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祈龍 何This chapter discusses how evolution can lead to cooperation between groups. It introduces concepts like kin selection and reciprocal altruism that explain how behaviors that benefit the group can evolve, even at a cost to individuals. Key thinkers discussed include Charles Darwin, George Williams, Richard Dawkins, and Alfred Wallace. Their work shows how natural selection impacts groups in addition to individuals.
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Lab 10 1
Lab 10
In this week’s lab, you will apply what you’ve learned in this course to human population
growth, in two different ways.
Exercise 1: What do Darwin, Malthus, and Thanos* have in common? They all disagree with
Captain America. *Every effort was made in writing this to avoid spoilers.
Humans are a phenomenally successful species. There are more than 7 billion people alive
today and we add 80 million people to the total each year, because birth rates greatly exceed
death rates.
But as we are learning this week in population ecology, we all need food, resources, and space,
just like all other species. Because of these limits to perpetual population growth, we may
become victims of our own success.
This, we know for certain: human population growth cannot continue forever at the current
rate. As is the case for every other species, our environment has a carrying capacity beyond
which the population cannot be maintained indefinitely. Today, our question isn’t as simple as
“how high can it go”, it is “what happens when we get there”? Along that same vein, we can
also ask how much do we want to sacrifice to enable a larger number to live stably on the
planet? Is our goal to maximize the number? Or to reduce the number and increase the
resources available to each person? Or should our goal be something else entirely?
Interestingly, people have been debating this moral dilemma for many years. In 1798, Thomas
Malthus published his infamous book: An Essay on the Principles of Population; the same text
that inspired Darwin at the time he developed the concept of natural selection. In his essay,
Malthus speculated that human populations would double every 25 years unless they were
kept in check by limits in the food supply. Malthus speculated that unless regulated the human
population would grow to such an extent that would bring about famine and starvation, and
worse. Some excerpts from Malthus’ work are below:
“The constant effort towards population... increases the number of people before the means of
subsistence are increased. The food therefore which before supported seven millions must now
be divided among seven millions and a half or eight millions. The poor consequently must live
much worse, and many of them be reduced to severe distress”. — Malthus T.R. 1798. An Essay
on the Principle of Population. Chapter II, p 19 in Oxford World's Classics reprint.
"It does not... by any means seem impossible that by an attention to breed, a certain degree of
improvement, similar to that among animals, might take place among men. Whether intellect
could be communicated may be a matter of doubt; but size, strength, beauty, complexion, and
perhaps longevity are in a degree transmissible... As the human race, however, could not be
improved in this way without ...
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36
Garrett Hardin, Ph.D., is
Professor Emeritus of Human
Ecology in the Department of
Biological Sciences at the
University of California,
Santa Barbara. His latest
book is The Ostrich Factor:
Our Population Myopia
published by the Oxford
University Press.
Living on a Lifeboat
A reprint from BioScience, October
1974
by Garrett Hardin
Susanne Langer (1942) hasshown that it is probablyimpossible to approach an
unsolved problem save through the
door of metaphor. Later, attempting
to meet the demands of rigor, we
m ay achieve some success in
cleansing theory of metaphor,
though our success is limited if we
are unable to avoid using common
language, which is shot through and
through with fossil metaphors. (I
count no less than five in the
preceding two sentences.)
S ince metaphorical thinking is
inescapable it is pointless merely to
weep about our human limitations.
We must learn to live with them, to
understand them, and to control
them. “All of us,” said George Eliot
in Middlemarch, “get our thoughts
entangled in metaphors, and act
fatally on the strength of them.” To
avoid unconscious suic ide we are
well advised to pit one metaphor
against another. From the interplay
o f c o m p e t i t i v e m e t a p h o r s ,
thoroughly developed, we may
come closer to metaphor-free
solutions to our problems.
No generation has viewed the
problem of the survival of the
human species as seriously as we
have. Inevitably, we have entered
this world of concern through the
d o o r o f m e t a p h o r .
Environmentalists have emphasized
the image of the earth as a
spaceship — Spaceship Earth.
Kenneth Boulding (1966) is the
principal architect of this metaphor.
