Geoffrey_Carmody_13082779_The_Study_Design_and_Build_of_an_Interactive_Pressure_Sensing_Rowing_Footplate

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The Study, Design and Build of an Interactive, Pressure
Sensing Rowing Footplate.
(A system to aid athlete technique and to minimise injury by identifying and
communicating optimal footplate pressure)
Geoffrey Carmody
13082779
Master’s Degree
University of Limerick
Supervisor: Dr. Chris Exton
Submitted to the University of Limerick, August 2014.

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DECLARATION
The Study, Design and Build of an Interactive, Pressure
Sensing Rowing Footplate.
(A system to aid athlete technique and to minimise injury by identifying and
communicating optimal footplate pressure)
Supervisor: Dr. Chris Exton
This (Project, Thesis) is presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in Interactive Media. It is entirely my own work and has not been submitted
to any other university or higher education institution, or for any other academic award in
this university. Where use has been made of the work of other people it has been fully
acknowledged and fully referenced.
Signature:
GEOFFREY CARMODY
15th August 2014

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Dedication
For Dad and Mam

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Acknowledgements
Dr. Chris Exton
Dr. Cristiano Storni
Dr. Mikael Fernstrom
Dr. Gabriela Avram
And all those involved in teaching the Interactive Media Course

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Contents
List of figures VII
Abstract VIII
Chapter One: Finding and researching an area of Design Significance 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Origins 5
1.3 The Footstop 5
1.4 Revised Idea 6
1.5 Motivation 7
1.6 The Rowing Stroke Explained 9
1.6.1 Breakdown of Stroke 10
Chapter Two: Review of Literature 12
2.1 Areas Explored 13
2.2 Keywords Used 13
2.3 Research 13
2.4 Similar Projects 15
Chapter Three: Methodology, User studies and the Design Process 23
3.1 Methodologies and User Study 24
3.1.1 Weaknesses of the Ethnographic Approach 28
3.2 User Group 28
3.2.1 Beginners 29
3.2.2 Senior 30
3.2.3 Novice 31
3.2.4 Veteran 32
3.2.5 Coaches 33
3.3 Design Process 34
3.3.1 Brainstorming 34
3.3.2 User Centred Design Cycle 35
3.3.3 Sketching 37
3.3.4 Mind Mapping 38
3.3.5 Design Games 38
3.3.6 Design Principles and Prototype 39
3.3.7 Weaknesses of Cooperative design 41

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Chapter Four: Data Collection and Evaluation 43
4.1 Collection of Empirical Data 44
4.2 Evaluation of each section of collected data 45
4.2.1 Observations 45
4.2.2 Interviews 46
4.2.3 Brainstorming 48
4.2.4 Design Game 50
Chapter Five: Prototyping, Build and Findings 52
5.1 Prototypes - Low Fidelity 53
5.1.1 Prototype one – paper 53
5.1.2 Prototype two – paper/cardboard 54
5.1.3 Prototype three – paper/cardboard/fabric/screen 56
5.2 Prototype - High fidelity/ Final Design 57
5.2.1 High fidelity Prototype 57
5.2.2 Final Design59
5.3 Build 60
5.4 Findings 61
5.5 Conclusion 63
References 64
Bibliography 65
Appendix 67

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Figures
Figure 1 - Ergometer 3
Figure 2 - Ergometer Footstops 6
Figure 3 - Rowing Stroke 9
Figure 4 - Brainstorm Example 25
Figure 5 - Sketch Examples 27
Figure 6 - Design Game deck 28
Figure 7 – Brainstorming 49
Figure 8 - Design Game Results 51
Figure 9 - Paper Prototype 1 53
Figure 10 - Paper Prototype 2 54
Figure 11 - Prototype 2 55
Figure 12 - Prototype 2 testing 56
Figure 13 - Insole Material 57
Figure 14 – Foil 58
Figure 15 - Prototype 4 59
Figure 16 - Final Design 60

