouse at the conference. All papers should be typed and double-spaced. The papers will be read by the director of each committee and returned at the start of the conference with brief comments and constructive advice. Each delegation is responsible for sending a copy of their papers to the Director-General via email on or before January 22, 2015. Please email the entire delegation’s papers at one time to papers.nhsmun@imuna.org. Complete instructions for online submissions may be found in the Delegate Preparation Guide and the Faculty Preparation Guide. If delegations are unable to submit an online version of their position papers, they should contact the Director-General (dg.nhsmun@imuna.org) as soon as possible to find an alternative form of submission. Delegations that do not submit position papers to directors or summary statements to the Director-General will be ineligible for awards. !
- 11. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 4 - COMMITTEE HISTORY The Security Council was established as one of the six principal organs of the United Nations on October 24, 1945 with the ratification of the United Nations Charter.1 Chapters V, VI, VII, VIII, and XII of the Charter detail the composition, functions and powers of the Council. In Article 24, the Council is tasked with the primary responsibility of maintaining international peace and security in accordance with the principles of the UN.2 Thus, the Council is empowered with the ability to respond to threats of international security through political, economic, and military means. Although originally established with eleven members, since 1965 the Council has consisted of fifteen member states. Of these fifteen members, there are five permanent member states – the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the French Republic, and the People’s Republic of China – commonly referred to as the Permanent-5 (P-5). The other ten non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly on a rotating basis; they are elected for two-year terms and are not eligible for immediate reelection. Because the Council is designed to operate continuously, the non-permanent seats have staggered terms such that five members change every year.3 Each member state of the Council has one representative and the Presidency rotates alphabetically such that each member holds the Presidency for a month. When voting on procedural matters, decisions are passed if nine members cast affirmative votes. On the other hand, voting on resolutions is made by an “affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the P-5.”4 In other words, each member state casts one vote, but permanent members reserve the right of veto for non-procedural matters, which allows them to unilaterally prevent the passage of a resolution. The powers of the Security Council include: 1. Investigating any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction, 2. Recommending methods of adjusting such disputes, 3. Determining the existence of a threat to international peace and calling upon members to impose sanctions to stop aggression, 4. Deploying peacekeeping missions to provide security and monitor ceasefire 5. Establishing subsidiary organs, and 6. Authorizing military action against an aggressor as a last resort. These powers are exercised through resolutions that are binding to all UN member states. In accordance with Article 25 of the Charter, all “members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council” and failure to comply is a punishable violation of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Lerner, Adrienne Wilmoth, “United Nations Security Council,” Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security, accessed 15 July 2012, http://www.encyclopedia.com. 2 Charter of the United Nations (Geneva: United Nations, 1945). 3 "Membership of the Security Council," United Nations, accessed 1 June 2013, http://www.un.org/sc/members.asp. 4 Charter of the United Nations.
- 12. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 5 - international law.5 Consequently, the Security Council is the only body can both “demand” member states to comply with certain measures and “condemn” violations of international law or threats to international security. The binding nature of Council decisions means the Council members must develop resolutions that provide for swift and effective international action. Two areas of Security Council jurisdiction are of particular importance for this committee: peaceful settlement of disputes and peacekeeping operations. When a threat against international security is detected by the Council, its first course of action is negotiation and acting as mediator between the conflicting parties. The Council can also call upon other member states or regional organizations to negotiate a peaceful settlement. If conflict persists, the Council will enact resolutions that employ its wide range of economic, political, and military tools to prevent the escalation of violence. For instance, Council resolutions often formally condemn aggressors and impose economic sanctions that detrimentally impact the economy of an aggressor and thereby deter further acts of violence. Additionally, many resolutions declare ceasefires that call for immediate cessation of hostilities in order to create an environment conducive to peaceful settlement of conflict. Also, the Council has the power to appoint subsidiary bodies to address specific issues, and better inform on the status of these issues. Lastly, the Council reserves the right to recommend the General Assembly to vote on the expulsion of any uncooperative member state that violates the UN Charter.6 In the event that all avenues of peaceful conflict resolution have been exhausted, the Security Council can call for collective military action in order to fulfill the “responsibility to protect.” Aside pacific settlement of disputes, the Security Council can deploy peacekeeping forces to areas of conflict. UN peacekeeping is founded on the principles of consent, neutrality, and impartiality. Before a peacekeeping mission is established, all parties to the conflict must consent to the involvement of UN peacekeepers in order to prevent violations of national sovereignty. Also, peacekeepers must follow the Rules of Engagement, which require that they must be neutral and impartial to prevent favoring one side of the conflict over the other. The purpose of a peacekeeping mission is defined by its mandate. Missions with a Chapter VI mandate are limited to monitoring ceasefire, reporting progress, and implementing confidence-building measures, whereas a Chapter VII mandate allows for the enforcement of a ceasefire agreement.7 Understanding the history, structure, and function of the Security Council is an imperative step toward addressing the complex issues on the agenda for the National High School Model United Nations conference. Employing the powers of the Council effectively is the key to developing resolutions that provide meaningful international action to promote international peace and security. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Lerner, "United Nations Security Council." 6 Handbook on the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes between States (New York: United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, 1992). 7 United Nations Peacekeeping Operations - Principles and Guidelines (New York: United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, 2007).
- 13. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 6 - SIMULATION There are fifteen members in the Historical Security Council of 1979 at NHSMUN 2015. This Council is meeting in December 1979 to address situations in Iran (Topic A) and the situation in Afghanistan (Topic B). Collectively, this Council is responsible for effectively employing its powers to address these complex issues and ultimately, to maintain international peace and security. The decisions of the committee will be conveyed through resolutions that are binding to all UN member states. Given the unique nature of the Historical Security Council of 1979, this committee will be governed by a few special rules. A Director and Assistant Director will preside over the committee, acting as your Dias. They will assist delegates by enforcing Parliamentary Procedure as well as NHSMUN rules and policies. It is their responsibility to monitor the flow of debate by providing procedural clarification and ensuring that delegates stay on task. The Director and Assistant Director will not influence the debate; instead, they will remain neutral and allow delegates to determine the course of the committee. However, delegates are encouraged to approach the Dias with substantive questions relevant to the topics at hand. Veto power will be in effect. Consequently, if any of the five veto-wielding member states—the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the French Republic, and the People’s Republic of China—vote against a resolution, then it cannot pass. If a veto-wielding member state chooses to abstain, then veto power has not been utilized. Additionally, resolutions can only pass with a minimum of nine votes in favor. Keep in mind that veto power does not apply to procedural matters. When voting on procedural matters, the affirmative vote of any nine member states is sufficient to pass the motion. Given these special rules, cooperation is crucial. Resolutions must garner widespread support in order to pass. This requires effective negotiation and possible compromise in order to reconcile conflicting perspectives and policies of member states. That being said, the need for compromise is subordinate to maintaining a state’s foreign policy. Delegates should aim to cooperate and build a resolution that addresses the issues and represents the interests of the international community. Debate in committee will be conducted through formal debate and caucusing. Formal debate will take place through the Speakers’ List. Dias will recognize each speaker on the list for a specific period of time. Delegations can request to be added on the Speaker’s list by notifying the Dias. Also, formal debate will continue until the Speakers’ List is exhausted or a motion for caucusing has been passed. Both types of caucusing require a suspension of the rules of parliamentary procedure. Moderated caucuses have short speaking times, and the Dias selects speakers. Unmoderated caucuses allow delegations to discuss the issues among themselves, without the moderation of the Dias. In general, formal debate is optimal for broad discussion of the topics and is a great opportunity for states to discuss their positions at length. On the other hand, moderated caucuses allow for rapid debate about specific issues while unmoderated caucuses facilitate negotiations and resolution writing. It is important to have a strong understanding of these forms of debate prior to the start of the conference.
- 14. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 7 - When the conference begins, the Dias and delegates will have an opportunity to briefly introduce themselves. Afterward, the committee will set the agenda. Debate will focus solely on prioritizing the topics and selecting which one to discuss first. Delegates should refrain from discussing substantive aspects of the topics and instead debate only about the relative priority of each topic. After the agenda has been set, debate on the first topic will begin immediately through formal debate and caucusing. To ensure the accuracy of the simulation, it is imperative that delegates are well prepared. Given the complexity of the issues and special nature of the Historical Security Council of 1979, delegates must command a strong knowledge of both substantive and procedural matters. Remember, delegates are encouraged to use the Director and Assistant Director as resources both prior to and during the conference. Additionally, all delegations are expected to exhibit respect for each other. Through cooperation, engaging debate, and exhaustive research, this committee will be able to tackle some of the world’s most challenging issues.
- 15. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 8 - TOPIC A: THE SITUATION IN IRAN (1979) INTRODUCTION In December of 1979, Iran was brewing with the uncertainty that comes in the aftermath of revolution. Some Iranians saw the Revolution as an era of courage and sacrifice for a greater good: the Islamic state. Other Iranians believed that the revolution was a time when the population lost touch with reality. Many claimed that the leaders of the revolution had promised that a shift in both political power and ideology would rid Iran of its reliance on foreign aid and improve the quality of life for its citizens; whether these promises were ultimately delivered or not is a point of contention for many Iranians.8 In 1978 and 1979 alone, some 2,781 protestors and revolutionaries were killed.9 At the same time the long-exiled Ayatollah Khomeini, the newly self-appointed supreme ruler and a beacon of hope for Iranians with anti-Shah sentiments, was building a new government in the bustling and violent capitol city, Tehran. The international community was also affected by the tumultuous situation in Iran. The United Kingdom lost its stake in Iran’s oil reserves. France was home to the controversial and exiled Ayatollah Khomeini as he developed his plans for the Islamic Republic of Iran, and it was unknown whether the French government was simply offering him political asylum, or if they also were financing and supporting his plans for revolution. The United States dealt with the most unprecedented and unexpected hostage crisis of the century. The rest of the Middle East feared that the instability in Iran would spread to other states, and the Security Council faced one of its greatest challenges: maintaining the sovereignty of the Iranian state while also maintaining international peace and security. HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ISSUE Iran Under the Reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi Reza Shah Pahlavi, born Reza Khan, reigned over Iran from 1925 through 1941.10 In order to secure his position as the shah, or the king of Iran, he deposed the former shah of the Qajar Dynasty, Ahmad Mirza.11 Often characterized as immature and not qualified for the position, Ahmed Shah's administration was riddled with corruption. The United Kingdom supported Reza Shah during his coup of the preceding king. The United Kingdom hoped to secure its oil interests in the region; if the leader of Iran were a nationalist—someone who hoped to keep Iranian oil exclusively under the control of the Iranian government—the United Kingdom would have difficulty accomplishing its goal. Thus, the United Kingdom supported Reza Shah, who was less nationalistic and sought to !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8 Afshin Molavi, The Soul of Iran, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2005), 156. 9 Cyrus Kadivar, “A Question of Numbers,” Iran Voice, last modified 8 Aug 2003, accessed 7 July 2014, Http://www.emadbaghi.com/en/archives/000592.php#more. 10 “Reza Shah Pahlavi,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed 01 July 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/500867/Reza-Shah-Pahlavi. 11 “Reza Shah Pahlavi,” Iran Chamber Society, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.iranchamber.com/history/reza_shah/reza_shah.php.
