Humans have limited capacity for processing information. Information is received through visual, auditory, haptic, and movement channels and stored in sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. It is processed using reasoning, problem-solving, skill acquisition, and can result in errors. The visual system perceives size, depth, brightness, and color while compensating for movement. Reading involves patterns, language representation, and fixations. Hearing provides environmental information through pitch, loudness, and timbre. Touch provides feedback through receptors. Movement follows Fitts' law and has reaction and movement times. Memory involves sensory, short-term, and long-term storage. Thinking uses reasoning, problem-solving and can
Chapter 1: The human
from
Dix, Finlay, Abowd and Beale (2004).
Human-Computer Interaction, third edition.
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-239864-8.
http://www.hcibook.com/e3/
Chapter 1: The human
from
Dix, Finlay, Abowd and Beale (2004).
Human-Computer Interaction, third edition.
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-239864-8.
http://www.hcibook.com/e3/
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...
HCI Chapter 2.pdf
1. CHAPER – TWO
HUMAN IN HCI
❑ Humans are limited in their capacity to process information. This has important
implications for design.
❑ Information is received and responses are given via a number of input and output
channels:
– visual channel
– auditory channel
– haptic channel
– movement.
2. HUMAN IN HCI …
❑ Information is stored in memory:
– sensory memory
– short-term (working) memory
– long-term memory.
❑ Information is processed and applied:
– reasoning
– problem-solving
– skill acquisition
– error.
3. vision
❑ Two stages in vision:
✓physical reception of stimulus
✓ processing and interpretation of stimulus
The Eye - physical reception
▪ mechanism for receiving light and transforming it into electrical energy
▪ light reflects from objects
▪ images are focused upside-down on retina
▪ retina contains rods for low light vision and cones for colour vision
▪ ganglion cells (brain!) detect pattern and movement
4. Interpreting the signal
❑ Size and depth
▪ visual angle indicates how much of view object occupies
(relates to size and distance from eye)
▪ visual acuity is ability to perceive detail (limited)
▪ familiar objects perceived as constant size
(in spite of changes in visual angle when far away)
▪ cues like overlapping help perception of size and depth
5. Interpreting the signal …
❑ Brightness
▪ subjective reaction to levels of light
▪ affected by luminance of object
▪ measured by just noticeable difference
▪ visual acuity increases with luminance as does flicker
❑ Colour
▪ made up of hue, intensity, saturation
▪ cones sensitive to colour wavelengths
▪ blue acuity is lowest
▪ 8% males and 1% females colour blind
6. Interpreting the signal …
▪ The visual system compensates for:
✓movement
✓changes in luminance.
▪ Context is used to resolve ambiguity
▪ Optical illusions sometimes occur due to over-compensation
8. Reading
❖Several stages:
• visual pattern perceived
• decoded using internal representation of language
• interpreted using knowledge of syntax, semantics, pragmatics
❖ Reading involves saccades and fixations
❖ Perception occurs during fixations
❖ Word shape is important to recognition
❖ Negative contrast improves reading from the computer screen
9. Hearing
▪ Provides information about environment:
distances, directions, objects etc.
• Physical apparatus:
• outer ear – protects inner and amplifies sound
• middle ear – transmits sound waves as
vibrations to inner ear
• inner ear – chemical transmitters are released
and cause impulses in auditory nerve
• Sound
• pitch – sound frequency
• loudness – amplitude
• timbre – type or quality
10. Hearing …
▪ Humans can hear frequencies from 20Hz to 15kHz
✓less accurate in distinguishing high frequencies than low.
▪ Auditory system filters sounds
✓can attend to sounds over background noise.
✓for example, the cocktail party phenomenon.
11. Touch
▪ Provides important feedback about environment.
▪ May be key sense for someone who is visually impaired.
▪ Stimulus received via receptors in the skin:
✓thermoreceptors – heat and cold
✓nociceptors – pain
✓mechanoreceptors – pressure
(some instant, some continuous)
▪ Some areas more sensitive than others e.g. fingers.
▪ Kinethesis - awareness of body position
▪ affects comfort and performance.
12. Movement
➢ Time taken to respond to stimulus: reaction time + movement time
➢ Movement time dependent on age, fitness etc.
➢ Reaction time - dependent on stimulus type:
▪visual ~ 200ms
▪auditory ~ 150 ms
▪pain~ 700ms
• Increasing reaction time decreases accuracy in the unskilled operator but not in the
skilled operator.
13. Movement …
➢ Fitts' Law describes the time taken to hit a screen target:
Mt = a + b log2(D/S + 1)
where: a and b are empirically determined constants
Mt is movement time
D is Distance
S is Size of target
➢targets as large as possible
➢distances as small as possible
14. Memory
➢ There are three types of memory function:
➢Sensory memories
➢ Short-term memory or working memory
➢ Long-term memory
➢Selection of stimuli governed by level of arousal.