It is time, he says, that we replace
the wasteful “cowboy economy” of
the past with the frugal “spaceship
economy” required for continued
survival in the limited world we now
see ours to be. The metaphor is
notably useful in justifying pollution
control measures.
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spaceship is also used to promote
measures that are suicidal. One of
these is a generous immigration
policy, which is only a particular
instance of a class of policies that
are in error because they lead to
the tragedy of the commons
(Hardin 1968). These suicidal
policies are attractive because they
mesh with what we unthinkingly
take to be the ideals of “the best
people.” What is missing in the
idealistic view is an insistence that
rights and responsibilities must go
t ogether. The “generous” attitude
of all too many people results in
asserting inalienable rights while
ignoring or denying matching
responsibilities.
For the metaphor of a spaceship
to be correct, the aggregate of
people on board would have to be
under unitary sovereign control
(Ophuls 1974). A true ship always
has a capt ain. It is conceivable that
a ship could be run by a committee.
But it could not possibly survive if
its course were determined by
bickering tribes that claimed righ.
Altruism and evolution
This document discusses different theories for how altruistic behavior evolved in animals despite natural selection favoring selfish behavior. It describes theories of group selection, kin selection, and reciprocal altruism. Group selection proposes that groups with more altruistic members are more likely to survive. Kin selection explains that animals help relatives to increase indirect fitness. Reciprocal altruism occurs when organisms help each other with the expectation of future help in return. The document analyzes these theories in terms of evolutionary biology to explain the prevalence of altruism in animal societies.
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1) The document discusses whether true altruism exists or if human helping behavior is ultimately motivated by self-interest. It explores different theories on altruism including empathy-altruism theory and socio biological theory.
2) Empirical evidence is presented showing that people with high empathy will help others even at a cost to themselves, supporting the existence of true altruism, while those with low empathy only help to reduce their own distress.
3) Neuroscientific research found increased activity in brain regions associated with perspective taking in highly altruistic individuals, providing a potential biological basis for altruistic motivation.
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Altruism is an oddity in the animal world. How does altruism from colony insects make the
colony more apt to survive and thrive? Do you see any applications of altruism to human
society?
Solution
1- Reciprocity is another evolutionary factor that can favor altruism. The basic theory was
introduced by Trivers (1971) and refined by Axelrod and Hamilton (1980). One organism has a
net gain by helping another if the other reciprocates with benefits (simultaneous or delayed) that
balance the donor\'s cost. Cleaning symbiosis between a large fish and a small one of a different
species may provide simultaneous reciprocal benefits: the large fish gets rid of parasites; the
small one gets food. This reciprocation implies that the small fish is more valuable as a cleaner to
the large fish than it would be as food. Reciprocity is a pervasive factor in the socioeconomic
lives of many species, especially our own. It requires safeguards, often in the form of evolved
adaptations for the detection of cheating Manipulation is another source of altruism. The
donation results from actual or implied threat or deception by the recipient. In any social
hierarchy, individuals of lower rank will often yield to the higher by abandoning a food item or
possible mate, thereby donating the coveted resource to the dominant individual. Deception often
works between species: a snapper may donate its body to an anglerfish that tempts it with its
lure; some orchids have flowers that resemble females of an insect species, so that deceived
males donate time and energy transporting pollen with no payoff to themselves. The nest
parasitism discussed above is another example. Our own donations of money or labor or blood to
public appeals can be considered manipulation of donors by those who make the appeals.
2-
More recently attention has been given to selection among temporary social groupings or trait
groups (Wilson 1980), such as fish schools or flocks of birds. Trait groups with more benign and
cooperative members may feed more efficiently and avoid predators more effectively. The more
selfish individuals still thrive best within each group, and the evolutionary result reflects the
relative strengths of selection within and between groups. In human history, groups with more
cooperative relations among members must often have prevailed in conflicts with groups of more
consistently self-seeking individuals (Wilson and Sober 1994). The resulting greater prevalence
of human altruism would be more likely to result from culturally transmitted than genetic
differences. It should be noted that any form of group selection can only produce modifications
that benefit the sorts of groups among which selection takes place. It need not produce benefits
for whole species or more inclusive groups.