- 16. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 9 - maintain positive relations with Western states.12 Many historians argue that Reza Khan’s rise to power was successful because, although his administration was inefficient and unscrupulous, he reinforced his takeover with a highly effective and well organized military force.13 Once Reza Shah Pahlavi came to power, he sought to revitalize Iran and lead it on a path to modernization. Perhaps one of the most notable aspects of Reza Shah’s rule was his understanding that in order to reach his goal of a more modern Iran, he would need a first-class military that was under his control. He also recognized that he would need sufficient financial resources in order to maintain this control. One of the first things Reza Shah did was disarm and partially settle tribal communities around Iran, bringing an end to the turbulence they caused.14 Some Iranians claim that this was a positive aspect of Reza Shah’s regime because it lessened violence in the region; others argued that the settlement was a negative change because the government was interfering with ancient Iranian tribal practices. Some of Reza Shah’s other successes included the creation of the Trans-Iranian Railway from 1927 to 1938, his call for the secularization of women by requiring them to cast away their veils and other head covering garments, and the nationalization of Iranian finances and communications which, before his rule, had been in the hands of foreign investors and governments. He also was a great proponent of education, building schools and establishing the first university in Iran in 1934. 15 Reza Shah accomplished many things during his reign, but they were all accomplished with one goal in mind: modernization. The reign of Reza Shah focused on two main goals: modernizing Iran, and freeing it from reliance on the foreign aid that had supported the country for many years. Despite the fact that the United Kingdom initially helped Reza Shah come to power, the Shah was intent on reducing dependency on other countries, including the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom had a significant hand in Iranian oil through the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, and Reza Shah sought to reduce this British influence in Iranian affairs. Reza Shah was in constant conflict with the United Kingdom during his reign, almost always due to the role the United Kingdom held in relation to Iranian oil. In order to mitigate British interference, Pahlavi allied Iran with the Soviet Union and Germany—at the time, Germany was one of Iran’s premier trade partners of non-military goods, accounting for forty percent of Iran’s trade.16 In order to solidify this alliance, Reza Shah appointed several Germans as his advisors.17 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12 Pamela Maxson, “Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi,” Northern Virginia Community College, last modified May 1999, accessed 12 July 2014, http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his135/events/shah80.htm. 13 “Reza Shah Pahlavi,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed 01 July 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/500867/Reza-Shah-Pahlavi. 14 “Reza Shah Pahlavi,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed 01 July 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/500867/Reza-Shah-Pahlavi. 15 Ibid. 16 Iran Under the Ayatollahs, (New York: Dilip Hiro, 1987), 310. 17 Pamela Maxson, “Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi,” Northern Virginia Community College, last modified May 1999, accessed 12 July 2014, http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his135/events/shah80.htm.
- 17. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 10 - However, after the German attack on Russia during the Second World War, the allied powers became concerned that Pahlavi was in league with the German government; thus, the allies called for Pahlavi to dismiss his German advisors and cut off ties with Germany completely. Pahlavi refused and, as a result of his refusal, faced a British and Soviet invasion of Iran under the pretext of finding a supply route for the international trade of various goods. Pahlavi was forced to step down on 16 September 1941. His son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, took his place as leader of Iran.18 The Coup of 1953 By the end of World War II, Iran was a coveted economic partner for both pro-Western and pro- Soviet countries due to the state's oil reserves. However, in June of 1950 when General Ali Razmara became prime minister of Iran, public support grew significantly for the nationalization of Iran’s oil industry. The prime minister was assassinated in March of 1951 due to his alienation of several domestic political groups; however, even without the late prime minister, it was clear that Iran was on the path towards the nationalization of its resources.19 As a product of this domestic support, the nationalist Mohammad Mossadegh was appointed prime minister to replace Razmara, which angered the British.20 The nationalization of Iranian oil was a threat to British control of the region’s resources; the United Kingdom warned Iran that any attempt to acquire British oil properties without negotiations would bring about grave consequences. The British attempted to send a mission to Iran to discuss the issue, but the Iranian government refused the mission. Iran and Prime Minister Mossadegh moved forward with legislation aimed at nationalizing the oil industry.21 By July of 1952, Mossadegh resigned. Many historians believe that this was a direct result of the growing friction between the Shah and Mossadegh over oil. The Shah’s lack of support for Mossadegh’s increased involvement in the formulation of Iran's defense policy may have also contributed to Mossadegh’s resignation. Ahmed Ghavam, a prominent figure in Iranian politics, took over as prime minister.22 Three days of rioting ensued. Protestors called Ghavam a “servant of the British,” favoring Mossadegh’s strong anti-British policies. While Ghavam assured the Iranian people after his appointment that he would maintain some of Mossadegh’s nationalistic policies, the protestors were not convinced.23 Even nearly thirty years prior to the revolution of 1979, the Iranian !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18 Ibid. 19M. Reza Ghods, "The Rise and Fall of General Razmara," Middle Eastern Studies, 29(1), 1993, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4283539?uid=3739656&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid =21104042067951. 20 “Key Events in the 1953 Coup,” New York Times, last modified 2000, accessed 12 July 2014, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-coup-timeline.html. 21Clifton Daniel, “British Warn Iran of Serious Result If She Seizes Oil,” New York Times, last modified 20 May 1951, accessed 12 July 2014, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/052051iran-britain.html. 22 “Ahmad Ghavam el-Saltaneh,” Brittanica, accessed 14 September 13, 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/766051/Ahmad-Ghavam-el-Saltaneh. 23 Albion Ross, “Mossadegh Out as Premier; Ghavam to Take Iran Helm,” New York Times, last modified 18 July, 1952, accessed 12 July 2014, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/071852iran-ghavam.html.
- 18. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 11 - people were wary of foreign interference in their affairs, particularly any interference from the West. Ultimately, under pressure from both his people and his parliament, Mohammad Reza Shah reappointed Mossadegh to his former position.24 1953 was a pivotal year in Iranian history. A propaganda campaign called “grey propaganda” filled the streets of Tehran, discrediting Mossadegh and his government.25 It was clear that the anti- Mossadegh opposition sought to remove him from power. Mossadegh had his suspicions; as a result, he called for the dissolution of the Iranian parliament.26 A coup began to topple Mossadegh, but quickly ended because the prime minister received prior knowledge of the plot against him. The Shah fled to Baghdad.27 Decrees were published in several newspapers on 19 August 1953 linking the Shah to the attempted coup and, as a result, supporters of the Shah began demonstrating in the streets, led by General Zahedi, the man with whom the architects of the coup had intended to replace Mossadegh. By the end of that day, Iran was in the hands of Zahedi.28 Mossadegh was sentenced to three years in jail and members of his government either went into hiding or joined Mossadegh in jail.29 The White Revolution In January of 1963, Mohammad Reza Shah proposed the White Revolution—a non-violent policy agenda with the following six goals: land reform, the selling of select state-owned factories to finance the land reform, the enfranchisement of women, nationalization of natural areas such as forests and pastures, formation of literacy corps, and the institution of profit-sharing for workers in industry.30 The Shah’s first priority was land reform. He sought to eventually redistribute approximately one half of private agricultural land to peasants holding traditional sharecropping rights. This would affect one half of all village families in the region.31 The implications of the White Revolution are two-fold. Half a million peasants were given sufficient land to engage in profitable farming; they were economically empowered, in addition to gaining !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24 Albion Ross, “Mossadegh Is Back as Premier of Iran; Order Is Restored,” Ne York Times, last modified 23 July 1952, accessed 12 July 2014, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/072352iran-order.html. 25 “Key Events in the 1953 Coup,” New York Times, last modified 2000, accessed 12 July 2014, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-coup-timeline.html. 26 Ibid. 27 Kennett Love, “Shah Flees Iran After Move to Dismiss Mossadegh Fails,” New York Times, last modified 17 August 1953, accessed 12 July 2014, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/081753iran-shah-flees.html. 28 Ibid. 29 Welles Hangen, “Mossadegh Gets 3-Year Jail Term,” New York Times, last modified 22 December 1953, accessed 12 July 2014, http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/122253iran- jail.html. 30 Lisa Reynolds Wolfe, “The White Revolution in Iran,” Cold War Studies, last modified 30 May 2012, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.coldwarstudies.com/2012/05/30/the-white-revolution-in-iran/. 31 Eric Hoogland, “Land and Revolution in Iran, 1960 – 1980,” Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982.
- 19. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 12 - access to better education and benefiting from government development initiatives. However, the government also raised the hopes of the Iranian people and often did not meet the expectations that they set forth. In terms of land reform, half of the peasant families did not receive any land, and the majority of those who received land received very little, just meeting the amount necessary for subsistence farming. Ultimately, this resulted in a disappointed majority; villagers were being exposed to policies that benefitted a select few while ignoring the needs of the rest, and they became dissatisfied with the government.32 This dissatisfaction continued to spread throughout Iran for the rest of the 1960s and into the 1970s. It planted the seed for the revolutionary tone that grasped Iran during the late 1970s; the cracks in Mohammad Reza Shah’s government were becoming obvious, and the people wanted change. Demonstrations Against the Shah (1977-1978) Beginning in 1977, a series of demonstrations against the Shah set the stage for the impending revolution in 1979. The first of these many acts of defiance was the Cinema Rex Fire that took place on 19 August 1978 in Abadan, Iran.33 While there was controversy at the time regarding who started the fire, it was later discovered that Islamic militants set the building ablaze. The motive of the revolutionaries was primarily to create public hatred towards the Shah and his regime; they knew that anti-Shah groups would immediately accuse the government of such an act.34 This act of revolution was the first to set the tone for change because it showed that common people, turned militants, could rise up against the Shah and succeed in their mission regardless of the brutality of their acts. This event also showed that Iranian citizens were already acting against the Shah’s regime even in mid-1977, long before the revolution truly began. Historians consider the Cinema Rex Fire one of the deadliest terrorist attacks in modern history.35 An accurate death toll has never been agreed upon, but sources claim that between 400 to 800 deaths occurred as a result of the fire.36, Another key act of defiance that historians claim helped to bring on the 1979 revolution was what is known as “Black Friday”: on 8 September 1978, people protesting against the Shah and the Pahlavi Dynasty in Jaleh Square in Tehran were the victims of a mass shooting by the Shah’s officials.37 The gunfire killed 40 to 80 demonstrators, and hundreds were injured.38 Many opposition leaders were !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32 Ibid. 33 “Iran: After the Abadan Fire,” Time Magazine, last modified 4 Sept 1978, accessed 12 July 2014, http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912118,00.html. 34 R. Gholam Afkhami, The Life and Times of the Shah (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009) 459, 465. 35 Daniel L. Byman, “The Rise of Low-Tech Terrorism,” Washington Post, 6 May 2007. 36 “The Pahlavi Monarchy Falls,” Macrohistory, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir2.htm; Harry V. Martin, “The Real Iranian Hostage Story,” Free America, accessed 12 July 2014, http://web.archive.org/web/20060812040421/http://www.venusproject.com/ecs/Evidence_Iran_ Revolution.html. 37 “Black Friday,” Iranian Revolution, accessed 12 July 2014, http://blog.cvsd.k12.pa.us/iranrevolution/black-friday/. 38 Charles Kurzman, Unthinkable Revolution, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 75.