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Abstract
The aim of this thesis is to design and develop a system for measuring footplate pressure on
a rowing ergometer. The motivation behind the work was a desire to provide a device to aid
in two distinct areas; firstly to improve rowing technique and following from this
improvement to reduce the occurrence of ergometer induced back injury. This work directly
confronts an area of the rowing stroke which has been neglected in the past, namely data
collection and analysis of the foot drive in the rowing stroke.
The research was grounded in the ethnographical perspective. Within this framework the
cooperative design process was widely utilised to obtain specific user requirements. User
groups were carefully selected to provide insight into the precise and detailed needs of the
disparate groups of Junior, Senior, Novice, Veteran and Coaching teams. Both female and
male users participated in the design process.
The research progressed through an iterative process of prototyping. Each prototype was
realised and then subjected to further group analysis until a final design was reached. Prior
research into similar rowing performance devices was utilised to guide this process.
The final design outcome resulted in a simple cost efficient device based on pressure
sensitive pads constructed of Neoprene and pressure conductive materials. The system
visually communicates the interaction of good footplate technique to overall rowing
performance. In addition such good technique promotes the reduction of back injury
occurrence among ergometer users; both in the rowing setting and the wider gymnasium
community.
These results open out some possibilities for new research and design. The interaction of
footplate pressure, oar pressure and slide movement, taken together as a measure of
overall boat speed, is fruitful ground for further work. In addition there is room for new
insights into footplate pressure application and other sporting events which rely on foot
drive for overall performance.

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Chapter One
Finding and researching an area of Design Significance

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Chapter One: Finding and researching anareaof DesignSignificance
1.1 Introduction
Design has become a major element of everyday life. It controls everything from how traffic
flows are managed on the roads by means of accurate and easily readable signs to the type
of bread one decides to buy in the local supermarket. It has become a fundamental
component in how the modern world is displayed and understood. It does this by
understanding and simplifying, and by incorporating who a person/user is and what the
requirements needed to satisfy them are. It then relays this information in the most
effective, clear and concise method possible.
Design: a specification of an object, manifested by an agent, intended to
accomplish a set of goals, satisfying a set of requirements in a particular
environment. (Ralph et al, 2009)
There are many forms in which design can be produced, including the visual design cycle,
the human computer interface (HCI) cycle, sound design and artistic design. These are only a
few examples of the many iterations of design and how it is incorporated into modern
society. This project is centred on the ability to design, test and build a piece corresponding
to the methodologies based in and around Interactive Media and Digital Design.
The HCI cycle is one of the main elements in Interactive Media when attempting to create a
bond between a user and an electronic device. It provides a platform for the creation of a
piece that will ultimately benefit its end user in the most effective way possible. It allows the
designer to come up with an idea with the aid of the user through cooperative design. This
ensures that the designer does not fool himself/herself into creating a piece which he/she

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thinks is what the user needs but instead works with the end user through the design and
testing process in order to create an effective end product.
Human Computer Interaction can be seen clearly in the field of sport and exercise. There are
many systems which have been produced by companies which can measure pressure, speed
and power among many other variables in physical exercise. However, many of these
devices fail to be effective or become a gimmick, lasting only a short time in the hands of
users only to be discarded or deleted. Other designs work well but are overly expensive,
complicated and cannot be afforded by the general public and so can only be accessed by
elite athletes in specialised facilities.
The aim of this project is to combine the prosperous elements of the above and create a
sport specific piece which will aid in the teaching of technique and prevention of injury
which clubs and gyms can adopt to allow a safer and more effective learning curve for all
users involved.
The project is based around the ergometer (Figure 1), or rowing machine.
Figure 1 - Ergometer

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This device is found mainly within rowing clubs but is also present on a smaller scale at
public gyms. The ergometer is used as an endurance training machine which attempts to
increase fitness whilst also improving rowing technique; in addition, it helps beginners learn
the basic rowing movements before experiencing a real racing boat. The machine attempts
to achieve these ends by mimicking the movements made by an athlete in an Olympic type
rowing boat without in fact being on water. On close inspection of the unit it was found that
it consisted of:
1.) A rotary fan with a lever that controls the amount of resistance placed against the
user. This resistance can be changed from a low of one to a maximum setting of ten.
Resistance is attained through the rotor’s fans developing friction in air.
2.) A pair of wheels that allows the machine to be manoeuvred in a forward and
backward movement on land to allow for setup.
3.) A sliding seat attached to a durable metal slider
4.) A footstop or foot plate which allows pressure from the user to be applied in order
to power the machine with the required force needed to rotate the fan.
5.) A handle which exerts force onto the fan by means of a linked bicycle type chain.
6.) A black and white LCD screen to measure the user’s power output and time elapsed
and to communicate performance during exercise.
The project’s main focus will be on the footstop of the machine. Currently there is no form
of measurement taken from this area of pressure application in the rowing stroke even
though it is one of the most important elements in the stroke. It is the crucial instant that
transfers a massive amount of force from the user on to a rowing blade in an Olympic
rowing boat. This section of the rowing stroke is also important when speaking in terms of