A given instance of altruistic behavior may, of course, result from more than one of these four
evolutionary causes. Genealogical relatives are especially likely to indulge in both reciprocation
and m.
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颁发日期：这是毕业正式生效的时间，也代表着毕业生学业的结束。
其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
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二.真实使馆公证(即留学回国人员证明,不成功不收费)
三.真实教育部学历学位认证（教育部存档！教育部留服网站永久可查）
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◇在校期间，因各种原因未能顺利毕业……拿不到官方毕业证【q/微741003700】
◇面对父母的压力，希望尽快拿到；
◇不清楚认证流程以及材料该如何准备；
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1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
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办理(mizzou毕业证书)美国密苏里大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】格式相对统一，各专业都有相应的模板。通常包括以下部分：
校徽：象征着学校的荣誉和传承。
校名:学校英文全称
授予学位：本部分将注明获得的具体学位名称。
毕业生姓名：这是最重要的信息之一，标志着该证书是由特定人员获得的。
颁发日期：这是毕业正式生效的时间，也代表着毕业生学业的结束。
其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
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Covey says most people look for quick fixes. They see a big success and want to know how he did it, believing (and hoping) they can do the same following a quick bullet list.
But real change, the author says, comes not from the outside in, but from the inside out. And the most fundamental way of changing yourself is through a paradigm shift.
That paradigm shift is a new way of looking at the world. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People presents an approach to effectiveness based on character and principles.
The first three habits indeed deal with yourself because it all starts with you. The first three habits move you from dependence from the world to the independence of making your own world.
Habits 4, 5 and 6 are about people and relationships. The will move you from independence to interdependence. Such, cooperating to achieve more than you could have by yourself.
The last habit, habit number 7, focuses on continuous growth and improvement.
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From Molecules to Morality: The Evolution Of Altruism
This is the presentation I gave for Darwin Day 2010 on the evolution of morality. It gives a brief overview of some of the ways we understand how altruistic behavior can evolve in natural systems, and rebuts the idea that morality can have only been a gift from a higher power and is therefore proof of that higher power's existence.
Lab 10 Follow the instructions and complete the assignment be.docx
Lab 10: Follow the instructions and complete the assignment below. Submit your answers through the
Lab 10 Assignment on Blackboard.
Lab 10 1
Lab 10
In this week’s lab, you will apply what you’ve learned in this course to human population
growth, in two different ways.
Exercise 1: What do Darwin, Malthus, and Thanos* have in common? They all disagree with
Captain America. *Every effort was made in writing this to avoid spoilers.
Humans are a phenomenally successful species. There are more than 7 billion people alive
today and we add 80 million people to the total each year, because birth rates greatly exceed
death rates.
But as we are learning this week in population ecology, we all need food, resources, and space,
just like all other species. Because of these limits to perpetual population growth, we may
become victims of our own success.
This, we know for certain: human population growth cannot continue forever at the current
rate. As is the case for every other species, our environment has a carrying capacity beyond
which the population cannot be maintained indefinitely. Today, our question isn’t as simple as
“how high can it go”, it is “what happens when we get there”? Along that same vein, we can
also ask how much do we want to sacrifice to enable a larger number to live stably on the
planet? Is our goal to maximize the number? Or to reduce the number and increase the
resources available to each person? Or should our goal be something else entirely?
Interestingly, people have been debating this moral dilemma for many years. In 1798, Thomas
Malthus published his infamous book: An Essay on the Principles of Population; the same text
that inspired Darwin at the time he developed the concept of natural selection. In his essay,
Malthus speculated that human populations would double every 25 years unless they were
kept in check by limits in the food supply. Malthus speculated that unless regulated the human
population would grow to such an extent that would bring about famine and starvation, and
worse. Some excerpts from Malthus’ work are below:
“The constant effort towards population... increases the number of people before the means of
subsistence are increased. The food therefore which before supported seven millions must now
be divided among seven millions and a half or eight millions. The poor consequently must live
much worse, and many of them be reduced to severe distress”. — Malthus T.R. 1798. An Essay
on the Principle of Population. Chapter II, p 19 in Oxford World's Classics reprint.
