Gstsg

1. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Future Foods
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fufo
A review on quality attributes and utilization of ghee residue, an
under-utilized dairy by-product
Aakash Dadarao Wani, Writdhama Prasad∗
, Kaushik Khamrui, Sristi Jamb
Dairy Technology Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
Keywords:
By-product
Ghee
Flavour
Antioxidant
Utilization
a b s t r a c t
Increasing global population has tremendously increased the pressure on existing food systems to feed the larger
set of people. With limited food resources, contemporary food industries are focusing various approaches to
increase their production capacity. Utilization of by-products for various food applications is one such approach.
Although, by-products like whey and buttermilk have gained much attention and are commercially used for
food applications, but the same is not true for other by-products, particular ghee residue. Ghee residue is a by-
product obtained during the ghee (clarified butter fat) preparation. It arises as a result of the serum part of milk
solids and acts as a major source of flavour and color development in ghee. It is a rich source of fat, protein
and minerals. Further, the thermal treatment during ghee boiling step makes it a rich source of flavouring and
antioxidant compounds. This makes it an economically and nutritionally important food resource. However, its
direct application is limited to products which have dark colour and cooked flavour, such as bakery, confectionary
and certain dairy products. It has also been increasingly used for non-food applications, such as production of
lipases, biodiesel, etc. This review aims to provide comprehensive information about the ghee residue relating to
its composition, flavouring and antioxidant attributes. In addition, fat recovery methods from ghee residue and
utilization have also been included in this review.
1. Introduction
By-products could be defined as the product obtained during the
preparation of a major product. Because of the economic importance,
it has always been an emphasis of the food industries to commercially
utilize the by-products. Utilization of by-products serves to increase the
economy of the industry by both increasing the production capacity,
products diversity, as well as decreasing the load on effluent treatment
plant (ETP) to decrease the organic load present in the effluents before
their disposal. This is in-line with the European Union (EU) action plan
for ‘circular economy’ to reduce food wastage and comprises of a com-
prehensive approach to reduce, reuse, recovery, and recycling of nutri-
ents and energy (Faustino et al., 2019). Application of the ‘circular econ-
omy’ concept for the by-products generated in dairy industry could serve
as a regular and economic source for food additives and to some extent
suffice the demand for value added ‘functional foods’. Examples of by-
products obtained from the dairy industry include cream and skimmed
Abbreviations: AAP, Amino Acid Profile; AC, Antioxidant Capacity; ASTM, American Society for Testing and Materials; CAGR, Compounded Annual Growth Rate;
CBSM, Clarified Butter Sediment Waste; EAA, Essential Amino Acids; EN, European Norm; ETP, Effluent Treatment Plant; EU, European Union; FAP, Fatty Acid
Profile; FFA, Free Fatty Acids; GC-MS, Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry; GR, Ghee Residue; INR, Indian rupee; LDL, Low-density Lipoprotein; MPC, Milk
Protein Concentrate; NPU, Net Protein Utilization; PE, Poly Ethylene; PER, Protein Efficiency Ratio; PPM, Parts Per Million; SMP, Skimmed Milk Powder; SNF,
Solid-not-fat; SSF, Solid State Fermentation.
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: writdhama_3993@rediffmail.com (W. Prasad).
milk (during milk standardization), buttermilk (during butter prepara-
tion), whey (during cheese, chhana, paneer and casein preparation) and
ghee residue (during ghee preparation), etc. Increased emphasis on the
utilization of whey as a by-product has resulted into commercial prepa-
ration of whey proteins (in the form of whey protein concentrate and
isolate), lactose, etc., which are used in supplementation of food prod-
ucts for functional and nutritional attributes. Similarly, buttermilk is
often used for milk standardization purpose and also as an alternative
to beverages for refreshing and thrust quenching purposes.
Ghee (clarified butter fat) is a fat rich dairy product having
widespread popularity and is used in various products preparation, fry-
ing and even for direct consumption. It is known by different names
in different regions, such as, roghan in Iran, maslee and samna in the
middle-east, meshho in Aramea, samuli in Uganda and samin in Sudan.
It has a unique flavour profile which differentiates it from other fat rich
dairy products (Lodh et al., 2018; Kumbhare et al. 2021). It was pre-
viously emphasized that the consumption of fat, particularly saturated
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100131
Received 26 December 2021; Received in revised form 9 February 2022; Accepted 13 February 2022
2666-8335/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

2. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
fat, leads to higher levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol,
which are positively associated with the occurrence of coronary heart
diseases. In relation to this, studies conducted on dietary implications
of fat rich dairy products have shown that consumption of high fat milk
based products does not elevate LDL cholesterol (Nilsen et al. 2015;
Engel et al., 2018) Rawashdeh (2002). compared the effects of olive oil
and ghee consumption on serum lipid profile of 24 healthy volunteers
(11 males, aged 36-44 year; 13 females aged 27-35 year). The authors
reported that olive oil consumption increased serum triglycerides lev-
els (+3.38 %) while the same decreased (-2.15%) with ghee based diet.
This has resulted into a regular growth in the market of fat rich dairy
products, including ghee. According to the report published by Imarc
group, the Indian ghee market was worth INR 2,374 billion in 2020 with
1,70,000 metric tonnes of ghee production (Statista.com, 2021).
Ghee preparation is always accompanied with the production of ghee
residue (GR). The GR is often described as Clarified Butter Sediment
Waste (CBSW), because of the fact that it is obtained as a sediment dur-
ing butter fat clarification process. The GR is a dark-brown colored by-
product primarily comprising of the SNF along with the entrapped fat.
Although the amount of GR obtained during the process varies with the
raw material used for ghee preparation, but generally it appears to be
about 10 % of the ghee produced (Verma and Raju, 2008). According
to Nationmater.com (2021), India and US are the largest ghee producer
with a five year Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of +3.60 %
and +3.50 %, respectively. Considering the amount of ghee produced in
the year 2020 (1, 70, 000 metric tonnes), about 17, 000 metric tonnes
of GR was in India, which is quite large. The GR is considered as a good
source of essential nutrients. It primarily consists of residual fat (left af-
ter the fat extraction), milk proteins and some quantity of lactose and
minerals Janghu et al. (2014). reported that GR comprises of 33.13 -
41.83 % fat and 30.91 - 31.69 % protein content. Moreover, it is also
considered as a potential flavouring ingredient. According to Verma and
Raju (2008), GR contains about 10, 11 and 132 times more carbonyls,
free fatty acids (FFA) and lactone (respectively) as compared to ghee.
Considering this, it has been explored for the preparation of different
products such as burfi, candy, laddoo, chocolate, etc. However, its food
applications are rather limited and restricted to the products having an
‘intense’ flavour and dark color Sojan et al. (2019). reported that lack of
awareness about the quality attributes of GR results in inadequate uti-
lization of GR and majority of the GR obtained is discarded as waste. The
GR is a rich source of natural antioxidants (phospholipids, etc.) gener-
ated during the ghee boiling step. Its application in food products could
not only supplement the nutritional attributes but also extent the shelf
life to a great extent (Sojan et al., 2019).
Considering the amount of GR produced annually, information about
its superior nutritional attributes and updated utilization in food in-
dustries is rather scanty and not available in a single literature. This
review aims to provide comprehensive information about the compo-
sition, flavouring and antioxidant attributes, fat recovery methods and
applications of GR in food and non-food sector. Undoubtedly, such infor-
mation will be of great help to dairy and food industries and researchers
looking for the interventions to efficiently utilize the GR.
2. Yield, chemical composition and nutritional properties
During ghee preparation, raw material comprising of a mixture of fat
and milk serum is heated to 110-120 °C for 10-20 minutes followed by
filtration of the fat phase to obtain ghee and GR. Both, the type of raw
materials used viz., cream and white butter, and the thermal treatment
employed during ghee preparation, tends to affect the compositional at-
tributes of GR. Different workers have studied the composition of GR
obtained from the lab experiments as well as from market samples and
are presented in Table 1.