17. Long-term memory (LTM)
▪ Repository for all our knowledge
✓ slow access ~ 1/10 second
✓ slow decay, if any
✓ huge or unlimited capacity
▪ Two types
✓ episodic– serial memory of events
✓ semantic – structured memory of facts, concepts, skills
semantic LTM derived from episodic LTM
18. Long-term memory (LTM) …
▪ Semantic memory structure
✓ provides access to information
✓ represents relationships between bits of information
✓ supports inference
▪ Model: semantic network
✓ inheritance – child nodes inherit properties of parent nodes
✓ relationships between bits of information explicit
✓ supports inference through inheritance
20. Models of LTM - Scripts
▪ Model of stereotypical information required to interpret the situation
▪ Script has elements that can be instantiated with values for context
21. Models of LTM - Frames
▪ Information organized in data structures
▪ Slots in structure instantiated with values for instance of data
▪ Type–subtype relationships
22. Models of LTM - Frames
▪ Information organized in data structures
▪ Slots in structure instantiated with values for instance of data
▪ Type–subtype relationships
23. LTM - Storage of information
▪ rehearsal
✓information moves from STM to LTM
▪ total time hypothesis
✓amount retained proportional to rehearsal time
▪ distribution of practice effect
✓optimized by spreading learning over time
▪ structure, meaning and familiarity
✓information easier to remember
24. LTM - Forgetting
▪ decay
✓information is lost gradually but very slowly
▪ interference
✓new information replaces old: retroactive interference
✓old may interfere with new: proactive inhibition
LTM - retrieval
▪ recall
✓ information reproduced from memory can be assisted by cues, e.g. categories, imagery
▪ recognition
✓ information gives knowledge that it has been seen before
✓ less complex than recall - information is cue
25. Thinking
▪ Reasoning
✓ deduction, induction, abduction
▪ Problem-solving
▪ Deductive Reasoning
Deduction: derive logically necessary conclusion from given premises.
e.g. If it is Friday then she will go to work
It is Friday
Therefore she will go to work.
Logical conclusion not necessarily true:
e.g. If it is raining then the ground is dry
It is raining
Therefore the ground is dry
26. Inductive Reasoning
• Induction: generalize from cases seen to cases unseen
e.g. all elephants we have seen have trunks
therefore all elephants have trunks.
▪ Unreliable: can only prove false not true
… but useful!
▪ Humans not good at using negative evidence
e.g. Wason's cards.
27. Abductive reasoning
▪ reasoning from event to cause
e.g. Sam drives fast when drunk.
If I see Sam driving fast, assume drunk.
▪ Unreliable: can lead to false explanations
Problem solving
▪ Process of finding solution to unfamiliar task using knowledge.
▪ Several theories.
▪ Gestalt
✓ problem solving both productive and reproductive
✓ productive draws on insight and restructuring of problem
✓ attractive but not enough evidence to explain `insight' etc.
✓ move away from behaviourism and led towards information processing theories
28. Problem solving….
▪ Problem space theory
➢problem space comprises problem states
➢problem solving involves generating states using legal operators
➢heuristics may be employed to select operators
e.g. means-ends analysis
➢operates within human information processing system
e.g. STM limits etc.
➢largely applied to problem solving in well-defined areas
e.g. puzzles rather than knowledge intensive areas
29. Problem solving….
▪ Analogy
▪ analogical mapping:
✓novel problems in new domain?
✓use knowledge of similar problem from similar domain
▪ analogical mapping difficult if domains are semantically different
▪ Skill acquisition
✓ skilled activity characterized by chunking
✓lot of information is chunked to optimize STM
✓ conceptual rather than superficial grouping of problems
✓ information is structured more effectively
30. Errors and mental models
▪ Types of error
▪ slips
✓ right intention, but failed to do it right
✓ causes: poor physical skill,inattention etc.
✓ change to aspect of skilled behaviour can cause slip
▪ mistakes
✓ wrong intention
✓ cause: incorrect understanding humans create mental models to explain behaviour.
if wrong (different from actual system) errors can occur
31. Emotion
▪ Various theories of how emotion works
✓ James-Lange: emotion is our interpretation of a physiological response to a stimuli
✓ Cannon: emotion is a psychological response to a stimuli
✓ Schacter-Singer: emotion is the result of our evaluation of our physiological responses, in the light of the
whole situation we are in
▪ Emotion clearly involves both cognitive and physical responses to stimuli
32. Emotion …
▪ The biological response to physical stimuli is called affect.
▪ Affect influences how we respond to situations
✓positive - creative problem solving
✓negative - narrow thinking
▪ “Negative affect can make it harder to do even easy tasks; positive affect can make it
easier to do difficult tasks” (Donald Norman)
33. Emotion …
▪ Implications for interface design
▪ stress will increase the difficulty of problem solving
▪ relaxed users will be more forgiving of shortcomings in design
▪ aesthetically pleasing and rewarding interfaces will increase positive affect
▪ Individual differences
✓long term
– sex, physical and intellectual abilities
✓short term
– effect of stress or fatigue
✓changing
– age