"It does not... by any means seem impossible that by an attention to breed, a certain degree of
improvement, similar to that among animals, might take place among men. Whether intellect
could be communicated may be a matter of doubt; but size, strength, beauty, complexion, and
perhaps longevity are in a degree transmissible... As the human race, however, could not be
improved in this way without ...
Steele @ tarleton modern conflict 1.6
New lecture created for Texas A&M member Tarleton, a really great class focusing on internaitonal reality and what we can know about it and do about it.
Eugenics
The document discusses the history and ideas of the eugenics movement from the 19th century through the early 20th century. It traces the origins of eugenics from Darwin and Galton, through its spread internationally via groups like the American Eugenics Society. Key figures like Davenport and Laughlin advocated for both positive and negative eugenics policies including sterilization laws and restrictive immigration policies. The eugenics movement aimed to improve human heredity by controlling reproduction but had racist, classist, and ableist assumptions.
F a l l 2 0 0 1 T H E S O C I A L C O N T R A C T 36.docx
F a l l 2 0 0 1 T H E S O C I A L C O N T R A C T
36
Garrett Hardin, Ph.D., is
Professor Emeritus of Human
Ecology in the Department of
Biological Sciences at the
University of California,
Santa Barbara. His latest
book is The Ostrich Factor:
Our Population Myopia
published by the Oxford
University Press.
Living on a Lifeboat
A reprint from BioScience, October
1974
by Garrett Hardin
Susanne Langer (1942) hasshown that it is probablyimpossible to approach an
unsolved problem save through the
door of metaphor. Later, attempting
to meet the demands of rigor, we
m ay achieve some success in
cleansing theory of metaphor,
though our success is limited if we
are unable to avoid using common
language, which is shot through and
through with fossil metaphors. (I
count no less than five in the
preceding two sentences.)
S ince metaphorical thinking is
inescapable it is pointless merely to
weep about our human limitations.
We must learn to live with them, to
understand them, and to control
them. “All of us,” said George Eliot
in Middlemarch, “get our thoughts
entangled in metaphors, and act
fatally on the strength of them.” To
avoid unconscious suic ide we are
well advised to pit one metaphor
against another. From the interplay
o f c o m p e t i t i v e m e t a p h o r s ,
thoroughly developed, we may
come closer to metaphor-free
solutions to our problems.
No generation has viewed the
problem of the survival of the
human species as seriously as we
have. Inevitably, we have entered
this world of concern through the
d o o r o f m e t a p h o r .
Environmentalists have emphasized
the image of the earth as a
spaceship — Spaceship Earth.
Kenneth Boulding (1966) is the
principal architect of this metaphor.
It is time, he says, that we replace
the wasteful “cowboy economy” of
the past with the frugal “spaceship
economy” required for continued
survival in the limited world we now
see ours to be. The metaphor is
notably useful in justifying pollution
control measures.
Unfortunately, the image of a
spaceship is also used to promote
measures that are suicidal. One of
these is a generous immigration
policy, which is only a particular
instance of a class of policies that
are in error because they lead to
the tragedy of the commons
(Hardin 1968). These suicidal
policies are attractive because they
mesh with what we unthinkingly
take to be the ideals of “the best
people.” What is missing in the
idealistic view is an insistence that
rights and responsibilities must go
t ogether. The “generous” attitude
of all too many people results in
asserting inalienable rights while
ignoring or denying matching
responsibilities.
For the metaphor of a spaceship
to be correct, the aggregate of
people on board would have to be
under unitary sovereign control
(Ophuls 1974). A true ship always
has a capt ain. It is conceivable that
a ship could be run by a committee.
But it could not possibly survive if
its course were determined by
bickering tribes that claimed righ.
Altruism and evolution
This document discusses different theories for how altruistic behavior evolved in animals despite natural selection favoring selfish behavior. It describes theories of group selection, kin selection, and reciprocal altruism. Group selection proposes that groups with more altruistic members are more likely to survive. Kin selection explains that animals help relatives to increase indirect fitness. Reciprocal altruism occurs when organisms help each other with the expectation of future help in return. The document analyzes these theories in terms of evolutionary biology to explain the prevalence of altruism in animal societies.
Is altruism a myth
1) The document discusses whether true altruism exists or if human helping behavior is ultimately motivated by self-interest. It explores different theories on altruism including empathy-altruism theory and socio biological theory.