- 20. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 13 - imprisoned as well.39 On the morning following the shooting, the Shah declared martial law in order to strike down any other protests that arose in response to the shooting. Many argue that this series of events was key in bringing about the revolution because it closed the door for non-violent compromise between the Shah and the Iranian people.40 The Shah Flees At the start of 1979, public opposition to Mohammad Reza Shah reached its peak, even within his own military forces. The Shah, faced with an army mutiny and increasingly violent and popular demonstrations against his regime, was forced to flee Iran in January of 1979. While his alienation of Muslim religious leaders, strict and militant policy, and closeness with the United States was not enough on its own to bring about the change many Iranian people sought at this time, his flight opened the door for a new regime to take control.41 11 February 1979 11 February 1979, the day Ayatollah Khomeini took control of the Iranian government and established an Islamic theocracy, marks the climax of the Iranian Revolution.42 Khomeini returned to Iran after 18 years in exile on 1 February 1979. For many years he had been the unofficial leader of the anti-Shah revolutionaries, and when he returned to Iran after the Shah's flight the revolutionaries decided it was time to act.43 On this significant day in Iranian history, two main factions took up arms against each other: military units loyal to the Shah’s regime and Prime Minister Bakhtiar, and military units loyal to Ayatollah Khomeini. After two days of fighting, the units loyal to the old regime pulled their support from the government and claimed neutrality. The remaining ministers of Mohammad Reza Shah’s government resigned, leaving the government in the hands of Ayatollah Khomeini’s provisional regime. At this time, Iran was without a parliament.44 The scene in Iran on this pivotal day was militant and violent: gas bombs destroyed tanks and buses, buildings, including the highly guarded police departments around Tehran, were set ablaze, and military leaders and fighters filled the streets. Armed revolutionaries, mostly amateur fighters, shot at their enemies from rooftops. As the fighting was taking place, other revolutionaries began looting the surrounding areas, claiming that they were procuring goods for the Islamic Republic. When the fighting that day was over, the revolutionaries paraded through the streets proudly displaying the weapons they had used. Despite the fact that they deemed the violence necessary for the success of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 39 “Black Friday,” Iranian Revolution, accessed 12 July 2014, http://blog.cvsd.k12.pa.us/iranrevolution/black-friday/. 40 Ibid. 41 “Shah Flees Iran,” History Channel, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.historychannel.com.au/classroom/day-in-history/16/shah-flees-iran. 42 “February 11,” The People History, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/february11th.html. 43 “The Iranian Revolution of 1979,” History in an Hour, last modified 26 March 2011, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.historyinanhour.com/2011/03/26/the-iranian-revolution-of-1979/. 44 “Khomeini Seizes Power in Iran,” ABC News, last modified 18 Dec 2009, accessed 12 July 2014, http://abcnews.go.com/Archives/video/feb-11-1979-khomeini-seizes-power-iran-9378486.
- 21. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 14 - the revolution, reports show that the revolutionaries were also very saddened by the violence that had taken place.45 On 11 February, the armed revolutionaries defeated the Imperial Guard, the Shah’s former army. With this defeat, Khomeini and a coalition of other opposition leaders came into power.46 On 1 April, Khomeini declared Iran an Islamic republic, thus officially creating the Islamic Republic of Iran.47 CURRENT STATUS This year’s Historic Security Council simulation will take place in December of 1979. The situation in Iran at this point is incredibly volatile due to a multitude of factors, the first of which being the various uprisings that are taking place as 1979 progresses. Since the latter months of 1979, the Iranian people have been living in a brutal environment; just in 1978 and 1979 alone, some 2,781 protestors and revolutionaries have been killed.48 From the moment they came to power in early 1979, Iran’s new government has sought to completely obliterate the Shah’s system. In order to do this they have been performing mass executions, particularly targeting the Shah’s top generals and other military and civilian leaders. Generally the victims of these shootings are convicted of treason, torture, and having committed massacres; photos of their corpses are often published in Tehran’s evening newspapers. This period in Iranian history has split the people of the country; those in favor of Khomeini’s takeover are rejoicing, while those opposed are afraid or want to begin demonstrating against this new regime.49 The atmosphere of this time is one of fear and uncertainty that contributes to the lack of stability in the region, an obstacle that the Security Council must face as this body seeks a solution to the pressing conflict. Another key detail to take note of is that not only was Iran established as an Islamic republic in April of this year, but Ayatollah Khomeini has became supreme leader of the country. This occurred on 3 December 1979.50 Additionally, the Prime Minister, Mehdi Bazargan, and his government resigned in November of 1979. This political exodus left control of the state open to seizure; Khomeini saw !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45 “Khomeini Seizes Power in Iran,” ABC News, last modified 18 Dec 2009, accessed 12 July 2014, http://abcnews.go.com/Archives/video/feb-11-1979-khomeini-seizes-power-iran-9378486. 46 “The Iranian Revolution of 1979,” History in an Hour, last modified 26 March 2011, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.historyinanhour.com/2011/03/26/the-iranian-revolution-of-1979/. 47 “Islamic Republic of Iran,” Ohio State University, accessed 12 July 2014, http://ehistory.osu.edu/middleeast/countryview.cfm?UID=634. 48 Cyrus Kadivar, “A Question of Numbers,” Iran Voice, last modified 8 Aug 2003, accessed 12 July 2014, Http://www.emadbaghi.com/en/archives/000592.php#more. 49 Darius Kadivar, “History of Violence: Shah’s Generals Executed and Imperial Army Disintegrated,” Iranian, last modified 30 Aug 2009, accessed 12 July 2014, http://iranian.com/main/blog/darius-kadivar/history-violence-shahs-generals-executed-and- imperial-army-disintegrated-1979.html. 50 Ibid.
- 22. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 15 - this as an opportunity to take power.51 Khomeini’s official transition from leader of the revolution to leader of the state indicates the permanence of the new regime put in place by the revolutionaries. If up until this point the United Nations, the international community, or even Iran itself was unsure as to whether this regime change would endure, Khomeini’s official step into power has solidified the future of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the new government. While many significant incidents have occurred in Iran at 1979’s close, the event that has perhaps grabbed the most attention from the international community is the Iranian Hostage Crisis that began in November of 1979. In February of 1979, just months before the crisis, President Carter and his administration deemed that it was not dangerous for Americans to be in Iran during the revolution and its aftermath. 7000 Americans were living or working temporarily in Iran at the time.52 It wasn’t until 4 November 1979 that the revolutionary battle cry of “marg bar Amrikah,” or “death to America”, became a real threat; a group of student revolutionaries in Iran stormed the US embassy in Tehran, climbing its walls and taking 90 people hostage, 66 of whom were Americans.53 The student hostage-takers have demanded the deportation of the Shah from the United States where he has sought refuge.54 They have also demanded that the United States agree not to interfere in Iranian affairs in any capacity.55 However, at this time, it is unclear as to whom the hostage-takers are representing or what exactly they want from the hostages. A crisis like this is unexpected and unprecedented. Both the United States and Iran are struggling to cope strategically with a hostage situation with such a high level of political intensity and magnitude.56 However, the initial crisis itself, the taking of the hostages, was not unprecedented; a few months prior, a similar group of revolutionaries took an American ambassador hostage before Khomeini ordered his return.57 Despite the initial similarities between these two hostage scenarios, Ayatollah Khomeini has not reacted the way he did during the first hostage crisis. Khomeini has issued a statement of support for the students’ actions and motives, calling the embassy workers “spies” and claiming that the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51 “Iran Hostage Crisis Fast Facts,” CNN World, last modified 17 March 2014, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/meast/iran-hostage-crisis-fast-facts/index.html. 52 “Khomeini Seizes Power in Iran,” ABC News, last modified 18 Dec 2009, accessed 12 July 2014, http://abcnews.go.com/Archives/video/feb-11-1979-khomeini-seizes-power-iran-9378486. 53 “1979 Hostage Crisis Still Casts Pall on US Iran Relations,” CNN Amanpour, last modified 4 November 2009, accessed 12 July 2014, http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/11/04/iran.hostage.anniversary/. 54 “Iran Hostage Crisis Fast Facts,” CNN World, last modified 17 March 2014, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/meast/iran-hostage-crisis-fast-facts/index.html. 55 "Timeline: US-Iran Ties," BBC News, last modified 16 Jan. 2009, accessed 12 July 2014, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3362443.stm. 56 David Larson, “The American Response to the Iranian Hostage Crisis: 44 Days of Decision,” International Social Science Review 57, No. 4 (1982), accessed 6 April 2014, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/41881381?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&searchText=iranian&searchText= hostage&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Diranian%2Bhostage%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp %3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3Doff. 57 “The Iranian Hostage Crisis,” PBS, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/carter-hostage-crisis/.
- 23. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 16 - students have been treating the hostages “very well.” He has also claimed that the hostage crisis does not make Iran a savage regime, as other states have been calling it, instead saying that the United States is the most savage government in the world.58 This is an opportunity for Khomeini to solidify his control over the state; the hostage crisis has become a symbol of his power, and Iran’s international authority and potential rise over the West.59 Up until the hostage crisis, the Iranian government was party to treaties, both with the United States and the Soviet Union, that would have permitted some form of intervention given the crisis; upon the capture of the hostages, Ayatollah Khomeini immediately canceled these treaties rendering the international community less able to take action against the Iranian government for this act. However, on 17 November, Khomeini ordered the release of the female and African-American hostages, claiming that women and minorities were already oppressed enough by the American government.60 The number of captured people was reduced to 53, but the international community is still very displeased with the response of the Iranian government, particularly that of Khomeini.61 In response to the crisis, the United States has suspended oil imports from Iran and has frozen billions of dollars in Iranian assets in order to place pressure on the Iranian government and coerce them to release the hostages.62 However, as 1979 comes to a close, no action taken to bring an end to the hostage crisis has been successful. It is the task at hand for the Security Council to assess the current situation in Iran and bring an end to the volatility in the region expediently and effectively. BLOC ANALYSIS United States The United States had a complex relationship with Iran for many decades leading up to the Iranian Revolution. Perhaps one of the best examples of this complicated relationship was the United States’ role in the White Revolution. At the time, the United States lent Iran $3.5 million, contingent on structural change in the country, and was one of Iran’s key sources of other economic and military aid. Thus, Mohammad Reza Shah was intent upon strengthening ties with America and reluctant to antagonize the American government. In the context of the Cold War, the United States favored policies that lessened the appeal of insurrectionary movements. As a result of this anti-revolutionary sentiment, the United States supported and encouraged the Shah’s land reform program.63 In the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58 IranKnowledge, "Ayatollah Khomeini on U.S. Embassy Hostage Crisis," Youtube, last modified 23 Feb. 2009, accessed 12 July 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jucWz5tf3mY 59 “The Iranian Hostage Crisis,” PBS, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/carter-hostage-crisis/. 60 Ibid. 61 “Iran Hostage Crisis Fast Facts,” CNN World, last modified 17 March 2014, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/meast/iran-hostage-crisis-fast-facts/index.html. 62 Lionel Beehner, “Timeline: US-Iran Contracts,” Council on Foreign Relations, last modified 9 Mar. 2007, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.cfr.org/iran/timeline-uzsz-iran- contacts/p12806?breadcrumb=%2Fregion%2F404%2Firan#p2. 63 Eric Hoogland, “Land and Revolution in Iran, 1960 – 1980,” (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982).