Yield of GR depends upon the raw material used for ghee preparation.
With an increase in the amount of serum solids present in the fat-serum
mixture taken for ghee preparation in the ghee boiler results into a corre-
sponding increase in the yield of GR. Verma and Raju (2018) compared
the amount of GR obtained during the ghee prepared using different raw
material and reported that the yield of GR was highest from the ghee
prepared from sweet cream (7.70 kg/ 100kg), followed by sour cream
(5.10 kg/100kg) and washed sweet cream (3.50 kg/ 100 kg). Similarly,
Janghu et al. (2014) reported that 131.60 g and 49.60 g of GR obtained
using 1 kg of cream and creamery butter was used for ghee prepara-
tion, which corresponded to a yield of 13.16 and 4.90 %, respectively.
In the early 1970s, Pal and Rajorhia (1975) worked on improving the
ghee yield from different raw materials. The authors prepared ghee from
different sources, viz., single separated (60.00 % fat), double separated
(64.60 % fat) and triple separated cream (77.12 % fat), and reported
that an increase in the amount of fat in the raw material resulted into a
subsequent yield of ghee (94.74 %, 95.64 % and 95.80 %, respectively)
and decreased fat losses in GR because of decreased GR amount which
was as a result of lesser solid-not-fat (SNF) content in the raw material.
Based upon the findings, it could be said that the yield of GR appears to
be directly proportional to the amount of SNF present in the raw mate-
rial used for ghee preparation i.e., use of raw material having a higher
amount of SNF (such as cream) corresponds to a higher yield of GR and
vice versa.
Moisture content in the GR ranges from 12.10 to 26.64 %
Janghu et al. (2014). reported that moisture content in the GR obtained
using creamery method of ghee preparation had 17.71 % and 26.64 %
moisture in the GR obtained using direct cream method of ghee prepara-
tion Verma and Raju (2008). reported that moisture content in the GR
samples was 13.40, 5.70, 4.10, 8.00 and 1.70 % when makkhan, cream-
ery butter, sweet cream, sour cream and washed sweet cream was used
of ghee preparation, respectively. Similarly, Ramesh et al. (2018) re-
ported that the GR contained about 12.10 % moisture. This is an inter-
esting finding because of the fact that GR is obtained by filtering the
heat treated serum solids from the fat phase (ghee). During the ther-
mal treatment of ghee boiling, the contents are heat treated to 110-120
°C for 10-20 minutes which results into moisture removal from the con-
tents and the final product (ghee) contains moisture content in the range
of 0.10-0.20 % while, the same in GR, is reported to be 12.10 to 26.64
%. Further, moisture content in both, ghee and GR, is determined using
the same gravimetric method, which involves measuring the extent of
decrease in the weight of sample after an exposure of 102±1 °C for 3-4
h. This indicates of the fact that not all the moisture is evaporated from
the contents during the ghee boiling step and GR acts as a water binding
agent to remove the residual moisture from the heat treated fat phase
(ghee). Water binding property could be attributed to the presence of
protein and other water soluble milk solids.
Fat content in the GR ranges from 33.13 to 59.50 %
Jhanghu et al. (2014). reported that 41.83 and 33.13 % fat was
present in the GR obtained using creamer white butter and cream as the
raw material, respectively. Unlike yield, fat content in the raw material
did not appear to follow a direct relationship with the fat content in
the GR. This is in partial agreement with the observations made by
Pal et al. (1975), according to whom an increase in the fat content in
the raw material results into a corresponding decrease in the fat losses
in the GR. It was observed that with an increase in the fat content
(and decrease in the serum part) in the raw material results into lesser
amount of GR, thus lower amount of contents that could entrap and
hold the fat in GR. But the higher fat content in GR samples could also
be attributed to the extent of pressing done to extract the fat from the
GR, i.e., an increase in the extent of pressing will result into higher
extraction of fat from GR and lesser amount of fat in the resultant GR.
Fatty acid profile (FAP) of the milk fat extracted from GR has been
studied by different workers and are presented in Table 2. Palmitic
acid found to be present in higher amount (38.88 %) among saturated
fatty acids and oleic acid (25.15 %) among the unsaturated fatty acids
present in GR. Linolenic, linoleic, docosahexaenoic acid and eicosate-
traenoic contents were found to be 0.79, 2.02, 0.25 and 0.36 %, re-
spectively (Ranjan et al. 2020). It could be observed that GR contains
2

3. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
Table 1
Chemical composition of ghee residue obtained from different sources.
Source of Ghee residue∗
Chemical composition (%) Reference
Moisture Fat Protein Lactose Ash
Makkhan 17.00±3.62 36.80±4.38 33.50±5.21 10.40±4.03 3.10±2.26 Santha and Narayanan KM (1978a)
Creamery butter
(unsalted)
25.50±4.89 36.20±5.83 27.50±2.75 5.50±1.58 4.60±1.41 Santha and Narayanan (1978a)
17.71±0.22 41.83±0.47 31.69±0.54 Not reported 2.56±0.14 Janghu et al. (2014)
12.10±2.24 47.12±3.62 19.86±1.34 Not reported 3.90±0.32 Ramesh et al. (2018)
Sweet cream 14.10±5.43 59.50±10.26 18.60±6.15 7.90±2.36 1.30±0.64 Santha and Narayanan (1978a)
26.64±0.43 33.13±0.58 30.91±0.98 Not reported 3.27±0.12 Janghu et al. (2014)
Sour cream 13.60±6.06 57.00±6.13 19.80±3.14 7.10±4.99 2.20±0.37 Santha and Narayanan (1978a)
Lab sample 21.04±0.19 35.99±0.39 Not reported 17.88±0.10 3.81±0.31 Munirathnamma et al. (2017a)
∗
Origin/raw material
Table 2
Fatty Acid Profile of milk fat from different sources.
Name of Fatty acids Carbon atoms Ghee residue Cow milk Ghee
Myristic acid 14:0 13.38±1.01 12.76±0.49 10.08±0.31 11.81±0.57
Palmitic acid 16:0 38.88±1.18 38.13±0.42 28.27±0.22 39.13±1.15
Stearic acid 18:0 12.72±0.68 12.45±0.20 13.66±0.02 13.89±1.17
Arachidic acid 20:0 0.25±0.03 0.16±0.01 not reported 0.52±0.12
Behenic acid 22:0 0.32±0.05 0.63±0.04 not reported not reported
Palmitoleic acid 16:1 2.20±0.17 1.73±0.05 0.76±0.05 1.86±0.16
Oleic acid 18:1 25.15±1.37 28.20±0.57 25.86±0.04 23.19±1.46
Linoleic acid 18:2 2.02±0.28 3.81±0.17 3.05±0.11 2.00±0.62
Linolenic acid 18:3 0.79±0.10 0.83±0.08 0.30±0.01 0.55±0.11
Eicosapentaenoic acid 20:5 0.36±0.08 0.50±0.05 0.03±0.00 not reported
Docosahexanoic acid 22:6 0.25±0.08 0.18±0.02 not reported not reported
Reference - Ramesh et al. (2018) Selvamani et al. (2017) Bodkowskiet al. (2016) Dorni et al. (2018)
higher amount of unsaturated fatty acids as compared to milk and ghee
(Table 2) Ramesh et al. (2018). reported that the ratio of unsaturated
fatty acids: saturated fatty acids in GR to be 34.5:65.5 (0.53), which are
similar to the values 35.8:64.2 (0.56) and 35.5:64.5 (0.55) reported by
Selvamani (2015) and Loganathan (2012), respectively. While, the un-
saturated fatty acids: saturated fatty acids ratio in ghee is reported to be
28.98:71.02 (0.41) (Dorni et al. 2018). Occurrence of higher amount of
unsaturated fatty acids in GR could be attributed to their higher polarity
(Murali et al., 1993; Marlina et al., 2020), which resulted into their mi-
gration towards higher polar phase, i.e., GR. This also highlights about
the nutritional superiority and higher susceptibility of GR towards lipid
oxidation because of presence of unsaturated fatty acids in free form.