2) Empirical evidence is presented showing that people with high empathy will help others even at a cost to themselves, supporting the existence of true altruism, while those with low empathy only help to reduce their own distress.
3) Neuroscientific research found increased activity in brain regions associated with perspective taking in highly altruistic individuals, providing a potential biological basis for altruistic motivation.
Il cyborg e il cyberfemminismo 2/2
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Altruism is an oddity in the animal world. How does altruism from co.pdf
Altruism is an oddity in the animal world. How does altruism from colony insects make the
colony more apt to survive and thrive? Do you see any applications of altruism to human
society?
Solution
1- Reciprocity is another evolutionary factor that can favor altruism. The basic theory was
introduced by Trivers (1971) and refined by Axelrod and Hamilton (1980). One organism has a
net gain by helping another if the other reciprocates with benefits (simultaneous or delayed) that
balance the donor\'s cost. Cleaning symbiosis between a large fish and a small one of a different
species may provide simultaneous reciprocal benefits: the large fish gets rid of parasites; the
small one gets food. This reciprocation implies that the small fish is more valuable as a cleaner to
the large fish than it would be as food. Reciprocity is a pervasive factor in the socioeconomic
lives of many species, especially our own. It requires safeguards, often in the form of evolved
adaptations for the detection of cheating Manipulation is another source of altruism. The
donation results from actual or implied threat or deception by the recipient. In any social
hierarchy, individuals of lower rank will often yield to the higher by abandoning a food item or
possible mate, thereby donating the coveted resource to the dominant individual. Deception often
works between species: a snapper may donate its body to an anglerfish that tempts it with its
lure; some orchids have flowers that resemble females of an insect species, so that deceived
males donate time and energy transporting pollen with no payoff to themselves. The nest
parasitism discussed above is another example. Our own donations of money or labor or blood to
public appeals can be considered manipulation of donors by those who make the appeals.
2-
More recently attention has been given to selection among temporary social groupings or trait
groups (Wilson 1980), such as fish schools or flocks of birds. Trait groups with more benign and
cooperative members may feed more efficiently and avoid predators more effectively. The more
selfish individuals still thrive best within each group, and the evolutionary result reflects the
relative strengths of selection within and between groups. In human history, groups with more
cooperative relations among members must often have prevailed in conflicts with groups of more
consistently self-seeking individuals (Wilson and Sober 1994). The resulting greater prevalence
of human altruism would be more likely to result from culturally transmitted than genetic
differences. It should be noted that any form of group selection can only produce modifications
that benefit the sorts of groups among which selection takes place. It need not produce benefits
for whole species or more inclusive groups.
A given instance of altruistic behavior may, of course, result from more than one of these four
evolutionary causes. Genealogical relatives are especially likely to indulge in both reciprocation
and m.
2014 steele @-tarleton-modern-conflict-1.6
This document discusses various types of modern conflicts and threats facing societies post-9/11. It addresses threats from non-state actors, infectious diseases, poverty, environmental degradation, and more. It argues that current defense strategies focus too narrowly on state-based military threats while largely ignoring other challenges. A holistic approach is needed to understand the full spectrum of threats and their interrelated nature in order to effectively address risks to security and stability.
What is Transhumanism
This document summarizes Transhumanism and some of its key principles and figures. It discusses the growing Transhumanist movement and some of the areas of debate between Transhumanists and their critics, referred to as Bioconservatives. These include disagreements around the risks of emerging technologies, human enhancement, and what defines personhood and citizenship. The document advocates for promoting innovation and access to emerging human enhancement technologies while addressing safety and equity concerns.