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technique. The athlete’s legs must engage together as the first movement of the stroke or
else loss of power, poor technique and possible long term injury can occur.
1.2 Origins
Originally the idea was a broad improvement of all systems connected to the rowing
machine including feedback, information gathered from all locations of power transfer on
the machine and how the machine itself is powered. Audio and visual feedback was to be
implemented across all aspects of the device itself in order to improve awareness in the
user. Information from the slide, footstop and handle was to be relayed to the new display
system and the entire operation would be powered by the movement of the fan inside the
machine; the ergometer is powered by one AA battery which seems quite wasteful when
considering the amount of energy produced by the user spinning the fan. However, when it
was discussed it was found that this would be too much work for the amount of time
allotted and instead the focus of the project should improve upon one aspect of the
ergometer in order to make, test and create a fully rounded final project outcome rather
than have several sections of uncompleted pieces. At this point the footstop was focused
upon. Being an extremely important element in the stroke it was decided that this location
would best suit the intentions of the project which are to simply improve technique and
prevent long term injury by making the user aware of when and how their legs have placed
force on the footstop at the correct time.
1.3 The Footstop
The footstop/footplate (Figure 2) of the ergometer is made up of two separate pieces of

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Figure 2 - Ergometer Footstops
durable plastic. One section is fixed to the metal slider whilst the other accommodates foot
size by means of a ‘peg in hole’ system. The footstop does not relay any data to the user and
is used only as an area to keep the feet strapped in to allow the athlete to drive backwards
through the rowing stroke. The lack of any form of response from this area of the rowing
machine may be down to inaccurate user testing where instead of testing the machine on
rowers, the user it is meant to satisfy, it may instead have been tested at gyms leading to
poor user feedback and an absence of necessary data a competitive rower would need.
Alternatively, the decision may have been made in order for the ergometer to be cost
effective; however, considering its hefty price tag the above analysis seems more realistic.
1.4 Revised Idea
The new concentrated idea revolves around supplying the user with accurate and important
information gathered from the footstop. A device will be created which will measure the
pressure applied to the footstop which in turn will allow the operator to know the exact
moment they have engaged their feet and legs with the ergometer. This fundamental

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knowledge will help develop an understanding of whether or not they are using the rowing
machine with the correct technique. The project will likely be run using Arduino and
Piezoelectric sensors. It will consist of a separate piece of equipment which sits onto the
ergometer footstop allowing usage over a wide range of different build types of the
machine giving the most benefit to the most users. As well as visuals, sound will be
implemented as a form of feedback. Simple auditory notifications will help alert the user
that his/her technique is not as it should be. This latter point is particularly important for
elite rowers whose training regimes are quite intense. It will be useful when dealing with
athletes who are either getting bored from the repetitive movements of rowing and
allowing their performance to slip or those who are in so much distress due to intense
training that they do not realise they are rowing incorrectly. A simple ‘beep’ when the
system detects a wrong movement will snap these people back to reality helping to prevent
injury and poor performance. The device must be as cost effective as possible as gyms and
especially rowing clubs do not have vast budgets with which to purchase new machinery.
This cost effective approach should also make it widely available to the public should the
device be capable of being transferred to different sports and aspects of life such as walking,
throwing or running events.
1.5 Motivation
Long term associated back injury is a running theme in rowing clubs and gyms with the
incorrect use of all equipment, not just the ergometers. Ignorance of the correct technique
is a main contributor in this sort of injury. This project will help alleviate such harm in rowers
to begin with.