Protein content in the GR ranges from 18.60 to 33.50 %, depending
upon the raw material used and the processing conditions employed to
prepare the ghee. The GR obtained using raw material containing higher
SNF (like cream) contain higher protein content as compared to the
GR obtained using the raw material containing lower SNF content (like
creamery white butter). In addition, heat treatment subjected during the
ghee boiling step also tends to cause changes in the protein quality. It
was observed that increasing the heat treatment from 110 to 120 °C re-
sulted into a decrease in the soluble nitrogen content from 0.89 to 0.38
%, primarily because of the heat induced denaturation of milk proteins
(Santha and Narayanan, 1978a). The amino acid profile (AAP) of GR
proteins (dry matter basis) is provided in Table 3. It was observed that
glutamic acid was present in highest amount (5.26 %) while cysteine
was present in lowest (0.35 %) amount. Methionine, arginine, lysine
and threonine were present in 0.61, 0.76, 0.99 and 1.44 %, respectively
(Ramesh et al. 2018). On the other hand, Selvamani et al. (2017) pro-
cured GR from different regions (viz., Coimbatore, Erode, Namakkal,
Salem and Tiruppur) and reported that AAP of GR protein varies from
region to region, primarily because of the different methods used for
ghee preparation. It was observed that for all the samples collected from
different regions, arginine was present in highest amount (1.95 %), fol-
lowed by threonine (1.11 %), phenylalanine (1.02 %) and histidine
(0.99 %). Upon comparing the AAP of GR proteins with that of milk and
whey protein, it could be observed that GR contains lesser amount of
essential amino acids (EAA), particularly leucine, isoleucine, lysine and
methionine. This could be due to the intense heat treatment provided
to milk solids (110 - 120 °C for 10-20 minutes) during ghee preparation.
The quality of milk proteins obtained from GR was also compared
with milk proteins from skimmed milk powder (SMP), casein, whey pro-
tein and milk protein. It could be seen that the protein efficiency ratio
(PER) of GR, SMP, casein, whey protein and milk protein was 0.75, 3.92,
2.50, 3.18 and 2.68, respectively. Similarly, biological value (%) was
65.07, 91.99, 82.17, 93.40 and 84.10, and net protein utilization (NPU)
was 40.77, 86.12, 72.20, 85.70 and 78.80 % for GR, SMP, casein, whey
protein and milk protein, respectively (Table 4). This supported the re-
sults of inferior quality of milk proteins isolated from GR as compared to
other dairy sources. In order to address this, GR was added with differ-
ent EAA by Grewal (1979). It was observed that supplementing GR with
8.00 % lysine, 2.50 % methionine and 1.40 % tryptophan increased PER
to 4.11, biological value to 93.84 % and NPU to 80.64 %. In order to
improve the digestibility of GR proteins, Munirathnma et al. (2017a) hy-
drolysed the GR milk proteins obtained using UF process. It was ob-
served that two stage hydrolysis, comprising of papain in the first stage
and a combination of trypsin, alcalase 2.4L and flavourozyme 1000L
in the second stage, yielded hydrolysate with minimal extent of bitter-
ness. Studies have also been conducted to utilize GR as a source of milk
proteins. The same authors (Munirathnamma et al., 2017b) subjected
different treatments to GR and ultrafiltrated the contents to obtain milk
proteins, which could be used for protein supplementation in different
products. The treatments included, boiling water for 30 minutes, boil-
ing in sodium polyphosphate solution for 30 minutes, washing in 50%
ethyl alcohol solution and isoelectric precipitation using organic acid.
The authors reported that protein could not be obtained using isoelectric
precipitation method. It was observed that decrease in concentration of
GR, addition of sodium polyphosphate and increase in dissolving time
resulted into an increase in the recovery of milk proteins. This reveals
3

4. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
Table 3
Amino Acid Profile of different sources of milk protein.
Amino Acid (%) Ghee residue Cow milk Whey Protein
Alanine 0.87±0.06 0.16±0.01 4.90±0.14
Arginine 1.95±0.14 0.16±0.01 1.95±0.21
Aspartic acid 0.53±0.09 0.35±0.00 10.55±0.49
Cysteine Not reported 0.04±0.00 2.10±0.00
Glutamic acid 0.40±0.06 1.02±0.01 18.15±1.77
Glycine 0.52±0.11 0.09±0.01 1.60±0.28
Histidine 0.99±0.04 0.18±0.09 1.75±0.64
Isoleucine∗
0.50±0.01 0.19±0.01 5.75±0.21
Leucine∗
0.53±0.01 0.42±0.01 10.35±0.07
Lysine∗
0.58±0.01 0.37±0.01 9.70±0.00
Methionine∗
0.45±0.07 0.14±0.01 1.80±0.14
Phenylalanine∗
1.02±0.02 0.22±0.01 2.95±0.49
Proline Not reported 0.31±0.07 5.85±0.07
Serine 0.54±0.03 0.28±0.01 4.85±0.07
Threonine∗
1.11±0.12 0.23±0.01 7.60±0.42
Valine∗
0.29±0.07 0.23±0.01 5.90±0.00
Reference Selvamani et al. (2017) Landi et al. (2021) Kalman (2014)
∗
Essential amino acid
Table 4
Protein quality from different sources of milk protein.
Protein source Protein Efficiency Ratio Biological value (%) Net protein utilization (%) Reference
Casein 2.50±0.07 82.17±2.64 72.20±5.20 Chapman et al. (1959);Sure and Romans (1948)
Whey protein 3.18±0.31 93.40±2.10 85.70±2.10 Haraguchi et al., 2010
Milk protein 2.68±0.08 84.10±1.40 78.80±2.20 Tomarelli and Bernhart (1962)
Skimmed milk powder 3.92±0.18 91.99±0.65 86.12±1.17 Grewal (1979)
Ghee residue 0.75±0.12 65.07±0.61 40.77±0.54 Grewal (1979)
that the inferior quality of milk proteins present in GR could be ad-
dressed by supplementation of the required EAA, either directly or in
the form of high quality protein (like whey protein). Also, hydrolysis
could also be employed to certain extent as an opportunity to improve
the digestibility of GR proteins.
Lactose content in GR ranges from 5.50 to 17.88 % (Table 1)
Santha and Narayanan (1978a). reported that carbohydrates in GR com-
prises of about 70-80 % lactose, 15-20 % galactose and 5-10 % glucose.
The authors also reported that an increase in the heat treatment during
ghee boiling results into further increase in the degradation of lactose
and production of galactose and glucose. This is important with respect
to the selection of ingredients for preparation of milk based ‘low lac-
tose’ products for lactose intolerant people. Presence of lactose in the
diets of lactose intolerant people causes indigestion and discomfort in
their upper abdomen because of their inability to hydrolyse lactose. This
is addressed by either replacement of lactose with other sugars or pre-
hydrolysis of lactose in their diet. Given the fact that GR contains lesser
amount of lactose, it could serve as an economical source of milk solids
in the formulation of products for lactose intolerant people.
The GR is also a rich source of minerals and ranges from 1.30
to 4.60 % Verma and Raju (2008). reported that GR comprises of
0.62 % calcium, 0.62 % phosphorus, 0.68 % salts and 0.14 % sil-
ica. Similarly, Ramesh et al. (2018) also reported that both calcium
and phosphorus content in GR was found to be 0.62 %. According to
Selvamani et al. (2017), phosphorus, magnesium and calcium content in
GR ranged from 0.52-0.64%, 0.57-0.61% and 0.54-0.62% respectively.