- 24. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 17 - eyes of the Americans, land reform would ensure that rural Iran remained stable and prevent the extreme economic discontent of the peasant classes that too often provided the impetus for revolution.64 By 1979, the United States had not yet broken diplomatic ties with Iran, but the United States did see the probability of the Iranian Revolution before it became a reality.65 The American government feared that mass uprisings would occur in Iran.66 So, the United States took an active role in stabilizing the region. However, what the United States saw as stabilizing, the revolutionary Iranian government saw as interference. Perhaps the most critical aspect of the Iranian Revolution to the United States was the Hostage Crisis. As mentioned before, in response to the crisis, the United States suspended oil imports from Iran and froze billions of dollars in Iranian assets in order to place pressure on the Iranian government and coerce them to release the hostages.67 United Kingdom The United Kingdom has an extensive history with Iran, particularly with respect to its oil industry. The Anglo-Iranian Oil Company was established in 1908, but over the years caused discontent in Iran. The idea of nationalizing Iranian oil became increasingly popular, both in the minds of the common people and key politicians such as Prime Minister Mossadegh, an integral figure to the Coup of 1953. Regardless, the British were not willing to easily give up the resources they had claimed for decades. Because of this involvement, when Khomeini came to power he associated the United Kingdom with the external domination of Iran by Western powers.68 France It is important to note that Ayatollah Khomeini was exiled in 1964 and settled in France under political asylum in 1978. He orchestrated the bulk of the Iranian revolution from his home in the Parisian suburb of Neauphle-le-Chateau. Khomeini met with journalists to campaign for the overthrow of the Shah, all while under the careful watch of the French government. When he !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64 Lisa Reynolds Wolfe, “Iran 1960: Kennedy Pushes Land Reform,” Cold War Studies, last modified 25 Feb 2012, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.coldwarstudies.com/2012/02/25/iran-1960-kennedy-pushes-land-reform/. 65 “US Relations With Iran,” United States Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, last modified 28 Aug 2013, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5314.htm. 66 Lisa Reynolds Wolfe, “Iran 1960: Kennedy Pushes Land Reform,” Cold War Studies, last modified 25 Feb 2012, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.coldwarstudies.com/2012/02/25/iran-1960-kennedy-pushes-land-reform/. 67 Lionel Beehner, “Timeline: US-Iran Contracts,” Council on Foreign Relations, Last modified 9 Mar. 2007, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.cfr.org/iran/timeline-uzsz-iran- contacts/p12806?breadcrumb=%2Fregion%2F404%2Firan#p2. 68 Pauwels, Matthias, “Assessing the Impact of the Iranian Reovlution on the World Beyond the Middle East,” International Politics Energy Culture, last modified 7 Oct 2011, accessed 12 July 2014, http://inpec.in/2011/10/07/assessing-the-impact-of-the-iranian-revolution-on-the-world-beyond- the-middle-east/.
- 25. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 18 - returned to Iran in 1979, the French provided Khomeini with an Air France flight to Tehran.69 However, the French did not openly support Khomeini’s revolution and allied with fellow Western states to oppose the new government. Soviet Union One of the key aspects of the Iranian Revolution was de-Westernization, and along with it came de- capitalization. This shift provided the Soviet Union with the ideal opportunity to ally itself with Iran and decrease the credibility of the West, particularly the United States, in the Middle East. While the Soviet government in Moscow certainly realized the delicacy and complexity of the situation in Iran in 1979, it had high hopes for a post-revolutionary relationship with Iran that would spread Soviet ideals to the Middle East in a more complete manner.70 Middle East In 1979, many Middle Eastern nations were concerned about the stability of their region during, and in the aftermath of, the revolution. The Iranian Revolution was evidence of the potential for the Islamic faith to bring about immense political change, particularly because the religion had weight with the masses. The fact that Islam could mobilize the common people in Iran into becoming revolutionaries was a key part of what made the Iranian Revolution successful; budding revolutionaries in other Middle Eastern nations with high Muslim populations could attempt to similarly use Islam as a tool for the change that they sought in their own countries.71 COMMITTEE MISSION Now, in December 1979, The Security Council faces a daunting task, as its members must mitigate the escalating situation in Iran. This body must assess the threat that changes in Iranian politics can pose to the international community and must come to a solution that respects the Iranian government while maintaining security within the region. When approaching the issue of the escalating conflict in Iran, members of the Security Council should bear in mind several goals. Firstly, it is the priority of the Security Council to maintain peace and stability within the international community. Any resolution drafted by the committee should be reflective of this priority. Secondly, the Security Council must develop a solution that not only addresses the current situation in Iran but also includes provisions to ensure that similar conflicts do not arise in the future; the solution must be preventative. It is also crucial that the Security Council be prepared to respond to any developments regarding the situation in Iran as they arise. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 69 “France and the Iranian Revolution,” The Brussels Journal, last modified 24 Jan 2007, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/1857. 70 Matthias Pauwels, “Assessing the Impact of the Iranian Reovlution on the World Beyond the Middle East,” International Politics Energy Culture, last modified 7 Oct 2011, accessed 12 July 2014, http://inpec.in/2011/10/07/assessing-the-impact-of-the-iranian-revolution-on-the-world-beyond- the-middle-east/. 71 Afshin Shahi, “Thirty Years On: The Iranian Revolutoin and its Impact on the Region,” E- Internatinoal Relations, last modified 14 Feb 2009, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.e- ir.info/2009/02/14/thirty-years-on-the-iranian-revolution-and-its-impact-on-the-region/.
- 26. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 19 - It is important to note that such a solution must be arrived at in a timely and efficient manner. The situation in Iran today grows more volatile with every passing day. If left unresolved, the situation in Iran could not only pose a threat to the stability and security of the region, but also to the global community as a whole.
- 27. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 20 - TOPIC B: THE SITUATION IN AFGHANISTAN (1979) INTRODUCTION In December of 1979, Afghanistan faced one of the most influential and volatile moments in its history: a Soviet invasion that began in the cities of Kabul and Herat. On Christmas Eve, 1979, Soviet military forces crossed Afghanistan’s borders, starting what would become a decade-long presence in their neighbor country. The situation in Afghanistan affected the international community significantly, and at the time many states had strong opinions regarding the Soviet invasion and the role of the Soviet Union in global affairs. The United Kingdom’s newly elected Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher expressed her concern that the Soviet Union was violating the sovereignty of the Afghan government. 72 China was opposed to the Soviet Union’s increasingly expansionist policies.73 When the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was established with the help of the Soviet Union after the Suar Revolution, the American Embassy in Kabul cabled Washington announcing that “what the British first, and later the Americans, tried to prevent for a hundred years has happened: the Russian Bear has moved south of the Hindu Kush.”74 Now faced with this conflict, the UN Security Council must rise to complete a daunting task: maintaining international peace and security for the global community while maintaining the sovereignty of both the Afghan and Soviet governments. HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE ISSUE Afghan-USSR Relations Prior to 1978 Beginning in the 1950s, the Soviet Union, as part of its increasingly expansionist foreign policy, provided economic and military assistance to neighboring state Afghanistan at the request of then- Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud, who would later become president.75 Until 1978, the prime minister was considered the head of the Afghan government; thus, at this time, Daoud was the primary representative of Afghanistan within the international community. The Soviets built roads, !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 72 D.J. Lahey, “The Thatcher Government’s Response to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan,” Cold War History 13, No. 1 (2013): 21-42, accessed 6 June 2014, http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:2452/doi/pdf/10.1080/09557571.2013.781573. 73 A.Z. Hilali, “China’s Response to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan,” Central Asian Survey 20, No. 3 (2001): 323-351, accessed 6 June 2014, http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:15304/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=12&sid=d6294679-ac15-42eb-b344- 8f9f644ac884%40sessionmgr4004&hid=4110. 74 Larry Clinton Thompson, “Surviving the ’78 Revolution in Afghanistan,” Hack Writers, last modified Dec 2009, accessed 6 Apr 2011, http://www.hackwriters.com/78RevolutionAfghan.htm. 75 “Afghanistan Profile,” BBC News, last modified 16 June 2014, accessed 11 July 2014, Http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12024253.
- 28. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 21 - irrigation systems and oil pipelines.76 The Soviet influence, however, did not stop with the Afghan infrastructure and military; under direction from the Soviet government, Daoud introduced various social reforms including the abolition of purdah, the practice of keeping women from public view, a controversial change for Afghanistan’s largely conservative Muslim population.77 From the early days of Soviet involvement in Afghanistan, the Soviet government sought to lessen the grip of fundamentalist Islam on the country and synthesize communist ideals with the Afghan culture. During the 1960s and 1970s, Afghanistan was a fairly liberal Islamic country. Imams and mullahs did not have power within the government; their influence was limited to religious matters.78 In 1973, the king at the time, Zahir Shah, left the country to receive medical treatment in Italy. Since the end of his term as Prime Minister in 1963, Mohammad Daoud had long resented his exclusion from Afghan politics and lack of power. During Zahir Shah’s absence, Daoud took advantage of discontent among the Afghan armed forces and seized power in a coup. He declared Afghanistan a republic by declaring himself president of the nation as opposed to crowning himself king. The coup was entirely bloodless, and Zahir Shah remained in Italy. Daoud’s presidency centered on reform: he wanted to emancipate women and suppress the Islamic fundamentalism that permeated Afghan culture at the time. While at first these values were in line with those of the Soviet Union, from which the Afghan government was receiving shipments of arms, ultimately Daoud felt that the USSR had begun to violate the sovereignty of the Afghan government. He was concerned that the Soviet Union had become too vocal about Afghanistan’s relations with Western countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom. 79 In March of 1977, Daoud visited the Soviet Union to sign a trade treaty between Afghanistan and the USSR. During this visit, Leonid Brezhnev reproached Daoud for allowing Western specialists, or “imperialist advisors” as Brezhnev allegedly called them, into the northern provinces of Afghanistan. Daoud reminded Brezhnev that he was the leader of an independent nation, and, upon his return to Afghanistan, Daoud began looking for ways to lessen Afghanistan’s increasing military and economic reliance on the Soviet Union. He also began cracking down on members of Afghanistan’s !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 76 Mike Jacobs and Shou Zhang, “The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan,” last modified Dec 2001, accessed 11 July 2014, Http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/2002- p4/baker_p4_12-01_mj_sz/#invasion. 77 “Afghanistan Profile,” BBC News, last modified 16 June 2014, accessed 11 July 2014, Http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12024253. 78 Lester W. Grau, “The Soviet-Afghan War: A Superpower Mired in the Mountains,” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17, No. 1 (2004), accessed 6 June 2014, http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/miredinmount.htm. 79 “Mohammad Daoud Kahn,” History In an Hour, last modified 18 July 2012, accessed 21 July 2013, http://www.historyinanhour.com/2012/07/18/mohammed-daoud-khan-summary/.