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Also, many sports rely on leg drive as the primary impulse in executing correct technique;
some relevant examples are: Long Jump, Javelin, basketball, Triple jump, High Jump. The
motivation behind the entirety of the project is the future developments of a tactile system
that can be implemented across a large variety of sports bringing better technique, fitness
and strength to all athletes.
The author has a strong background in the sport of rowing, coming from a family spanning
four generations in the sport itself. All four generations rowed out of Limerick rowing clubs;
Shannon and St. Michaels, both of which are situated in the downtown Limerick area on the
river Shannon. Upon entering the sport the writer’s father, who had previously received a
back injury, took over as coach of the junior men’s crew. During this time countless hours
where poured into learning and perfecting the sport.
Being involved in the sport from the young age of twelve as a coxswain and continuing into
competitive scull and sweep rowing by the age of fourteen allowed the author to gain in
depth knowledge in the field of Olympic Rowing. In 2007 he had won the junior sixteen
coxed four at the Irish Championship Regatta among many other first place prizes
throughout his rowing career. The training involved in order to achieve this high standard
was punishing for all involved. Sessions consisted of ergometer pieces and strength and
endurance weights, and on many occasions these sessions occurred twice a day.
However, during the author’s seventh year involved in training he endured a severe back
injury effectively ending his rowing abilities. This may have been due to many causes;
however, the most likely one was poor technique during the long repetitive training
sessions. Repeating the same erroneous movement over many hours of training due to

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fatigue placed strain on the back muscles eventually causing them to fail leading to long
term, repetitive back strain injury.
Steve Redgrave’s influential ‘Complete Book of Rowing’ deals specifically with this type of
back injury and states it is caused by unequal leg drive during the power cycle of the stroke.
He specifically details damage to the sacroiliac back joints caused by unequal body weight
transfer onto the footplate. (Redgrave, 1992)
The author stayed with the sport for a following eighth year but then halted training in
order to complete the final secondary Irish school examination. The author then attended
Limerick School of Art and Design completing a Batchelor’s degree in Visual
Communications from which many of his design principles and methods come from and
finally continuing to present day, (2014) based in University of Limerick, the author is
completing a Master’s Degree in Interactive Media.
1.6 The Rowing Stroke Explained
Figure 3 - Rowing Stroke
A
B

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It is important at this point to explain in some detail the movement of an athlete through
the rowing stroke. The rowing motion is a continuous, repetitive movement; the athlete
does not stop but continues smoothly and rhythmically through successive rowing strokes.
Regular training on an ergometer (or in a boat) may last for up to 2000 strokes (Redgrave,
1992) and it is this repetitive, uniform movement that makes correct technique so
important in the sport. Poor technique will be repeated over and over again impinging on
performance and increasing the risk of injury.
1.6.1 Breakdown
1. The release (position A on Figure 3). It is common to begin explaining the rowing
stroke from this position. The athlete is at the end of the power drive phase. This is
not an end of the stroke in itself but simply a change of direction for both the athlete
and the handle.
2. Begin recovery phase: The athlete moves the handle forward, extends arms fully and
rocks his/her torso over from the pelvis.
3. Recovery Phase; the athlete slides forward smoothly with arms fully outstretched
towards position B on Diagram1. The upper body does not change from what was
set at the begin recovery phase.
4. The catch position is described as position B on diagram. The athlete is coiled like a
spring, ready to release through the drive phase.
5. The drive phase is the work phase of the rowing stroke. It begins at the catch
position B and ends at the release position A. This drive phase is initiated through
the legs and as the legs go down the torso and arms are released into the action. The

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initiation of the drive phase must be smooth and uniform, both legs driving
simultaneously and at the correct time on the footplate.
It is critical to fully understand that two opposing forces are at work at the beginning of the
drive phase: a negative force is exerted on the footplate as the athlete drives back. This
force is directly opposite to the direction of the boat and must be minimised when racing.
The second force is positive in that it is aimed at propelling the boat towards the end of the
race through force exerted on the oar blade. This force also initiates on the footplate but is
transferred through the athlete’s dynamic movement to the oar blade. Needless to say this
force must be maximised.
This complex function of the footplate in relation to the drive phase leads to much
discussion among the rowing community on the correct technique to maximise the speed of
the boat and to minimise injury.