Trace minerals, viz., manganese, iron and copper were found to be in
the range of 318.50-392.48 ppm, 401.07-427.15 ppm and 5.84-7.75
ppm, respectively. Presence of higher amount of minerals makes GR
a preferable ingredient for the preparation of micro-nutrient (mineral)
rich products. This is because of higher bio-availability of minerals (like
calcium) from milk as compared to other sources (Guéguen and Pointil-
lart, 2000).
3. Fat recovery interventions
From the previous section, it was observed that GR contains high
amount of fat and discarding GR would cost huge revenue loss to the
dairy industries. Different strategies to extract the residual fat from
GR have been provided in this section and Fig 1. In the early 1970s,
Viswanathan et al. (1973) studied two methods, viz., centrifugal and di-
rect pressure, for recovery of ghee from GR. For the centrifugal method,
GR was first mixed with boiling water and the resultant water was cen-
trifuged to separate the fat. In case of direct pressure, hydraulic and
screw press was employed to exert a direct on the GR and extract the
ghee from it. It was observed that direct pressure method (fat extraction
efficacy of 71.00 to 74.00 %) was more efficient for ghee extraction from
GR as compared to centrifugal method (fat extraction efficacy of 46 %),
resulting into a ghee yield of 24.90 and, 46.70 and 48.20 %, respectively.
Although the direct pressure method is simple, economical and efficient,
yet the pressed cake obtained after this method still contains 33.00 to
38.00 % fat. In another study, Reddy and Khan (1978) studied extraction
of fat from ghee residue using hot water and brine solution. The authors
reported that the average recovery of ghee from ghee residue treated
with water was 48.51 %, whereas brine treatment showed 53.46 % fat
recovery. In the contemporary era, ghee from the GR is extracted using
a ‘hydrothermal’ technique. This involves mixing the GR with hot water
(at 90-95 °C) for about 20-58 minutes to break the GR lumps and allow
migration of hot water inside the GR particles. This is followed by leav-
ing the contents undisturbed for about 4-6 hours (preferably overnight),
during which the fat liquefies because of higher temperature and accu-
mulates at the top because of density difference. With time, the contents
also get cooled to ambient temperature. After the stipulated time, the
fat-GR-water mixture is cooled to <8 °C by transferring to cold storage
units maintained at about 4-8 °C. This allows for the fat, which is ac-
cumulated at the top, to solidify. After about 6-8 hours, solidified fat
from the top is manually collected and transferred to the ghee boiler for
4

5. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
Fig. 1. Fat extraction methods from ghee residue
Pressure method: 4-24 MPa; Centrifugation: 1000-3000 revolutions per minute; Hydrothermal treatment comprises of mixing GR with hot water (at 90-95 °C),
followed by cooling the mixture (to 4-8 °C).
(Viswanathan et al., 1973; Reddy and Khan, 1978; Singh and Bargale, 2000; Ferreira et al., 2006)
ghee preparation along with the main batch. Although this method is
quite similar to the method provided by Reddy and Khan (1978), but it
involves huge amount of waste water which needs to be treated in an
effluent treatment plant before disposal.
4. Flavouring property
Heat treatment during ghee preparation results into an interaction
among the different components which leads to the generation of a
group of compounds responsible for the particular ‘ghee’ flavour. The
GR possess large number of flavouring components such as carbonyls,
lactones and FFA (Galhotra and Wadhwa, 1993), which are gener-
ated during the ghee preparation and remains in GR after filtering out
the fat (ghee). Different pathways for flavor development during ghee
preparation are provided by Sserunjogi et al. (1998). The authors re-
ported that heat treatment (boiling) during ghee preparation not only
result into generation of flavour compounds through various path-
ways, but it also eliminates the off-flavour (putrefactive odours) which
might have developed during the prolonged storage of white butter
Kumbhare et al. (2021). reported that flavour in ghee primarily asso-
ciated with the generation of carbonyl compounds, lactones and free
fatty acids. Maillard’s browning and caramelization are reported to be
the main reactions responsible for the generation of these flavours com-
pounds (Duhan et al. 2020) Wadodakar et al. (2002). reported that mal-
tol and furans, produced as a result of thermal degradation of lactose
degradation, are directly linked with the flavour of ghee Edris (2014).
reported that ghee produced using the cream fermented Streptococcus
lactis and Streptococcus diacetylactis had improved flavour because of
increased acetic acid production Wadhwa and Jain (1984). reported
that alkan-2-ones, main group of mono-carbonyls responsible for ghee
flavour, arise as a consequence of microbial growth, thermal decom-
position of lactose and fat and lipid oxidation. Similarly, Joshi and
Thakar (1994) reported that ketoglycerides as well as carbonylic com-
pounds are the major flavouring compounds in ghee prepared from
fermented cream Schlutt et al. (2007). reported that lactones impart
coconut-type aroma in ghee. Among the different lactones, 𝛿-lactones,
viz., 𝛿-decalactone, 𝛿-dodecalctone and 𝛿-tetradecalctones, are the pri-
mary flavoring lactones present in ghee (Wadhwa and Jain, 1985). Car-
bonyls in the ghee and GR could arise through different pathways viz., as
a microbial metabolite, thermal decomposition of lactose and glycerides,
and fat oxidation (Kumbhare et al., 2021) Wadhwa and Jain (1984). re-
ported that the lactone concentration in ghee was about two times higher
than that in white butter and the lactone concentration increased with
an increase in the clarification temperature Urbach and Gordon (1994).
reported that buffalo milk ghee had higher lactone concentration than
cow milk ghee, which was primarily associated with the higher SNF con-
centration in buffalo milk serum.
Although these compounds are formed during the ghee boiling step
and intended to impart the desired sensory characteristics to ghee, but
majority of these compounds are retained in GR. This is because of the
fact that the majority of these ‘ghee’ flavouring compounds are derived
from the serum part which is filtered off from the ghee and present in
GR Verma and Raju (2008). reported that GR contains about 10, 11 and
132 times more carbonyls, FFA and lactone content as compared to ghee,
respectively Galhotra and Wadhwa (1991b). reported that C12, C14 and
C18 delta-lactones were the major lactones in ghee residue at mean level
of 237.32, 2859.42 and 533.62 μg/g of GR, respectively Galhotra and
Wadhwa (1991a). reported that GR contained 43.65 μmol/g carbonyls
and 627.48 μmol/g FFAs. Presence of these compounds makes GR a rich
and economic source of flavouring ingredient for flavour simulation in
heated delicacies. In addition, the GR could also be used as a source for
flavouring compounds. These compounds can be extracted using suit-
able solvents and preserved in concentrate form. These extracts can be
used to impart the characteristic ghee flavour in the food products (like
bakery and confectionary products) even at lesser level of ghee addition.
5. Antioxidant property
The GR has been reported to be a good source of antioxidant com-
pounds such as phospholipids and phenolics. The GR is reported to
possess antioxidant capacity (AC) of 26.00 (expressed as mg cysteine
hydrochloride per gram of GR). Heating the serum solids results into
denaturation of whey proteins and its interactions with other com-
pounds, including lactose, that results into the generation of species
containing reducing sites, viz., free sulphahydryals groups (Santha and
Narayanan, 1979; Sandhya et al. 2018; Meena et al., 2021). Mail-
lard’s browning compounds, occurring due the interaction between lac-
tose and proteins are reported to possess reducing activity and thus
exhibit antioxidant activity (Nooshkam et al., 2019). The AC of GR
could also be related to the presence of phospholipids Saito and Ishi-
hara (1997). reported that AC of phospholipids is attributed to the
presence of hydroxy and amino group (choline and ethanolamine) in
the side chains Khanam and Gyana Prasuna (2018). studied the an-
tioxidant compounds present in GR using GC-MS and reported that
2, 5-bis (1, 1-dimethyl ethyl), ethaneperoxoic acid,1-cyano-1-[2-(2-
phenyl-1,3-dioxalan2yl)ethyl]pentyl ester, 2,13-octadecadien-1-ol, 9,
12-octadecadienoyl chloride, isopropyl palmitate, 17-octadecynoic acid,
eicosanoic acid, oleic acid and squalene were the major compounds ex-
hibiting antioxidant activity in GR.