- 29. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 22 - communist party, the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan.80 Diplomatic relations between the Daoud regime and the Soviet government declined.81 Saur Revolution The Saur Revolution occurred on 28 April 1978 and was one of the most pivotal and influential events in Afghan history. In the early hours of the morning, rogue militants from the Afghan army stormed the palace in Kabul and killed President Mohammad Daoud, who had been ruling Afghanistan since 1973, and his family with the support of the Soviet government.82 When the coup was announced, it was said that the Khlaq were overthrowing the Daoud regime. Khlaq, or “people”, was a word traditionally used by Afghan communists; it was clear that the new regime would be a communist one.83 This was how the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) came to power along with their new president, Nur Mohammad Taraki. The DRA was a communist party riddled with conflicting factions.84 While its policies were intended to help the poor, it financially hurt farmers and morally contradicted many of their beliefs. Economically, farmers were hurt by the DRA’s prohibition of usury; many peasants relied on a traditional, yet corrupt, money lending system to maintain financial stability.85 The DRA also declared equality of the sexes; many of the conservative Afghan people, particularly the rural poor, took this as a great offense to their Islamic beliefs.86 When assessing the situation facing Afghanistan in December of 1979, it is important to keep in mind the sweeping popular dissent that was brewing against the DRA for over a year prior to the Soviet Invasion. As the Soviet troops are invading now in 1979, they are fighting against a population, not another government’s military power. Afghan-USSR “Friendship Treaty” As 1978 unfolded, popular opinion of the Soviet government and its role in Afghanistan became increasingly negative. In order to gain the approval of more of the Afghan population, Soviet leaders !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 80 “The Intervention in Afhganistan and the Fall of Détente: A Chronology,” George Washington University, accessed 11 July 2014, http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_intervention_in_afghanistan_and_the_fall_ of_detente/fall_of_detente_chron.pdf. 81 “Mohammad Daoud Kahn,” History In an Hour, last modified 18 July 2012, accessed 11 July 2014, http://www.historyinanhour.com/2012/07/18/mohammed-daoud-khan-summary/. 82 Barnett R. Rubin, “The Fragmentation of Afghanistan,” (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002): 104. 83 Larry Clinton Thompson, “Surviving the ’78 Revolution in Afghanistan,” Hack Writers, last modified Dec 2009, http://www.hackwriters.com/78RevolutionAfghan.htm. 84 Lester W. Grau. “The Soviet-Afghan War: A Superpower Mired in the Mountains,” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17, No. 1 (2004), accessed 6 June 2014, http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/miredinmount.htm. 85 Anthony Arnold, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion in Perspective, (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1981), 74-75, 83, 86; Clements, Frank, Conflict in Afghanistan: a historical encyclopedia. (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, Inc., 2003): 207. 86 Ibid.
- 30. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 23 - decided to enter into a “friendship treaty” with Afghanistan in December of 1978. The treaty consisted of several provisions, the most prominent being an agreement that the Soviet Union would provide economic and military assistance to the Afghan government.87 It also included a clause stating that the Soviet Union would support the policies of the new Afghan government instated during the Saur Revolution.88 This treaty opened the door for the Soviet Union to not only maintain a military presence in the region, but to do so legally. Herat Uprising Too much change too fast was the primary cause of the Herat Uprising. The uprising took place from 15 to 20 March of 1979, nearly a year after the Saur Revolution. As was mentioned before, while the new regime initially turned to lower class farmers and other poorer people to back their campaign, the Afghan masses experienced what were primarily the negative effects of the Revolution. Religion was the key issue that led to conflict between the communist Democratic Party of Afghanistan and the Afghan people. While the DRA claimed religion was the “opiate of the masses,” as Karl Marx would say, the Afghan people were clinging to what for many of them was the foundation of their lives: Islam.89 For example, the DRA pushed not only for the education of women but also for the education of women by male teachers. At this time within Afghanistan’s many Muslim communities, this was a highly controversial change to the education system. This adjustment may now seem progressive and forward thinking; however, the push for these changes showed that the communist leadership in Afghanistan had very little respect or interest in preserving Afghan customs, ultimately leading to popular dissent from the masses against the government.90 Education was not the only issue that caused concern for the Afghan citizens opposing the new communist government. The redistribution of land supported by the DRA brought about anger amongst the landowners and farmers in rural Afghanistan.91 Additionally, the DRA championed a literacy campaign riddled with communist propaganda.92 The policies of the DRA disrespected the piety and importance of religion that was foundational to rural Afghan culture at the time, and would ultimately pay the price in the form of the Herat Uprising.93 Beginning on 15 March 1979, demonstrators marched on Herat, a city located in northwestern Afghanistan near the Afghan-Turkmen border. Smaller, isolated uprisings had occurred in Herat before this uprising, but the magnitude and violence of the March 1979 uprising was unprecedented. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87 “USSR and Afghanistan Sign ‘Friendship Treaty,” History Channel, accessed 11 July 2014, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-and-afghanistan-sign-friendship-treaty. 88 “The Soviet-Afghan War: A Cold War Chess Piece,” History and the Headlines, last modified 2011, accessed 11 July 2014, “http://www.historyandtheheadlines.abc- clio.com/ContentPages/ContentPage.aspx?entryId=1193937¤tSection=1190138. 89 Ali M. Latifi, “Remebering Afghanistan’s Heart Uprising,” Al Jazeera, last modified 13 Feb 2014, accessed 11 July 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/remembering-afghanistan-herat- uprising-201421294828377438.html. 90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 92 Mark Urban, War in Afghanistan, (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 1990): 30. 93 Ali M. Latifi, “Remebering Afghanistan’s Heart Uprising,” Al Jazeera, last modified 13 Feb 2014, accessed 11 July 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/remembering-afghanistan-herat- uprising-201421294828377438.html.
- 31. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 24 - Demonstrators attacked government buildings—symbols of the unpopular communist regime in Afghanistan—and held Herat for a week. 94 In particular they targeted government officials, government supporters, and those with uncovered heads—a covered head was a sign of piety. Schoolteachers who taught the state-mandated communist curriculum, regardless of their own political leanings, were also targeted and massacred.95 The Afghan army had received orders to put down the rebellion, but instead the unit in Herat mutinied and joined the uprising.96 The Herat Uprising affected Afghan-Soviet relations significantly; following the revolt, the Soviet leadership realized that the USSR’s alliance with Afghanistan was in danger. During the insurrection, several of the DRA’s Soviet advisors were killed.97 In the months following the uprising, the Soviets increased their military presence in Afghanistan by sending increased amounts of equipment to the DRA, including T-62 tanks, MiG-21 fighters, and Mi-24 attack helicopters. The Soviets also sent extra advisors to Afghanistan to ensure the proper use of the new equipment.98 Nonetheless, the Afghan military continued to decline in power while the number of rebellions throughout the country steadily rose and the military’s morale worsened.99 Revolts were put down, but the decreasing power of the military and the increasing fervor of the insurgent groups contributed to the Soviet invasion that would occur less than a year after the Herat Uprising. Mujahideen Mujahideen are Muslim guerrilla fighters, particularly those who are fighting against a non-Muslim force.100 In the late 1970s, loosely aligned anti-Soviet opposition groups, the now globally recognized mujahideen of Afghanistan, rebelled against the DRA. When the mujahideen groups first began to form, they consisted of regional warlords who fought locally; the resistance movement was chaotic, fragmented, and disorganized. 101 The disunity and diversity of the mujahideen at the end of the 1970s reflected the decentralized nature of Afghanistan itself, particularly in the country’s rural, mountainous regions that still carried the vestiges of tribal society. In 1979, the international community’s response to the anti-Soviet mujahideen in Afghanistan was unclear. States, including the member states of the Security Council, had for the most part not yet decided whether they would support resistance groups.102 It is also important to note that the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 94 Mark Urban, War in Afghanistan (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 1990): 30. 95 Oliver Roy, Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992): 108. 96 Mark Urban, War in Afghanistan (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 1990): 30. 97 Ibid., 30. 98 Mark Urban, War in Afghanistan (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 1990): 31-32. 99 Barnett R. Rubin, “The Fragmentation of Afghanistan,” (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002): 120. 100 “Mujahideen,” Oxford Dictionaries, accessed 23 Aug 2014, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mujahideen. 101 Kallie Szczepanski, “Who Were the Mujahideen of Afghanistan,” Asian About Education, accessed 23 Aug 2014, http://asianhistory.about.com/od/glossaryko/g/Who-Were-the-Mujahideen-of- Afghanistan.htm. 102 Ibid.