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Chapter Two
Review of Literature

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Chapter Two: Reviewof Literature
2.1 Areas explored
Many areas were explored when researching the topics around the proposed idea, including
how to keep people’s attention over long periods of time to medical papers on back injury.
However, not all papers were relevant for inclusion in this literature review. The primary
focus of the review is to place this project into a certain area of research and discern where
it stands in consideration of prior research and related areas of study. It will focus on more
technical and readily relevant aspects of the project such as how the device will be made,
where it sits with other devices like itself and what new traits and experiences it will bring to
the table.
2.2 Keywords used
Movement-based, Pressure Measurement, Foot-pressure, Excergaming, Wearable Sensor,
Rowing, Monitoring, Blob Detection, Pressure Sensitive, Fitness, Injury, Force, Power,
Internal Sensors, Stroke, Equi-pressure, design sports, sport interaction, singular exercise,
group exercise.
2.3 Research
Upon examining the area encompassing sports and interactivity it was seen that many
research papers involved attempting to incorporate social interactions that occur with
people on a day to day basis into exercise schedules. This seems like a novel way of allowing
people to get to know one another in a way which may be quite familiar to them already.
With social media playing a large role in today’s society it seems to make sense to

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incorporate this theme of collective training. It can be clearly seen in Florian ‘Floyd’
Mueller’s papers, notably ‘Sports over a Distance’ (Mueller 2007) which tested users who
were miles apart on whether or not they got to know each other better if a more hands on
approach was taken. One set of users used a soccer ball and screen as an input device whilst
another set used keyboard input. In the evaluation of this project it was seen that players
who used the ball got to know their opponent better than those using the generic keyboard
controls. Whilst this is clearly an effective method to promote socialisation within sport and
exercise one must ask the question does this interfere with concentration and the ability to
effectively progress and become better at the sport being practised. One must also ask if
this alienates an older generation of sports men and women, creating a technology gap and
thus, the younger generation loses out on vital knowledge of those who came before them.
Excergaming seems to be a running theme in computer interaction and exercise. This is the
creation of a game in which the user can partake during training. This area focuses on
getting people to work out by basically tricking them into being active by distracting them
through gaming and socialisation, however, there seems to be a distinct lack in research
involved around technique and injury prevention during this ‘gamified’ method of training.
In fact there seems to be a lack of technique focused interaction design in the field of sport
and exercise as a whole.
When focusing on the injury/technique aspect of interactive design, close attention was
paid to lower back injury. It was seen in a paper entitled ‘Changes in Muscle Thickness
Following Exercise and Biofeedback in People with Low Back Pain’ (Surtherlin et al, 2014)
that concentration on singular muscle groups with the aid of Biofeedback increased the
strength of the targeted muscle group in users who received feedback more than those who

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did not. This shows that increased concentration during exercise significantly benefits the
individual. This attention displayed by the user during Sutherlin’s testing is the direct
opposite of Mueller’s creation of a social setting. Instead it is the singling out of an athlete
who is tested alone and then provided with feedback.
Within the existing research in the separate fields of sport, injury and technique with the
use of interaction design, the ability to combine aspects of each of the foregoing studies
into a singular project remains a largely unexplored area in the field of Interactive Media.
This allows a great deal of breathing space for this, a project combining technique and injury
to fit easily into the pre-existing research themes and areas. With this said there are
certainly some functional designs which resemble what this project is attempting to create.
2.4 Similar Projects
We will begin by discussing a paper titled ‘Planipes: Mobile Foot Pressure Analysis’. The
Planipes is a gel insole which measures pressure and relays this information to a
smartphone application for the user to analyse collected data at a later time. The paper
states:
‘Traditional systems exhibit one common drawback: They are non-mobile or at
least obtrusive and therewith influence the measurement. In the case of
stationary pressure plates, people are only able to measure the foot pressure
distribution in an unnatural context.’ (Pfaffen et al, 2011)
The planipses’ main goal is to offer a non-intrusive means of measuring pressure applied to
the foot in an everyday setting eliminating the inaccuracies in results found when examining
this type of data in large medical facilities where the user is uncomfortable and may be
unknowingly attempting to perform the correct action instead of the movements he/she