In a study to evaluate the effect of extent of heat treatment during
ghee boiling on the AC of GR, Santha and Narayanan (1978b) reported
that AC in the GR obtained using different methods of ghee preparation
were in the order of creamery-butter > desi butter (makkhan) > direct
cream. This could be related to the higher moisture content in the raw
material which required prolonged heat treatment. The same authors
5

6. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
Fig. 2. : Utilization of ghee residue in food and non-food industries.
also studied the effect of ghee clarification temperature on the AC of GR
and reported that an increase in the clarification temperature results
into a corresponding decrease in the AC because of increased migra-
tion of phospholipids from GR to ghee (Santha and Narayanan, 1978b)
Khanam and Prasuna (2017). studied various polar and non-polar sol-
vents for the extraction of phenolic compounds from GR using soxhlet
and liquid-liquid extraction method. It was observed that phenolic com-
pounds from the GR can be extracted using both the methods, but high-
est extraction efficacy was obtained by dichloromethane using soxhlet
method. However, the liquid-liquid extraction method using ethyl ac-
etate was an easier and better method for extraction of phenolic com-
pounds as compared to the Soxhlet extraction method. Based upon the
findings, it appears that although heat treatment is necessary to develop
the characteristic ‘ghee’ flavour along with the generation of antioxidant
compounds. These antioxidant compounds are responsible for higher
stability of ghee (about 6 months at ambient temperature) as compared
to anhydrous milk fat (2 months at ambient temperature), but this heat-
ing needs to be regulated. A higher heat treatment results into change
the flavour to ‘burnt favour’ with a simultaneous decrease in the antiox-
idant activity and shelf life of the product. On the other hand, a mild
heat treatment results into ‘curdy flavour’, lower antioxidant activity
and shelf life of ghee.
6. Utilization of GR
6.1. Food applications
The GR possess various nutritional properties, as provided in the pre-
vious sections. It contains higher amount of fat, protein and minerals
such as calcium and phosphorus. Also, it is a rich source of flavour-
ing compounds (such as carbonyls, lactones and FFAs) and antioxi-
dants. In addition, it’s easy and ample availability makes it a poten-
tial candidate of food applications to improve their nutritional and
functional attributes (Fig. 2). However, for food applications, the ad-
ditives/ingredients must be stable for longer duration. The GR remains
stable at ambient temperatures for about 20 days with slight increase
in rancidity. This is due to the presence of free fat. However, further in-
crease in the storage duration leads to hardening of GR which causes dif-
ficulties during its processing and food applications. Increased hardness
during storage is related to the moisture loss and a subsequent increase
in the total solids content. Different approaches have been applied to
minimize the increased hardness of GR during storage, viz., soaking in
boiling water and 1.0 % sodium bicarbonate solution for 30 minutes,
soaking in 50 % alcohol followed by dipping in boiling water and 1
% sodium bicarbonate solution for 30 minutes, and autoclaving at 15
pounds/square inches (PSI) for 10 minutes in 2 % vinegar solution. It
was observed that soaking GR in boiling water results into increase in
the moisture content of GR with a concomitant decrease in the acidity,
fat and lactose content. Highest fat removal from GR was obtained in
the samples subjected to 50 % alcohol treatment followed by cooking in
baking soda. Highest shelf life (of 3 months) was obtained in case of sam-
ples subjected to autoclaving in 2 % vinegar solution (Prahalad, 1954).
A brief about the different interventions to utilize the GR for various
food applications have been provided in the subsequent sections and in
Fig. 2.
6.1.1. Bakery products
Bakery products preparation involves a high heat treatment (150-
180 °C for 30-45 minutes) during the baking process. During this pro-
cess, heat treatment results into moisture removal, dough expansion and
development of sensory profile, specifically color and flvour. The dark
color and heated flavour of these products makes them an ideal candi-
date for GR application Ranjan et al. (2020). utilized GR for preparation
of cake and muffin, by replacing the refined wheat flour with GR from
10 to 40 % in the formulation. The authors reported that increasing the
GR level resulted into a corresponding increase in the sensory accept-
ability, protein and calcium content, and decrease in the cost of the raw
material for preparation of both the products. Optimized formulation for
both, cake and muffin had 40 % of refined wheat flour replaced with GR
Sojan et al. (2019). prepared GR added cookies and biscuits using differ-
ent forms of GR, viz., washed and squeezed. The authors reported that
sample prepared using washed GR was less acceptable to the sensory
panellists because of rancidity development. Increasing the amount of
squeezed GR addition in cookies and biscuits increased the flavour score,
but beyond 10 % addition decreased the overall sensory scores because
of coarse particulate perception and intense brown color development
in the samples. Also, the authors reported that product prepared using
washed GR was stable upto 10 days while product added with squeezed
GR was stable upto 30 days at 25 °C storage temperature in PE pouches.
6.1.2. Milk products
Being a rich source of antioxidant compounds, it has been used for
increasing the AC of ghee. Lal et al. (1984) utilized GR as an economic
source of phospholipids for increasing the shelf life of ghee. The authors
reported heating (at 130 °C) a mixture of GR and ghee in the ratio of
1:4 (GR:ghee) yielded sensorially acceptable ghee with optimal transfer
of phospholipids. Similarly, Murthy et al. (1969) reported addition of 5
% GR into the contents during ghee boiling resulted into an AC rich ghee
with phospholipids content of about 6 % Wadhwa and Bindal (1995).
also reported that ghee flavour simulation in butteroil can be successfully
done by about adding 15-20 % GR in butteroil and heating the mixture
to 120 °C for 20 minutes.
6

7. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
Milk fat has also been priced for its typical flavour. This flavour
makes GR a more suitable candidate for addition in high heat treated
dairy products, such as khoa, burfi, thabdi, etc. Khoa could be defined as
a product obtained by partial desiccation of milk at atmospheric condi-
tions (open pan) to 55-60 % moisture. Khoa is an intermediate product
and it is used for preparation of different sweetmeats, viz., burfi, thabdi,
etc. by the addition of sugar (Prasad et al., 2017; Hirpara et al., 2020;
Badola et al., 2022) Rao and Gopinath (2001). reported that an accept-
able GR burfi can be prepared using a formulation of 200 g khoa, 425
g GR and 170 g sugar Janghu et al. (2014). studied the storage stabil-
ity of GR burfi, prepared using Rao and Gopinath (2001) formulation,
in polyethylene pouches and glass containers for 30 days at refriger-
ated temperature. The authors reported that FFA increased and sensory
scores decreased with an increase in the storage period, but the samples
were acceptable even on the 30th day of storage and the FFA increased
to 1.25 and 1.28 % oleic acid (packaged in PE pouches and glass bottles,
respectively). Similarly, Dua et al. (2018) prepared GR burfi by replacing
40 % of khoa with GR. It was observed that the GR burfi possessed supe-
rior nutritional value, viz, 23.68% protein, 27.96% fat, lactose 18.79%,
calcium 0.56% and phosphorus 0.50%, as compared to conventional
khoa based burfi Geeta et al. (2010). utilized GR for preparation of sweet
cubes using khoa, a heat desiccated traditional dairy product, as the base
material Prasad et al. (2012). utilized GR for chocolate burfi prepara-
tion. The authors prepared burfi by ghee residue addition at 5%, 10%,
15% and 20% level and reported that increasing the ghee residue level
resulted into significant increase among the samples for energy, fat, pro-
tein, carbohydrate, moisture content along with sensory attributes.