- 32. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 25 - mujahideen groups were often in conflict with one another, making the political and military climates in the region even more volatile. Developments in the Past Year By the beginning of 1979, murmurs of a potential Soviet presence in Afghanistan were already circulating within the Soviet Politburo and the Afghan government. In March, the newly established Communist government of Afghanistan requested that the Soviet Politburo send troops to Kabul after the Herat Uprising to put down any remaining demonstrations. The Soviet Politburo debated this increase in Soviet presence quite seriously; ultimately, the invasion was deemed no longer favorable to either party.103 However, these talks within the Politburo laid the groundwork for the impending invasion that would take place just months after the initial request from the DRA. Hafizullah Amin, deputy prime minister of the Nur Muhammad Taraki administration and co- conspirator of the coup that took place during the Saur Revolution, claimed the role of prime minister from Taraki in March of 1979. Just a few months later, in September of 1979, Amin overthrew Taraki completely, taking over the leadership of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) as president of Afghanistan.104 After the deposition of Taraki, Amin continued to call for Soviet aid, particularly military intervention to help fight the growing threat of the mujahideen. However, the Soviet Union no longer directly controlled the Afghan leadership as they did when Taraki was in power; Amin did not take orders as willingly from the Soviets as his predecessor did.105 Unlike Taraki, Amin was a passionate nationalist and sought to improve relations with Pakistan and the United States.106 Given the increasing tension between the Soviet Union and the United States, the Soviet government was not ready to trust Amin in the same way that they had trusted Taraki. Losing Afghanistan to the West would be an unacceptable setback that the members of the Soviet Politburo needed to avoid at all costs. It is also important to note that as 1979 drew to a close, the Afghan government had committed an immense number of human rights violations. The Amin administration conducted monthly purges, eliminating prominent Afghan citizens who opposed Amin’s policies. The murder of innocent people in Afghanistan reached a peak, and refugees poured out of Afghanistan and into Iran and Pakistan. Amin faced both extreme public pressure and international pressure to increase government transparency. In September of 1979, in an attempt to pacify the population and the global community, the Amin administration published a partial list of those who had been executed. The list consisted of 12,000 names, but historians argue that the real number of killings was closer to !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 103 Artemy Kalinovsky, “Decision-Making and the Soviet War in Afghanistan,” accessed 6 June 2014. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.4.46. 104 “Hafizullah Amin,” Encyclopedia Brittannica, accessed 6 June 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20639/Hafizullah-Amin. 105Lester W. Grau, “The Soviet-Afghan War: A Superpower Mired in the Mountains,” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17, No. 1 (2004), accessed 6 June 2014. http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/miredinmount.htm 106 “Hafizullah Amin,” Encyclopedia Brittannica, accessed 6 June 2014, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20639/Hafizullah-Amin.
- 33. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 26 - 50,000. Most of the killed people were innocent civilians.107 By the end of 1979, the situation in Afghanistan was volatile, not only in the eyes of the international community but also with regard for the safety and security of the Afghan people. CURRENT STATUS In early December of 1979, conversation was occurring within the Soviet Politburo. At this time, Soviet policy was mostly determined by a small number of people within the Politburo, regardless of pressure or opinion from the rest of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The decision to invade was made by key foreign policy experts within the Politburo—particularly Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko, Defense Minister Dmitrii Ustinov, KGB Chairman Yurii Andropov, and long time Politburo member Mikhail Suslov.108 At this time, the parties in favor of the invasion feared that the loss of Afghanistan as a Communist model would be too great of a blow to Soviet prestige to bear.109 Prior to the invasion, the Soviet Union was confident that by taking action they would be able to stabilize the government of Afghanistan and establish a Communist regime there. This was based on reports from officials on the ground in Kabul.110 On 24 December 1979, the Soviet Defense Ministry ordered the senior staff of the military to begin sending troops into Afghanistan, seizing strategic military points throughout Kabul. The troops first crossed into Afghanistan via border cities. Elements of the 40th Army, a Soviet military command during World War II that was revived and reformed in order to complete the Afghanistan mission, crossed the Amu Daria River at Termez, a border city, to reach Kabul.111 More elements of the 40th Army entered Afghanistan through the border city of Kushka with the aim of reaching both Herat and Kandahar. Additionally, the 103 Guards Airborne Division, a division of the Soviet Airborne Troops, established an air corridor, or flight path, into Kabul. See Appendix A for a map of this flight path.112 The Soviet Union had experience with guerilla warfare prior to the Soviet Invasion; during the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet military forces led a successful counterinsurgency against the Basmachi in central Asia, and after World War II they led a similar counterinsurgency in the Ukraine against the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. However, in the initial talks that brought about the Soviet presence in Afghanistan, the Soviets were under the impression that the DRA would step up to fight against the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 107Aleksandr Antonovich Lyakhovskiy, "Inside the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the seizure of Kabul, December 1979, Cold War International History Project, January 2007, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/WP51_Web_Final.pdf. 108 Artemy Kalinovsky, “Decision-Making and the Soviet War in Afghanistan,” accessed 6 June 2014, http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.4.46. 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid. 111 "40th Army (Soviet Union)," Military Wikia, accessed 12 July 2014, http://military.wikia.com/wiki/40th_Army_(Soviet_Union). 112 “Timeline: Soviet War in Afghanistan,” BBC News, last modified 17 Feb 2009, accessed 11 July 2014, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7883532.stm.
- 34. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 27 - mujahideen. However, now, as Soviet troops are present in the country, both the Soviet and Afghan governments are quickly realizing that the DRA is not equipped to handle guerilla warfare.113 The situation as it stands at the current time sees the recent arrival of Soviet troops in Kabul. Mujahideen resistance is already on the rise: small bands of locally based guerilla fighters have taken to the streets with primarily World War I-era British Lee-Enfield .303 bolt-action rifles and Martini- Henry single-shot breech-loading rifles both dating from the 1880s. The militants have easy access to food, water, shelter, and medical aid; they also have the benefit of familiarity with the mountainous Afghan terrain.114 BLOC ANALYSIS Soviet Union The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan was the Soviet Union’s largest military action since 1945.115 It was also the first time that the Soviet Union had occupied a state outside of Eastern Europe.116 It is important to note that Afghanistan borders the Soviet Union. Thus, it was natural both for Afghanistan to reach out to the Soviet Union for military and financial aid as well as for the Soviet Union to spread its Communist ideals into Afghanistan.117 One of the primary concerns of the Soviet Union prior to the invasion was that if the Soviet Union could not establish a flourishing Communist state in Afghanistan, the face of Asian Communism would be critically tarnished.118 The Soviet Union was particularly motivated by a desire to protect its own interests in Afghanistan, not only from Western nations such as the United States, but also from Iran and the influences of other Middle Eastern states.119 China By 1979, relations between China and the Soviet Union are strained; thus, relations between China and the Afghan government are strained. While China and Afghanistan maintained neutral relations prior to the Saur Revolution, Afghanistan’s support for Vietnam during the Sino-Vietnamese War !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 113 Lester W. Grau, “The Soviet-Afghan War: A Superpower Mired in the Mountains,” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17, No. 1 (2004), accessed 6 June 2014, http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/miredinmount.htm 114 Ibid. 115 David Gibbs, “Reassessing Soviet Motives for Invading Afghanistan: A Classified History,” Critical Asian Studies 38, No. 2 (2006): 239-263, accessed 6 June 2014, http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:15304/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=d6294679-ac15-42eb-b344- 8f9f644ac884%40sessionmgr4004&vid=22&hid=4110. 116 Ibid. 117 Ibid. 118 Artemy Kalinovsky, “Decision-Making and the Soviet War in Afghanistan,” accessed 6 June 2014, http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.4.46. 119 Mike Jacobs and Shou Zhang, “The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan,” last modified Dec 2001, accessed 11 July 2014, http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/2002- p4/baker_p4_12-01_mj_sz/#invasion.
- 35. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 28 - caused relations to rapidly deteriorate.120 As a result, as the Soviet Union invades, China is providing weapons to mujahideen.121 China has also increased its military presence near Afghanistan in the province of Xinjiang and requested military equipment from the United States to fend off a potential Soviet attack.122 United States Beginning in the 1950s with the start of closer relations between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, the United States has voiced concern over the ties between these two nations. One U.S. Embassy document from 1955 stated that: “The US has observed that Soviet penetration [in the world]… in some instances has led to a loss of independence.”123 However, initially the US did not strongly express these reservations. In 1954, the United States National Security Council drafted a document outlining how the United States would act given a Soviet attack on Afghanistan. The document stated that the US would attempt to bring about the withdrawal of Soviet forces through diplomatic measures and, in the event that the US was unsuccessful, would determine at the time given the circumstances if further action should be taken.124 The United States at that time was not more concerned about the presence of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan than it would be about a Soviet presence in any other state. However, as the decades passed, the United States became more interested in the situation in Afghanistan. By July of 1979, the United States through the Central Intelligence Agency was providing support to the Afghan insurgents by means of financial support and military equipment. The aid was only worth several hundred thousand dollars.125 While the United States is most preoccupied now in 1979 with the goings on in Iran, particularly the Hostage Crisis that occurred on 4 November of this year, the United States is condemning the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan as its events unfold and is dedicated to providing support for the insurgents.126 The US charge d’affairs reported very recently (1979) to the State Department: We have been observing for 18 months how this Marxist party (the PDPA) has been destroying itself...By way of illustration: if you take the list of ministers who were confirmed in April 1978 there have been 25 changes among them. The number of changes among deputy ministers is even greater – 34. One purge follows another and it is difficult to imagine how the regime manages to survive. Part of the answer to this question is, of course, the brutal repression of the identified opposition. The number of murdered political prisoners !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 120 S. Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland (M. E. Sharpe, 2004) 157. 121 Warren Kinsella. Unholy Alliances (Lester Publishing, 1992). 122122 S. Frederick Starr, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland (M. E. Sharpe, 2004) 157. 123 David Gibbs, “Reassessing Soviet Motives for Invading Afghanistan: A Classified History,” Critical Asian Studies 38, No. 2 (2006): 239-263, accessed 6 June 2014, http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:15304/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=d6294679-ac15-42eb-b344- 8f9f644ac884%40sessionmgr4004&vid=22&hid=4110. 124 Ibid. 125 Ibid. 126 Mike Jacobs and Shou Zhang, “The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan,” last modified Dec 2001, accessed 11 July 2014, Http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/2002- p4/baker_p4_12-01_mj_sz/#invasion.
- 36. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 29 - has evidently reached 6,000 but the number of those held in political prisons and who have been imprisoned in them is possibly four times this number...127 United Kingdom The United Kingdom is currently experiencing an era of political change: Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher has only recently been elected. Additionally, given the precarious economic situation facing the United Kingdom at this time, the United Kingdom is limited in what it can provide financially to mitigate any threat the situation in Afghanistan may pose. However, Thatcher is actively speaking out against what the British believe to be a violation of Afghan sovereignty by the Soviet Union.128 Post-Colonial and Developing Countries In 1979, developing countries played a key role in international affairs, particularly because the United States, China, and the Soviet Union were all vying for influential roles in these states.129 However, it was the post-colonial history of several of these developing states that influenced their policies towards the Soviet-Afghan conflict. For example, former colonies of the United Kingdom such as Jamaica and Nigeria are following in the footsteps of their former motherland by condemning the Soviet Union for violating Afghan sovereignty. COMMITTEE MISSION Now, in December 1979, The Security Council faces a daunting task as its members must mitigate the escalating situation in Afghanistan. This body must assess the threat that changes in both Afghan and Soviet politics can pose to the international community and must come to a solution that respects the Soviet government while maintaining the sovereignty of all states involved. When approaching the escalating conflict in Afghanistan, members of the Security Council should bear several goals in mind. Firstly, it is the first priority of the Security Council to maintain peace and stability within the international community. Any resolution drafted by the committee should be reflective of this priority. Secondly, the Security Council must develop a solution that not only addresses the current situation in Afghanistan but also includes provisions to ensure that similar conflicts do not arise in the future. It is also crucial that the Security Council be prepared to respond to any developments regarding the situation in Afghanistan as they arise. It is important to note that such a solution must be arrived at in a timely and efficient manner. The situation in Afghanistan grows more volatile with every passing day. If left unresolved, the situation !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 127 Aleksandr Antonovich Lyakhovskiy, "Inside the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the seizure of Kabul”, December 1979, Cold War International History Project, January 2007, accessed 12 July 2014, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/WP51_Web_Final.pdf. 128D.J. Lahey, “The Thatcher Government’s Response to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan,” Cold War History 13, No. 1 (2013): 21-42, accessed 6 June 2014. http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:2452/doi/pdf/10.1080/09557571.2013.781573. 129 Artemy Kalinovsky, “Decision-Making and the Soviet War in Afghanistan,” accessed 6 June 2014, http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.4.46.