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would normally do. The Planipes device uses force resistors in a shoe insole allowing for
measurement of pressure. This insole is attached by cable to a sensor board which is clipped
to a shoe. It seems that the project has met most of its goals but may have lacked in user
studies and testing as the original goal was to ‘implement a mobile and versatile foot
pressure measurement platform and to unobtrusively measure foot pressure in real time’
(Pfaffen et al, 2011). The fact that a cable and shoe clip must be used is not user friendly and
contradicts the need to be unobtrusive. Also, the use of an insole means that in order to
make this readily available to the general public it would need to be developed in all foot
sizes. This then begs the question if smaller size insoles will deliver just as accurate
information as a larger insole.
The device relates closely to the project and the themes introduced in the start of this
paper, but differ in some crucial areas. Real-time feedback is not in fact real time with the
Planipes. Instead, it delivers information to the smartphone to be examined at a later stage.
This thesis project improves upon this by offering both actual real-time as well as stored
information. The real-time information will be kept to simple visual/auditory feedback in
order to avoid confusing the user as to what is going on. The device will store the more
detailed results separately allowing deeper analysis of this data at a later stage. It also
strives to improve upon the delivery system. The intentions of this thesis project is to create
self-contained units for the left and right foot big enough to incorporate all normal foot sizes
thus eliminating the need for multiple sizes of the design. Although both ideas are similar,
significant improvements will be made in the course of this project.
The Planipes lack of a one fits all systemneeds to be addressed in order to make this thesis
project viable. A method may have been achieved with Mechanical Force Redistribution.
This is ‘a method of sensing which creates anti-aliased image of forces applied to a surface.

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Its main intention is to make large format interactive walls, tabletops and floor tiles
possible’ (Grau et al, 2014). Such a system, combined with the ergometer’s footstop on a
smaller scale would eliminate the need for resizable devices as one larger device will also
detect all smaller foot pressure applied to it. It is necessary to state that the Mechanical
Force Redistribution systemmainly deals with creating large multi touch surfaces rather
than recording a singular figure of direct force applied to the pad itself and thus may be
much too complicated for the ergometer footstop. However, it is not the device itself but
the underlying concept of a singular pad that will measure all foot sizes that is relevant to
this work. This method of sensing when certain areas of the pad have forces placed on them
could be duplicated on a smaller scale with the use of compressible Piezo wire.
SonicSeat is a systemdeveloped to monitor the position of the seat as it moves along the
slide section in the boat (Gravenhorst, 2012). Although it is not related directly to pressure
and measuring force applied, it is an important aspect of the research being developed and
could possibly be used in conjunction with this project. The device works by tracking the
seat’s movement with ultrasonic sound and is also based around the themes of improving
technique and preventing injury in much the same way as the pressurised footstops will.
‘The sliding seat allows the rower to use his legs to achieve a longer and more
powerful stroke compared to a fixed seat. The legs are the most powerful limbs
involved in rowing, 70% of the total expended energy is contributed by the legs.
At the same time, the sliding seat movement is also one of the most sensitive
parts in rowing technique. The right coordination of the legs is for both beginners
and advanced rowers an essential and challenging part when improving their
rowing technique.’ (Gravenhorst, 2012)
The idea for both pressurised footstops and seat tracking is to provide qualitative and
quantitative feedback to the user and others who may be involved. Such information is
especially useful to coaches. The feedback does this by allowing the user to understand in a
simple form, be it auditory or visually, when their technique is slipping, whilst also recording

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information for closer analysis after a training session. Like the projects, above this proposal
also runs with the theme of unobtrusiveness allowing the user to forget that they are being
measured. This will help the rower gain a better understanding of how they normally row
when not under the stresses of unfamiliar data collection techniques such as going to a
formal medical centre to be tested. A measure of this ‘normal rowing’ is critical as a baseline
from which to measure future improvements.
Unobtrusiveness: The rower should as little as possible be distracted or
influenced by the system. This implicates a small form and weight of the system
and contactless measurement methods.’ (Gravenhorst, 2012)
The above three projects best show where the pressurised footstops will be placed in
relation to research already being developed with regard to the physical characteristics of
how it will work and the build-type possibilities.
Looking towards the human computer interaction aspect of the project we try to
understand how best to relate the human rower to the machine measuring them and vice-
versa. This will include features such as well-developed basic HCI, how the user and
computer combine with each other in order to create an almost cyborg relationship with
human and machine functioning as a single unit. Visualisation of data is of primary
importance and how the data obtained by the pressurised footstop will be relayed to the
user in a clean and usable manner. Auditory feedback too is crucial; especially to snap the
user back to reality if his/her mind begins to wonder. So too is the possibility of gamification
through the footstop to alleviate the boredom of lengthy training sessions which involve
repetitive strenuous movement. This will, in turn, create a friendly competitive atmosphere
through gaming between crew members.