Hirpara et al., (2020) utilized GR for enhancing the shelf life of
thabdi, a traditional khoa based sweetened dairy dessert prepared by
open pan desiccation of milk. The authors added GR from 2 to 10 %
and reported that GR addition resulted into an increase in the fat, pro-
tein, ash and FFA content of thabdi. Further, hardness of the product
decreased with the addition of GR, which led to an elimination of the
holding time (of 40 minutes) that is generally done during thabdi prepa-
ration. Decrease in the hardness could be attributed to the presence of
free fat in GR, which could have restricted the extent of protein net-
work formation and hence hardness of the product. It was found that
GR addition at 6 % level for thabdi preparation was most acceptable to
the sensory panellists. Shelf life of the optimized thabdi (containing 6
% GR) was higher (28 and 14 days) as compared to the control thabdi
(21 and 12 days) at 20±1 and 37±1 °C storage temperature, respec-
tively. Increase in shelf life was attributed to the presence antioxidant
compounds in GR.
6.1.3. Confectionary products
Similar to bakery products, confectionary products also involves
higher heat exposures to certain duration. Color and flavour develop-
ment are one among the different reasons for such heat exposures. Be-
cause of the dark color and intense flavour, GR has also been utilized
for preparation of different confectionary products.
Reddy and Khan (1978) prepared GR added chocolate and compared
its consumer acceptance with the chocolates of reputed brands, viz.,
Sathe, Amul and Cadbury’s. The authors reported that GR added choco-
late had highest acceptance, followed by Amul, Cadbury’s and Sathe
Wadhwa (1997). reported about the preparation of chocolate and co-
conut candy using GR. The optimized range of ingredients for candy
preparation using 500 g GR included 75- 125 g coconut powder and
250-315 g sugar; and for chocolate preparation included 125 g SMP,
30-45 g cocoa powder, and 250-315 g sugar. Sugar in both the prepa-
rations was used in 50 % Wadhwa (1997). prepared GR based coconut
candy by mixing 1 kg GR with 500 to 625 g sugar and 125 – 250 g
coconut powder Panvelwala et al. (2016). prepared nutritional ‘Choco-
fudge’ using GR. The formulation comprised of 20 g GR, 5 g chocolate
powder, 5 g orange zest (a candy), 15 ml milk, 1
4
teaspoon rose wa-
ter and 1g almond Janghu et al. (2014). studied the storage stability
of GR chocolate and GR coconut candy prepared using the formulation
reported by Wadhwa (1997) in PE pouches and glass bottles at refriger-
ated temperatures for 30 days. The authors reported sensory acceptabil-
ity decreased and FFA content decreased with an increase in the storage
duration for both, chocolate and coconut candy, the products. Higher
increase in the FFA was found in the samples packaged in glass bottles
as compared to PE pouches Dobariya (2018). utilized GR for preparation
of candy (chikki), which was then used for preparation of confectionary
ice cream. The authors reported that particle size of GR obtained using
direct cream method of ghee preparation was larger as compared to the
GR obtained from creamery butter method, and selected direct cream
based GR for chikki preparation. The chikki comprised of 70 % sugar and
30 % GR. It was observed that increasing the level of GR added chikki in
the ice cream beyond 6 % resulted into significant increase in the pro-
tein and fat content, while highest sensory acceptability was obtained
at 8 % level of chikki addition in the ice cream Roy et al. (2018). pre-
pared GR based snack by mixing GR with SMP, rice flour common salt,
spice mix, baking powder and dry mango powder. The contents were
thoroughly mixed, ground and sieved to remove particulate matter. To
the sieved contents, water was added and kneaded to form dough. The
dough was shaped in the form of strips and cut into pieces and baked in
an oven to prepare the snack. The authors reported that the cost of prod-
uct was about INR 11.00/25 grams snack Ananthakumar et al. (2016).
prepared orange flavoured GR candy using the orange peel of orange
juice industry and GR of ghee plant. The authors utilized the aqueous
extract of orange peel and reported that increasing the extract level re-
sulted into an increase in the anti-oxidant activity in the product. This
indicates that GR can be utilized for preparation of various heated del-
icacies, however its application is limited to the dark color and intense
flavour of GR. Higher amount of GR addition results into a more-dark
product with grainy texture, which may decrease the acceptance of the
final product. This has led to search for non-food applications of GR with
an aim to utilize the remaining GR (left after food applications) in the
dairy industries.
6.2. Non-food applications
Owing to its high fat content (30-70 %) and other nutrients, GR
has also been explored as an economic substrate for lipase, micro-
bial biomass, biodiesel production and waste water treatment (Fig. 2)
Sahasrabudhe et al. (2012). used GR for microbial lipase production
through solid state fermentation (SSF) and compared it with commer-
cially used substrate (tributyrin). The authors reported that lipase pro-
duction was higher in using GR (35-41 units/mg) as compared to trib-
utyrin (20-28 units/mg) Patel et al. (2019). utilized GR as an economic
substrate for biodiesel production using Rhodosporidium kratochvilovae,
an oleaginous yeasts, and reported an yield of 10.98 g/L after 144 h of
cultivation at 30 °C. Also, the biodiesel obtained using GR complied with
the international standards (ASTM 6751 and EN 14214) Poopathi and
Abidha (2012). utilized GR for preparation of a culture media for the
proliferation of mosquitocidal bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacil-
lus sphaericus) for the production of toxins against mosquito vectors. The
authors reported that a cell biomass yield of 9.70 g/L and larvicidal
activity of 0.03 × 10−1 mg/L (50 % inactivation) and 0.01 mg/L (90 %
inactivation) was obtained against Culex quinquefasciatus (a mosquito
vector) using GR based culture media Hao et al. (2017). utilized the
proteins present in GR for removal of heavy metals from waste water.
The authors coated defatted GR with polyethylenimine and ferric ions,
and reported an adsorption capacities of 45.10 mg/g for As(V), 80.70
mg/g for Cu(II) and 21.70 mg/g for P(V) ions using Langmuir model. Al-
though the studies pertaining to non-food applications is very limited,
but the nutritional properties can be explored to prepare the growth
media for microbial proliferation. Also, it can be used as feed for poul-
try (Loganathan et al., 2015), aquaculture (Singh et al., 2018), quail
(Umamaheshwari et al., 2018).
7

8. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
7. Conclusion
Presence of high amount of nutrients, flavouring and antioxidant
compounds has led to the application of GR in various food products.
This includes application in traditional dairy products, confectionary
and bakery products. However, this is restricted because of its dark color
and unique flavour profile. In addition to direct food application, in-
terventions like extraction and isolation of flavouring and antioxidant
compounds has also been explored by certain researchers. Further, non-
food applications in production of bio-diesel, microbial biomass, waste
water treatment, etc. indicates that the excess of GR, left after the food
applications, could be economically utilized for revenue generation in
an environment friendly manner.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors do not have any conflict of interest to disclose regarding
this manuscript.
Acknowledgement
First author is thankful to Director, ICAR-National Dairy Research In-
stitute (NDRI), Karnal, India for providing Institute scholarship to pur-
sue this work. All the authors are thankful to Director and Dr. R.R.B.
Singh (Joint Director) ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI),
Karnal, India for providing all the necessary facilitates to carry out this
work.
References
Ananthakumar, KV, Dhanalakshmi, B, Karunakaran, R, 2016. Shelf-life analysis of ghee
residue candy incorporated with orange peel (2016). Int. J. Chem. Stud. Chem. Stud.