- 37. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 30 - in Afghanistan could not only pose a threat to the stability and security of the region, but also to the world. !
- 38. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 31 - APPENDIX A: MAP OF SOVIET AIR CORRIDOR INTO KABUL130 ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 130 “Timeline: Soviet War in Afghanistan,” BBC News, last modified 17 Feb 2009, accessed 11 July 2014, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7883532.stm.
- 39. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 32 - RESEARCH AND PREPARATION QUESTIONS As mentioned in the Note on Research and Preparation, delegates must answer each of these questions in their position papers. TOPIC A 1. What was your country’s relationship with Iran prior to the revolution? During the revolution? Why did they follow the policies that they did? 2. Does your country support Ayatollah Khomeini as the Supreme Leader of Iran? Why or why not? 3. Does your country support the shift of Iran’s government from a secular republic to an Islamic state? Why or why not? 4. Has your country been directly impacted by the revolution in any way, whether it be economically, politically, or socially? How so? How does your country hope to react to this impact? 5. Does your country perceive the revolution in Iran as a threat to international security? If so, what does it propose as a solution to mitigate this threat? TOPIC B 1. Is your country’s policy more aligned with that of the Soviet Union, the Afghan government, or the mujahideen groups? Why is this so? 2. Does your country provide any aid to the aforementioned groups, whether it be military or financial? If so, why? How what impact will this have on the solutions that your country will propose in committee? 3. What is your country’s policy on foreign intervention? Is your country more likely to intervene while risking violating the sovereignty of another state, or does your country prioritize maintaining sovereignty above all else? 4. What is a short-term solution that your country would propose to mitigate the immediate violence occurring in Afghanistan at this moment in December of 1979? 5. What is a long-term solution that your country would propose to stabilize the Afghan government and ensure that similar conflicts do not occur in the future?
- 40. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 33 - IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS TOPIC A S/RES/457. “Resolution 457.” 4 Dec. 1979. http://daccess-dds- ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/370/71/IMG/NR037071.pdf?OpenElement. This is the United Nations Security Council resolution calling for the return of the hostages taken in the Iranian Hostage Crisis of 1979. Government of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria. “Algiers Accords.” 19 Jan. 1981. http://www.parstimes.com/history/algiers_accords.pdf. The Algiers Accords was the agreement between Iran and the United States, brokered by Algeria, that led to the release of the Americans taken hostage in Iran. Consider this agreement when thinking about potential solution ideas. “Timeline: A Modern History of Iran.” PBS News Hour. Last modified 11 February 2010. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/middle_east-jan-june10-timeline/. This comprehensive timeline of Iran’s history offers context for the revolution and its aftermath. It is crucial that you as delegates understand the history of not only the state in turmoil, but also its relations with other countries in the region and beyond. “Khomeini Seizes Power in Iran.” ABC News. Last modified 18 Dec 2009. http://abcnews.go.com/Archives/video/feb-11-1979-khomeini-seizes-power-iran-9378486. This video (http://abcnews.go.com/Archives/video/feb-11-1979-khomeini-seizes-power-iran-9378486) is a news report highlighting Khomeini’s rise to power in Iran. This is a fantastic primary source; it offers not only crucial information about Iran’s political climate following the revolution but also will give you a sense of how the international community was responding to the crisis. “Timeline: US-Iran Ties.” BBC News. Last modified 16 Jan. 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3362443.stm. This article provides a brief timeline of the Iranian Hostage Crisis, a key event facing the Security Council in December 1979. TOPIC B “Afghanistan Profile.” BBC News. Last modified 16 June 2014. Http://www.bbc.com/news/world- south-asia-12024253. This timeline offers a brief overview of Afghan history. Studying this document will provide you with the greater context of what was going on in Afghanistan prior to, during, and after the invasion. Reading this will help you craft more comprehensive and effective solutions, in addition to improving your ability to debate well in committee. “Timeline: Soviet War in Afghanistan.” BBC News. Last modified 17 Feb 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7883532.stm.
- 41. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 34 - This timeline offers a brief overview of the events of the Soviet invasion. By familiarizing yourself with this document, you will have a firm grasp on the many complex events that led to the conflict. Latifi, Ali M.. “Remembering Afghanistan’s Heart Uprising.” Al Jazeera. Last modified 13 Feb 2014. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/remembering-afghanistan-herat- uprising-201421294828377438.html. This article offers a comprehensive review of the Herat Uprising that revolutionized Afghanistan and laid the framework for the Soviet Invasion. Reading through this article, and other articles discussing the Herat Uprising, will give you important context for understanding the invasion and its implications. “Mujahideen,” Oxford Dictionaries, accessed 23 Aug 2014, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mujahideen. Understanding the term mujahideen is crucial to understanding the conflict in Afghanistan. This definition is concise and will improve your understanding of the various groups involved with the conflict.
- 42. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 35 - BIBLIOGRAPHY COMMITTEE HISTORY AND SIMULATION Charter of the United Nations. Geneva: United Nations, 1945. Text of the United Nations Charter. Handbook on the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes between States. United Nations - Office of Legal Affairs, 1992. Report describing the process employed by the UN to peacefully settle disputes between states. Lerner, Adrienne Wilmoth. "United Nations Security Council." Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence, and Security. Accessed 15 July 2012. http://www.encyclopedia.com. Brief article discussing the structure and impact of the Security Council. "Membership of the Security Council." United Nations. Accessed 15 July 2012. http://www.un.org/sc/members.asp. Brief article describing the composition of the Security Council. United Nations Peacekeeping Operations - Principles and Guidelines. United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, 2007. Report on the principles and guidelines of UN Peacekeeping. TOPIC A UN Sources S/RES/457. “Resolution 457.” 4 Dec. 1979. http://daccess-dds- ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/370/71/IMG/NR037071.pdf?OpenElement. The UNSC resolution calling for the return of the hostages taken in the Iranian Hostage Crisis of 1979. Other Sources “1979 Hostage Crisis Still Casts Pall on US Iran Relations.” CNN Amanpour. Last modified 4 November 2009. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/11/04/iran.hostage.anniversary/. Article discussing the implications of the Revolution and Hostage Crisis on US Iran Relations. Afkhami, R. Gholam. The Life and Times of the Shah. University of California Press, 2009. A detailed text discussing the life of Reza Shah Pahlavi. Beehner, Lionel. “Timeline: US-Iran Contracts.” Council on Foreign Relations. Last modified 9 Mar. 2007. http://www.cfr.org/iran/timeline-uzsz-iran- contacts/p12806?breadcrumb=%2Fregion%2F404%2Firan#p2. Comprehensive timeline covering US Iran Relations.
- 43. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 36 - “Black Friday.” Iranian Revolution. http://blog.cvsd.k12.pa.us/iranrevolution/black-friday/. Summary and analysis of Black Friday brutality. Byman, Daniel L. “The Rise of Low-Tech Terrorism.” Washington Post, 6 May 2007. An article highlighting the Cinema Rex Fire in Abadan, Iran as an example of low-tech terrorism. “CIA Admits That It Was Behind Iran’s Coup.” Foreign Policy. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/08/18/cia_admits_it_was_behind_irans_coup More recent article discussing the CIA’s role in the Coup of 1953. Daniel, Clifton. “British Warn Iran of Serious Result If She Seizes Oil.” New York Times. Last modified 20 May 1951. Http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/052051iran- britain.html. Article discussing the British threat posed to Iran over oil nationalization. “February 11.” The People History. http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/february11th.html. Summary of the events on February 11th . “France and the Iranian Revolution.” The Brussels Journal. Last modified 24 Jan 2007. http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/1857. Article discussing France’s role in the Revolution and with Khomeini. Government of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria. “Algiers Accords.” 19 Jan. 1981. http://www.parstimes.com/history/algiers_accords.pdf. The Algiers Accords—agreement between Iran and the United States. Hangen, Welles. “Mossadegh Gets 3-Year Jail Term.” New York Times. Last modified 22 December 1953. Http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/122253iran-jail.html. Article discussing the ultimate fate of Mossadegh after the coup. Hooglund, Eric. “Land and Revolution in Iran, 1960 - 1980.” Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982. Article discussing the impact of land disputes on the revolution. “Iran: After the Abadan Fire.” Time Magazine. Last modified 4 Sept 1978. Accessed June 29 2014. http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,912118,00.html. Summary and analysis of the Cinema Rex Fire. “Iran Hostage Crisis Fast Facts.” CNN World. Last modified 17 March 2014. Accessed 2 July 2014. http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/meast/iran-hostage-crisis-fast-facts/index.html. A quick fact sheet about the hostage crisis. “The Iranian Hostage Crisis.” PBS. Accessed 17 July 2014. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/carter-hostage- crisis/. Strong analysis of the revolution and the role of the Hostage Crisis.
- 44. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 37 - “The Iranian Revolution of 1979.” History in an Hour. Last modified 26 March 2011. Accessed 17 July 2014. http://www.historyinanhour.com/2011/03/26/the-iranian-revolution-of-1979/. Strong analysis of the revolution. “Islamic Republic of Iran.” Ohio State University. http://ehistory.osu.edu/middleeast/countryview.cfm?UID=634. Summary of how Iran became the Islamic Republic of Iran. Kadivar, Darius. “History of Violence: Shah’s Generals Executed and Imperial Army Disintegrated.” Iranian. Last modified 30 Aug 2009. Accessed 30 June 2014. http://iranian.com/main/blog/darius-kadivar/history-violence-shahs-generals-executed- and-imperial-army-disintegrated-1979.html. Article discussing the mass executions that took place during the revolution. Kadivar, Cyrus. “A Question of Numbers.” Iran Voice. Last modified 8 Aug 2003. Accessed 17 July 2014. Http://www.emadbaghi.com/en/archives/000592.php#more. Article with great statistics about the revolution. “Key Events in the 1953 Coup.” New York Times. Last modified 2000. Accessed 17 July 2014. http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-coup-timeline.html. Fantastic timeline outlining the 1953 coup. Khomeini, Ayatollah. “Ayatollah Khomeini on U.S. Embassy Hostage Crisis.” YouTube video. 4:20. Posted by IranKnowledge 23 February 2009. Accessed 14 September 2014. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=makDyycHvmw&feature=fvhl. Collection of Khomeini’s speeches on the Hostage Crisis. “Khomeini Seizes Power in Iran.” ABC News. Last modified 18 Dec 2009. Accessed 17 July 2014. http://abcnews.go.com/Archives/video/feb-11-1979-khomeini-seizes-power-iran-9378486. News clips showing Khomeini’s rise to power. Larson, David. “The American Response to the Iranian Hostage Crisis: 44 Days of Decision.” International Social Science Review 57, No. 4 (1982). Accessed 6 April 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/41881381?Search=yes&resultItemClick=true&search Text=iranian&searchText=hostage&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery% 3Diranian%2Bhostage%26amp%3Bacc%3Don%26amp%3Bwc%3Don%26amp%3Bfc%3 Doff A very comprehensive scholarly article covering how the Iranian Revolution and the Hostage Crisis affected US Iran relations and international relations in general. Love, Kennet. “Shah Flees Iran After Move to Dismiss Mossadegh Fails.” New York Times. Last modified 17 August 1953. Accessed 14 June 2014. http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/081753iran-shah-flees.html. Article discussing the failure of the coup of 1953. Kurzman, Charles. Unthinkable Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004.