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Florian ‘Floyd’ Mueller states at the ‘One of a CHInd’ conference (2014) that ‘sport is an area
in which the number of available computing devices is growing rapidly. However, HCI has so
far devoted rather little attention to the sports domain’. This bodes well for the HCI
elements of the pressurised footstop. It will allow great leeway for new experimentation
with the users. Not only will this aid in creating the best possible design for the footstop but
it will also progress the overall field of human computer interaction in the largely
unexplored area of sport. This makes for an exciting project at the forefront of sporting HCI.
In their workshop at ‘One of a CHInd’, Mueller discussed three broad themes relating to
sports HCI which the pressurised footstop addresses as its primary functions. The first
theme is Bodily Control and Awareness. ‘A key skill for athletes to develop is the perception
and awareness of how they are moving and how that links to their performance.’(Mueller et
al, 2014). The footstop does this by identifying when incorrect technique has been detected.
It then, in turn, relays this information to the user allowing them to take immediate action
and gain back control of body movement. Secondly, sports motivation and fun. This will be
achieved through a form of simple gamification. A good example of how this may be
implemented is a game which counts each time a perfect connection with the footplate is
made. This will then allow users to compete for the highest score bringing an element of
play and competition to the crew. Lastly is the theme of pain and discomfort. The project
attempts to limit this by ensuring that correct technique is being executed at all times.
Gamification, auditory feedback and visualisation of data can play important roles in this
project. Gamification allows the user to enjoy the system whilst using it for prolonged
periods of time. It can support and improve an atmosphere of camaraderie between users
allowing enhanced social bonding.

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‘Computer supported collaborative sports (CSCS) with Exertion Interfaces support
people connecting with one another, while simultaneously encouraging a healthy
lifestyle’ (Mueller, 2007)
It will help keep the user’s mind active as he/she attempts to outdo friends in a simple but
effective gaming enhancement of the ergometer. This will aid in alleviating boredom, create
social bonding and also improve technique through accurate rowing. Taken to a level above
localised gaming, if the ergometer had internet connection it could create bonding
opportunities for remote players in differing world locations. ‘Players can use the universal
language of sport to connect with one another; this is possible with people situated on the
other side of the world.’ (Mueller, 2007)
Auditory feedback has been shown to increase the velocity of an Olympic rowing boat with
elite athletes placed in it.
‘The acoustic feedback system Sofirow was designed and field-tested with elite
athletes. The results showed a significant increase in the mean boat velocity
during the sections with acoustic feedback compared to the sections without. It is
thus very supportive to implement acoustic feedback regularly into training
processes for elite athletes.’ (Schaffert, 2011)
The previous study on ‘The effects of acoustic feedback on perception and modification of
movement patterns’ (Schaffert, 2011) yields evidence on how auditory feedback can and
does improve technique and movement. Therefore, this pressurised footstop project must
test for improved results with the addition of audio design and, if proven correct, integrate
this element of sound into the final piece.
The sound elements will enhance how the user reacts to the machine and will strengthen
the bond between the two at an almost subconscious level. This means that as the user
becomes less aware of his/her technique a specific auditory cue will automatically alert
them when technique is slipping. This could be extremely helpful when moving this project

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from the ergometer into a real boat. If the user has used the pressurised footstop on land
and is familiar with the sound design used, then it is quite possible that by association only
sound will be needed to ensure correct technique on the water. This limits the amount of
technical machinery that would be needed to replicate the project in a realistic rowing
scenario within a racing boat. It will also help to shed light on vital HCI elements in an
unexplored area of the field.
Visualising data obtained by the footstop in a unique, simple and understandable way is one
of the most important features which need to be addressed. Because the footstop has the
possibility of gathering a lot of information it could potentially confuse the user and
inadvertently render useless all information gathered. A systemof visuals will need to be
created in order to aid the machine element of the footstop in accurately and quickly
displaying to the user what he/she needs to know. ‘Each set of data has particular display
needs, and the purpose for which you’re using the data set has just as much of an effect on
those needs as the data itself.’ (Fry, 2007) This means that the information from the
footstop will need its own specific method of displaying information that could not possibly
be confused in its meaning. Clear, concise and visually appealing design must be created and
the only meaningful way to accomplish this is through extended user testing. Again, this will
advance the largely unknown area of HCI in the field of sports.
When looking at the above research it is clear to see that the area of sport and HCI has not
been fully explored. This places the pressurised footstop near the forefront of the field
allowing for exciting user studies and prototyping to take place. It is clear to see that aspects
from all the above projects and studies can be combined in order to create a well-rounded
piece of technology which will benefit all users involved in the operation of the device.