6, 476–479.
Badola, R, Prasad, W, Panjagari, NR, Singh, RRB, Singh, AK, Hussain, SA, 2022. Khoa and
khoa based traditional dairy products: preparation, spoilage and shelf life extension.
J. Food Sci. Technol. 1–13. doi:10.1007/s13197-022-05355-x.
Bodkowski, R, Czyż, K, Kupczyński, R, Patkowska-Sokoła, B, Nowakowski, P, Wil-
iczkiewicz, A, 2016. Lipid complex effect on fatty acid profile and chemical com-
position of cow milk and cheese. J. Dairy Sci. 99, 57–67.
Chapman, D.G., Castillo, R., Campbell, J.A., 1959. Evaluation of protein in foods: 1. A
method for the determination of protein efficiency ratios. Canadian J. Biochem. Phys-
iol. 37, 679–686.
Dobariya, AR, 2018. Utilization of Ghee Residue in the Form of Chikki (candy) in Devel-
oping Confection Ice Cream (doctoral thesis) Department of Dairy Technology. Sheth
MC College of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University, Anand.
Dorni, C, Sharma, P, Saikia, G, Longvah, T, 2018. Fatty acid profile of edible oils and fats
consumed in India. Food Chem. 238, 9–15.
Dua, S, Kumar, S, Kaur, S, Ganai, AW, Khursheed, I, 2018. Chemical and sensory attributes
of ghee residue burfi supplemented with corn flour. Int. J. Pharmacognosy Phytochem.
Res. 7, 3818–3822.
Duhan, N, Sahu, JK, Naik, SN, 2020. Sub-critical CO2 extraction of volatile flavour com-
pounds from ghee and optimization of process parameters using response surface
methodology. LWT 118, 108731.
Edris, A, 2014. Chemical composition and aroma description of some volatiles isolated
from ghee using GC-MS and GC-Olfactometric analysis. Egypt. J. Dairy Sci. 42,
209–214.
Engel, S, Elhauge, M, Tholstrup, T, 2018. Effect of whole milk compared with skimmed
milk on fasting blood lipids in healthy adults: a 3-week randomized crossover study.
Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 72, 249–254.
Faustino, M, Veiga, M, Sousa, P, Costa, EM, Silva, S, Pintado, M, 2019. Agro-
food byproducts as a new source of natural food additives. Molecules 24, 1056.
doi:10.3390/molecules24061056.
Ferreira, J.A., Sun, P., Gracio, J.J., 2006. Design and control of a hydraulic press. In: IEEE
Conference on Computer Aided Control System Design, pp. 814–819.
Galhotra, KK, Wadhwa, BK, 1991a. Flavour potential of ghee residue.part-1: free fatty acids
and total carbonyls level. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 44, 565–567.
Galhotra, KK, Wadhwa, BK, 1991b. Flavour potential of ghee residue.part-2: lactone’s level.
J. Dairy Sci. 44, 568–572.
Galhotra, KK, Wadhwa, BK, 1993. Chemistry of ghee-residue, its significance and utilisa-
tion - a review. J. Dairy Sci. 46, 142–146.
Geeta, C, Sharma, BD, Mendiratta, SK, 2010. Development of ghee residue sweet cubes.
Indian J. Nutr. Dietetics 47, 511–514.
Grewal, R, 1979. Assessment of Nutritive Value of Ghee Residue M Sc thesis. Kurukshetra
University, Kurukshetra.
Guéguen, L., Pointillart, A., 2000. The bioavailability of dietary calcium. J. Am. Coll. Nutr.
19, 119S–136S.
Hao, L, Desai, MK, Wang, P, Valiyaveettil, S, 2017. Successive extraction of As (V), Cu (II),
and P (V) ions from water using surface modified ghee residue protein. ACS Sustain.
Chem. Eng. 5, 3742–3750.
Haraguchi, F.K., Pedrosa, M.L., de Paula, H., dos Santos, R.C., Silva, M.E., 2010. Evaluation
of biological and biochemical quality of whey protein. J. Med. Food 13, 1505–1509.
Hirpara, P, Prajapati, JP, Mehta, BM, Pinto, SV, 2020. Development of Thabdi milk sweets
of Gujarat State, India utilizing Ghee residue as an ingredient. J. Appl. Natural Sci. 12,
575–581.
Janghu, S, Kaushik, R, Bansal, V, Sharma, P, Dhindwal, S, 2014. Physico-chemical analysis
of ghee residue and conversion into confectionary food products. J. Dairy Sci. 67, 1–6.
Joshi, NS, Thakar, PN, 1994. Methods to evaluate deterioration of milk-fat a critical-ap-
praisal. J. Food Sci. Technol. 31, 181–196.
Kalman, DS, 2014. Amino acid composition of an organic brown rice protein concentrate
and isolate compared to soy and whey concentrates and isolates. Foods 3, 394–402.
Khanam, R, Gyana Prasuna, R, 2018. Startling impact of dairy waste extract on pharma-
ceuticals. World J. Pharmaceut. Res. 7, 1140–1149.
Khanam, R, Prasuna, RG, 2017. Comparison of extraction methods and solvents for total
phenolics from dairy waste. Asian J. Dairy Food Res. 36, 251–255.
Kumbhare, S, Prasad, W, Khamrui, K, Wani, A, Sahu, J, 2021. Recent innovations in func-
tionality and shelf life enhancement of ghee, clarified butter fat. J. Food Sci. Technol.
1–13. doi:10.1007/s13197-021-05335-7.
Lal, D, Rai, T, Santha, IM, Narayanan, KM, 1984. Standardization of a method for transfer
of phospholipids from ghee-residue to ghee. Indian. J. Anim. Sci. 54, 29–32.
Landi, N., Ragucci, S., Di Maro, A., 2021. Amino acid composition of milk from cow, sheep
and goat raised in ailano and valle agricola, two localities of ‘alto casertano’(Campania
Region). Foods 10, 2431.
Lodh, J., Khamrui, K., Prasad, W.G., 2018. Optimization of heat treatment and curcumin
level for the preparation of anti-oxidant rich ghee from fermented buffalo cream by
Central Composite Rotatable Design. J. Food Sci. Technol. 55, 1832–1839.
Loganathan, R, 2012. Utilization of Ghee Residue in Broiler Chicken. M.V.Sc., thesis sub-
mitted to Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai.
Loganathan, R., Shamsudeen, P., Mani, K., Edwin, S.C., Rajendran, K., 2015. Utilization
of ghee residue in the diet of broiler chicken. Anim. Nutr. Feed Technol. 15, 121–128.
Marlina, E., Wijayanti, W., Yuliati, L., Wardana, I.N.G., 2020. The role of pole and molec-
ular geometry of fatty acids in vegetable oils droplet on ignition and boiling charac-
teristics. Renewable Energy 145, 596–603.
Meena, S., Gote, S., Prasad, W., Khamrui, K., 2021. Storage stability of spray dried cur-
cumin encapsulate prepared using a blend of whey protein, maltodextrin, and gum
Arabic. J. Food Process. Preserv. 45, e15472.
Munirathnamma, V, Gupta, VK, Meena, GS, 2017a. Process optimization for the produc-
tion of ghee residue protein hydrolysates. Indian. J. Anim. Sci. 87, 490–494.
Munirathnamma, V, Gupta, VK, Meena, GS, 2017b. Effect of different extraction processes
on the recovery of ghee residue proteins. Indian. J. Anim. Sci. 87, 366–372.
Murali, H.S., Mohan, M.S., Manja, K.S., Sankaran, R., 1993. Polar and nonpolar lipids
and their fatty acid composition of a fewFusarium species. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70,
1039–1041.