- 45. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 38 - Book that outlines the causes of the revolution, the revolution itself, and its aftermath. Martin, Harry V. “The Real Iranian Hostage Story.” Free America. Accessed 4 June 2014. http://web.archive.org/web/20060812040421/http://www.venusproject.com/ecs/Evidenc e_Iran_Revolution.html. A unique take on the Hostage Crisis. Maxson, Pamela. “Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi.” Northern Virginia Community College. Last modified May 1999. Accessed 14 July 2014. Http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his135/events/shah80.htm. Comprehensive article summarizing the life and contributions of Mohammad Reza Shah. Molavi, Afshin. The Soul of Iran. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005. Book about the history of Iran. “The Pahlavi Monarchy Falls.” Macrohistory. Accessed 17 July 2014. http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir2.htm. Strong yet brief summary of the fall of the Pahlavi Monarchy. Reynolds Wolfe, Lisa. “The White Revolution in Iran.” Cold War Studies. Last modified 30 May 2012. Accessed 17 July 2014. http://www.coldwarstudies.com/2012/05/30/the-white-revolution- in-iran/. A comprehensive summary and analysis of the White Revolution in Iran and its role in bringing about the Revolution of 1979. Reynolds Wolfe, Lisa. “Iran 1960: Kennedy Pushes Land Reform.” Cold War Studies. Last modified 25 Feb 2012. Accessed June 27 2014. http://www.coldwarstudies.com/2012/02/25/iran-1960-kennedy-pushes-land-reform/. An interesting analysis of the US influence on the White Revolution. “Reza Shah Pahlavi.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed 01 July 2014. Http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/500867/Reza-Shah-Pahlavi. Comprehensive article detailing the life and contributions of Reza Shah Pahlavi. “Reza Shah Pahlavi.” Iran Chamber Society. Accessed 3 July 2014. http://www.iranchamber.com/history/reza_shah/reza_shah.php. Comprehensive article detailing the life and contributions of Reza Shah Pahlavi. Ross, Albion. “Mossadegh Is Back as Premier of Iran; Order Is Restored.” New York Times. Last modified 23 July 1952. Accessed 4 July 2014. http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/072352iran-order.html. Newspaper article from 1952 discussing the reinstating of Mossadegh to office. Ross, Albion. “Mossadegh Out as Premier; Ghavam to Take Iran Helm.” New York Times. Last modified 18 July 1952. Accessed 14 July 2014. http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/071852iran-ghavam.html.
- 46. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 39 - Newspaper article from 1952 discussing the deposition of Mossadegh from office. “Shah Flees Iran.” History Channel. Accessed 4 June 2014. http://www.historychannel.com.au/classroom/day-in-history/16/shah-flees-iran. Description of the flee of the Shah from Iran and its implications. “Timeline: A Modern History of Iran.” PBS News Hour. Last modified 11 February 2010. Accessed 17 July 2014. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/middle_east-jan-june10-timeline/. This comprehensive timeline of Iran’s history offers context for the revolution and its aftermath. It is crucial that you as delegates understand the history of not only the state in turmoil, but also its relations with other countries in the region and beyond. “Timeline: US-Iran Ties.” BBC News. Last modified 16 Jan. 2009. Accessed 17 June 2014. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3362443.stm. Comprehensive summary of US Iran relations. “US Relations With Iran.” United States Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. Last modified 28 Aug 2013. Accessed 17 June 2014. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5314.htm. Comprehensive summary of US Iran relations. Usher, Evan. “Missed Opportunities- The Algiers Accords.” Last modified 31 Aug. 2012. Accessed 17 June 2014. http://www.american-iranian.org/content/series-missed-opportunities- algiers-accords. Great article about the Algiers Accords and how they could have been better. TOPIC B Other Sources “Afghanistan Profile.” BBC News. Last modified 16 June 2014. Http://www.bbc.com/news/world- south-asia-12024253. Afghan history timeline. Lahey, D.J.. “The Thatcher Government’s Reponse to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan.” Cold War History 13, No. 1 (2013): 21-42. Accessed 6 June 2014. http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:2452/doi/pdf/10.1080/09557571.2013.781573. Detailed article about British foreign policy in the late 1970s/early 1980s regarding the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan with a focus on the Thatcher administration. Gibbs, David. “Reassessing Soviet Motives for Invading Afghanistan: A Classified History.” Critical Asian Studies 38, No. 2 (2006): 239-263. Accessed 6 June 2014. http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:15304/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=d6294679-ac15-42eb- b344-8f9f644ac884%40sessionmgr4004&vid=22&hid=4110. An in depth analysis of the motives of the Soviet Union for invading Afghanistan.
- 47. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 40 - Grau, Lester W.. “The Soviet-Afghan War: A Superpower Mired in the Mountains.” The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 17, No. 1 (2004). Accessed 6 June 2014. http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/miredinmount.htm Article discussing Soviet military tactics in Afghanistan and the aid the Soviet Union was providing to Afghanistan prior to the invasion. “Hafizullah Amin.” Encyclopedia Brittannica. Accessed 6 June 2014. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/20639/Hafizullah-Amin. Brief compilation of information on the life of Hafizullah Amin. Hilali, A.Z.. “China’s Response to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan.” Central Asian Survey 20, No. 3 (2001): 323-351. Accessed 6 June 2014. http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:15304/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=12&sid=d6294679-ac15-42eb- b344-8f9f644ac884%40sessionmgr4004&hid=4110. An in depth scholarly article discussing the relationships between the Soviet Union, China, and Afghanistan upon the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union. “The Intervention in Afghanistan and the Fall of Détente: A Chronology.” George Washington University. Accessed 14 July 2014. http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/docs_intervention_in_afghanistan_and_t he_fall_of_detente/fall_of_detente_chron.pdf. A detailed timeline of Soviet-Afghan relations with a particular focus on the events leading up to the Soviet Invasion. Kalinovsky, Artemy. “Decision-Making and the Soviet War in Afghanistan.” Accessed 6 June 2014. http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.4.46 Extensive article discussing the Soviet motives for intervention and the intervention itself. Kinsella, Warren. Unholy Alliances. Lester Publishing, 1992. A detailed text discussing the relationship between China and Afghanistan during the Soviet Invasion and the years following the invasion. Jacobs, Mike and Shou Zhang. “The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan.” Last modified Dec 2001. Accessed 24 June 2014. Http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/2002- p4/baker_p4_12-01_mj_sz/#invasion. Comprehensive website explaining various elements of the invasion. Latifi, Ali M.. “Remembering Afghanistan’s Heart Uprising.” Al Jazeera. Last modified 13 Feb 2014. Accessed 7 July 2014. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/remembering- afghanistan-herat-uprising-201421294828377438.html. This article offers a comprehensive review of the Herat Uprising that revolutionized Afghanistan and laid the framework for the Soviet Invasion. Reading through this article, and other articles discussing the Herat Uprising, will give you important context for understanding the invasion and its implications. “Mohammad Daoud Kahn.” History In an Hour. Last modified 18 July 2012. Accessed 7 July 2014. http://www.historyinanhour.com/2012/07/18/mohammed-daoud-khan-summary/. Brief summary of Mohammad Daoud Kahn’s policies.
- 48. National High SchoolModel United Nations 2015 HSC - 41 - “Mujahideen.” Oxford Dictionaries. Accessed 23 Aug 2014. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mujahideen. Brief and general definition of the term mujahideen. Roy, Oliver. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. An in depth analysis of the link between religion and insurgency in Afghanistan. Rubin, Barnett R.. “The Fragmentation of Afghanistan.” Yale University Press (2002): 104. Scholarly article discussing the various sub conflicts in the Afghan region. Sharnak, Debbie. “Sovereignty and Human Rights: Re-Examining Carter’s Foregn Policy Towards the Third World.” Diplomacy and Statecraft 25, No. 2 (2014): 303-330. Accessed 6 June 2014. http://ezproxy.library.nyu.edu:2452/doi/pdf/10.1080/09592296.2014.907069 An analysis of US foreign policy in regards to the soviet invasion of Afghanistan with a particular emphasis on the Carter administration. Starr, S. Frederick. Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland. M. E. Sharpe, 2004. A detailed analysis of the Xinjiang region, a part of China that is closely linked to Afghanistan’s history. Szczepanski, Kallie. “Who Were the Mujahideen of Afghanistan.” Asian About Education. Accessed 23 Aug 2014. Http://asianhistory.about.com/od/glossaryko/g/Who-Were-the-Mujahideen- of-Afghanistan.htm. Article discussing international reactions to the mujahideen in Afghanistan. “The Soviet-Afghan War: A Cold War Chess Piece.” History and the Headlines. Last modified 2011. Accessed 7 July 2014. “http://www.historyandtheheadlines.abc- clio.com/ContentPages/ContentPage.aspx?entryId=1193937¤tSection=1190138. An excerpt from the Soviet-Afghan friendship treaty of 1978. Thompson, Larry Clinton. “Surviving the ’78 Revolution in Afghanistan.” Hack Writers. Last modified Dec 2009. Accessed 5 July 2014. http://www.hackwriters.com/78RevolutionAfghan.htm. First hand account of the 1978 revolution. “Timeline: Soviet War in Afghanistan.” BBC News. Last modified 17 Feb 2009. Accessed 6 July 2014. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7883532.stm. A detailed timeline of the events that occurred on December 24th (and leading up to it.) Urban, Mark. War in Afghanistan. London: Palgrave MacMillan, 1990. In depth analysis of civil war in Afghanistan and its causes, including the Soviet Invasion. “USSR and Afghanistan Sign ‘Friendship Treaty.” History Channel. Accessed 5 July 2014. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-and-afghanistan-sign-friendship-treaty. Brief yet informative article discussing the treaty signed between Afghanistan and the USSR in 1978.