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办理美国旧金山艺术大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】格式相对统一，各专业都有相应的模板。通常包括以下部分：
校徽：象征着学校的荣誉和传承。
校名:学校英文全称
授予学位：本部分将注明获得的具体学位名称。
毕业生姓名：这是最重要的信息之一，标志着该证书是由特定人员获得的。
颁发日期：这是毕业正式生效的时间，也代表着毕业生学业的结束。
其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
办理美国旧金山艺术大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】价值很高，需要妥善保管。一般来说，应放置在安全、干燥、防潮的地方，避免长时间暴露在阳光下。如需使用，最好使用复印件而不是原件，以免丢失。
综上所述，办理美国旧金山艺术大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】是证明身份和学历的高价值文件。外观简单庄重，格式统一，包括重要的个人信息和发布日期。对持有人来说，妥善保管是非常重要的。
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本公司拥有海外各大学样板无数，能完美还原。
1:1完美还原海外各大学毕业材料上的工艺：水印，阴影底纹，钢印LOGO烫金烫银，LOGO烫金烫银复合重叠。文字图案浮雕、激光镭射、紫外荧光、温感、复印防伪等防伪工艺。材料咨询办理、认证咨询办理请加学历顾问Q/微741003700
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二.真实使馆公证(即留学回国人员证明,不成功不收费)
三.真实教育部学历学位认证（教育部存档！教育部留服网站永久可查）
四.办理各国各大学文凭(一对一专业服务,可全程监控跟踪进度)
如果您处于以下几种情况：
◇在校期间，因各种原因未能顺利毕业……拿不到官方毕业证【q/微741003700】
◇面对父母的压力，希望尽快拿到；
◇不清楚认证流程以及材料该如何准备；
◇回国时间很长，忘记办理；
◇回国马上就要找工作，办给用人单位看；
◇企事业单位必须要求办理的
◇需要报考公务员、购买免税车、落转户口
◇申请留学生创业基金
留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
办理(mizzou毕业证书)美国密苏里大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】外观非常简单，由纸质材料制成，上面印有校徽、校名、毕业生姓名、专业等信息。
办理(mizzou毕业证书)美国密苏里大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】格式相对统一，各专业都有相应的模板。通常包括以下部分：
校徽：象征着学校的荣誉和传承。
校名:学校英文全称
授予学位：本部分将注明获得的具体学位名称。
毕业生姓名：这是最重要的信息之一，标志着该证书是由特定人员获得的。
颁发日期：这是毕业正式生效的时间，也代表着毕业生学业的结束。
其他信息：根据不同的专业和学位，可能会有一些特定的信息或章节。
办理(mizzou毕业证书)美国密苏里大学毕业证【微信：741003700 】价值很高，需要妥善保管。一般来说，应放置在安全、干燥、防潮的地方，避免长时间暴露在阳光下。如需使用，最好使用复印件而不是原件，以免丢失。
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7 Habits of Highly Effective People.pptx
Covey says most people look for quick fixes. They see a big success and want to know how he did it, believing (and hoping) they can do the same following a quick bullet list.
But real change, the author says, comes not from the outside in, but from the inside out. And the most fundamental way of changing yourself is through a paradigm shift.
That paradigm shift is a new way of looking at the world. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People presents an approach to effectiveness based on character and principles.
The first three habits indeed deal with yourself because it all starts with you. The first three habits move you from dependence from the world to the independence of making your own world.
Habits 4, 5 and 6 are about people and relationships. The will move you from independence to interdependence. Such, cooperating to achieve more than you could have by yourself.
The last habit, habit number 7, focuses on continuous growth and improvement.
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Personal Growth Unleashed: Key Strategies from Tim Han’s LMA Course
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- 3. Think Socially It is good to rub and polish our brain against that of others. —Michel de Montaigne
- 5. 天擇如何造成團體合作 ? 天擇除了個體也會選擇團體 ? 論點 : 會對團體發生作用。 蜜蜂出針後死亡、鳥類擬傷行為
- 6. Evolutionary biologists George Williams Richard Dawkins
- 7. Hamilton's equation rb > c C is the cost to the actor, R is the genetic relatedness between the actor and the recipient B is the benefit to the recipient
- 8. Alfred Wallace Genes that code for any behavior that increases reproductive success will become more prevalent in the population.
- 9. 個體利益與族群利益衝突 Kin selection (By Hamilton) "I'd lay down my life for two brothers or eight cousins"-J.B.S. Haldane (1/2+1/2 or 1/8x8) Help Friend? Reciprocal altruism(Next Page pic.) (By Robert Trivers)
- 11. Sexual Selection and Social Groups
- 12. Big Brains, Big Appetites, and the Hunt