Murthy, MKR, Narayanan, KM, Bhalerao, VR, 1969. Role of ghee-residue as antioxidants
in ghee. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 22, 53–59.
Nationmater.com (2021) https://www.nationmaster.com/nmx/ranking/ghee-and-butter-
production, accessed on 25 December 2021.
Nilsen, R, Høstmark, AT, Haug, A, Skeie, S, 2015. Effect of a high intake of cheese on
cholesterol and metabolic syndrome: results of a randomized trial. Food Nutr. Res.
59, 27651. doi:10.3402/fnr.v59.27651.
Nooshkam, M, Varidi, M, Bashash, M, 2019. The Maillard reaction products as food-born
antioxidant and antibrowning agents in model and real food systems. Food Chem.
275, 644–660.
Pal, M, Rajorhia, GS, 1975. Technology of ghee. I. Effect of multiple separation of cream
on the recovery of ghee. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 28, 1–5.
Panvelwala, Z, Pawar, A, Shekar, A, 2016. A study of nutritional fudge made by using ghee
extracts and orange peels. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 5, 67–73.
Patel, A, Sartaj, K, Pruthi, PA, Pruthi, V, Matsakas, L, 2019. Utilization of clarified butter
sediment waste as a feedstock for cost-effective production of biodiesel. Foods 8, 234.
doi:10.3390/foods8070234.
Poopathi, S, Abidha, S, 2012. The use of clarified butter sediment waste from dairy indus-
tries for the production of mosquitocidal bacteria. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 65, 152–157.
Prahlad, SN, 1954. Studies on the Technological Aspects of Processing and Storage on
Dairy by-Products, Ghee Residue M.Sc. Thesis. Banaras University, Banaras.
Prasad, R, Daniel, M, Tiwari, D, 2012. Utilization of ghee residue for the preparation of
chocolate burfi. Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika 27, 175–178.
Prasad, W., Khamrui, K., Sheshgiri, S., 2017. Effect of packaging materials and essen-
tial oils on the storage stability of Burfi, a Dairy Dessert. J. Packag. Technol. Res. 1,
181–192.
Ramesh, P, Valavan, ES, Gnanaraj, PT, Omprakash, AV, Varun, A, 2018. Nutrient compo-
sition of ghee residue. J. Pharmacognosy Phytochem. 7, 3316–3319.
Ranjan, R, Chauhan, AK, Kumari, SS, Dubey, RP, 2020. Nutritive value of ghee residue
incorporated bakery product. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 73, 1–6.
Rao, HG, Gopinath, S, 2001. Importance of ghee residue and its utilization. Indian Dairy-
man 53, 15–18.
Rawashdeh, AY, 2002. Influences of olive oil and ghee (samen balady) on serum cholesterol
of Jordanians. Pak. J. Nutr. 1, 270–275.
Reddy, PVS, Khan, AQ, 1978. Recovery of ghee from ghee residue and utilization of the
same residue for chocolate preparation. In: 20th
International Dairy Congress, France,
pp. 984–985.
Roy, K, Debnath, A, Singh, B, 2018. Estimation of production cost for ghee residue based
snack. Pharma Innov. J. 7, 630–634.
8

9. A.D. Wani, W. Prasad, K. Khamrui et al. Future Foods 5 (2022) 100131
Sahasrabudhe, J, Palshikar, S, Goja, A, Kulkarni, C, 2012. Use of ghee residue as a substrate
for microbial lipase production. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 1 (10), 61–64.
Saito, H, Ishihara, K, 1997. Antioxidant activity and active sites of phospholipids as an-
tioxidants. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 74, 1531–1536.
Sandhya, S, Khamrui, K, Prasad, W, Kumar, MCT, 2018. Preparation of pomegranate peel
extract powder and evaluation of its effect on functional properties and shelf life of
curd. LWT 92, 416–421.
Santha, IM, Narayanan, KM, 1978a. Chemical composition of ghee residue. J. Feed Sci.
Technol. 15, 24–27.
Santha, IM, Narayanan, KM, 1978b. Anti-oxidant properties of ghee residue as affected by
temperature of clarification and method of preparation of ghee. Indian J. Anim. Sci.
48, 266–271.
Santha, IM, Narayanan, KM, 1979. Studies on the constituents responsible for the antiox-
idant properties of ghee residue. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 49, 37–41.
Schlutt, B, Moran, N, Schieberle, P, Hofmann, T, 2007. Sensory-directed identification
of creaminess-enhancing volatiles and semivolatiles in full-fat cream. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 55, 9634–9645.
Selvamani, J, 2015. Effect of Inclusion of Ghee Residue as a Feed Ingredient in Concentrate
Diets of Large White Yorkshire grower pigs. M.V. Sc., thesis submitted to Tamil Nadu
Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai.
Selvamani, J, Radhakrishnan, L, Bandeswaran, C, Gopi, H, Valli, C, 2017. Estimation of
nutritive value of ghee residue procured from western districts of Tamil Nadu, India.
Asian J. Dairy Food Res. 36, 283–287.
Singh, J., Bargale, P.C., 2000. Development of a small capacity double stage compression
screw press for oil expression. J. Food Eng. 43, 75–82.
Singh, P., Paul, B.N., Giri, S.S., 2018. Potentiality of new feed ingredients for aquaculture:
a review. Agric. Rev. 39, 282–291.
Sojan, A, Surendran, A, Lukose, SJ, 2019. Effectiveness in utilization of ghee residue in the
production of cookies and biscuit in an industrial level. Int. J. Sci. Res. 10, 1342–1348.
Sserunjogi, M.L., Abrahamsen, R.K., Narvhus, J., 1998. A review paper: current knowledge
of ghee and related products. Int. Dairy J. 8, 677–688.
Statista.com (2021), https://www.statista.com/statistics/761768/india-ghee-production-
volume/accessed on 17 December 2021.
Sure, B., Romans, F., 1948. Influence of the concentration of mixtures of various compo-
nents of the vitamin B complex on biological value of casein and on economy of food
utilization. J. Nutr. 36, 727–737.
Tomarelli, R.M., Bernhart, F.W., 1962. Biological assay of milk and whey protein compo-
sitions for infant feeding. J. Nutr. 78, 44–50.
Umamaheshwari, S., Selvan, S.T., Muthusamy, P., Radhakrishnan, L., 2018. Effect of di-
etary supplementation of ghee residue on the performance of Japanese quails. Indian
J. Anim. Res. 52, 995–999.
Urbach, G, Gordon, MH, 1994. Flavours derived from fats. In: Fats in Food Products.
Springer, Boston, MA, pp. 347–405.
Verma, BB, Raju, PN, 2008. Ghee residue: Processing, Properties and Utilization. Course
Compendium on “Technological Advances in the Utilization of Dairy by-Products”.
Centre of Advanced Studies in Dairy Technology, NDRI, Karnal, India.
Viswanathan, K, Thirumala, RSD, Reddy, BR, 1973. Recovery of ghee from ghee residue.
Indian J. Dairy Sci. 26, 245–248.
Wadhwa, BK, 1997. Functional properties of Ghee residue. In: Technological Advances in
Dairy by-Products. NDRI Publication, pp. 141–146.
Wadhwa, BK, Bindal, MP, 1995. Ghee residue – a promise for simulating flavours in vanas-
pati and butter oil. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 48, 469–472.
Wadhwa, BK, Jain, MK, 1984. Studies on lactone profile of ghee. Part IV. Variations due
to temperature of clarification. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 37, 334–336.
Wadhwa, BK, Jain, MK, 1985. Studies on lactone profile of ghee. Part III. Variations due
to method of preparation. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 38, 31–35.
Wadodkar, UR, Punjrath, JS, Shah, AC, 2002. Evaluation of volatile compounds in differ-
ent types of ghee using direct injection with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
J. Dairy Res. 69, 163–171.
9