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A review of all such research indicates that in order for this project to function at the best of
its possibilities it will need extensive testing through the focus groups due to limited
information in the field. This will allow the project to grow and expand in its own unique
way and will avoid it being confined by pre-existing theories. This will open the project up to
new areas of scope which may not have been examined before leading to a new, expanding
and topical venture.

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Chapter Three
Methodology, User studies and the Design Process

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Chapter Three: Methodology, User studiesandthe DesignProcess
3.1 Methodologies and User Study
Ethnography can be described as the scientific description of peoples and cultures with their
customs, habits and mutual differences.
The project will approach user reviews and studies by implementing an ethnographic based
system. Ethnography is the practise of recording human mannerisms, situations and
practices through related fieldwork and the gathering of data accounts. It is grounded in the
qualitative approach which allows it to not concentrate solely on specific measurements and
fixated data collection such as surveys and questioners, but allows the analyser to collect
equally important non quantifiable measurements; for example the reasoning behind a
user’s behaviours and intended actions. This will be beneficial when learning how people
react to the ergometer and the novel pressurised footplate designs during certain stages of
their training schedule. It will also allow the study to partly delve into the minds of different
individuals who may be severely exhausted whilst on the machine and figure out what is
truly needed by someone in this anguished situation. For example; audio feedback to
perhaps excite the mind and stimulate the ability to focus on the task at hand-which is
rowing with the proper, footplate assisted technique. Hughes et al describe Ethnography as:
“An observational technique that uses a naturalistic perspective. That is, it seeks
to understand settings as they naturally occur, rather than in artificial or
experimental conditions, from the point of view of the people who inhabit those
settings, and usually involves quite lengthy periods of time at the study site. It is
the ability of ethnography to describe a social setting as it is perceived by those
involved in that setting” (Hughes et al, 1995)

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Such an approach begins with low fidelity prototypes which can be easily discarded when
shown to be ineffective. These prototypes consisted of cardboard, paper and human
manipulation in order to emulate what may be a finished piece to the user. The ability to
quickly work through many low-fi prototypes is useful in creating the best design possible
for the project to follow thus creating an all-round superior end product. It does this by
improving upon each discarded predecessor allowing the design process to flow from one
prototype to another as feedback is gained from the users. This is also an effective and
useful way of explaining the concept to the user on how the prototype actually works in the
real world and in real competitive situations. It is further explained by Dan Saffer when he
states:
“Prototyping is where; finally, all the pieces of the design come together in a
holistic unit. Indeed, many clients will have difficulty understanding a design until
they see and use the prototype. Like all other models and diagrams, it is a tool
for communicating. Prototypes communicate the message “This is what it could
be like” (Saffer, 2009)
Such an explanation cuts down drastically the age old problem of designers being attached
to their designs and instead of creating what the user wants and needs, creates what he/she
thinks the user wants and needs. This mind-set sometimes causes sizable losses for a
project in the final outcome when a design fails to meet the standard needed by the end
user. After the first tests are carried out a higher fidelity may be used in order to gain more
specific data on a particular area of design.
Because the data collected from this low-fi prototype is so broad, the ethnographic study
took a multi-faceted approach. The means that the methods by which the data was
collected consisted of varied observations, video and sketching, to shadowing and semi-

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structured/unstructured interviews giving way to rich and valuable information which then
required interpretation and analysis thus leading to a perspective from the observer’s point
of view which we call autoethnography. Conrad Kottak states in “Mirror for Humanity” that
this is the emic perspective:
“The emic approach investigates how local people think. How they perceive and
categorize the world, their rules for behaviour, what has meaning for them, and
how they imagine and explain things.” (Kottak, 2006, p.47)
Observations were made over several days and weeks using the non-intrusive “fly on the
wall” technique. This took take place in St. Michaels Rowing Club which is based in Limerick.
The club rows on the river Shannon. Due to the tidal nature of this river, gaining access to
people using the machines was not a problem because during low tide all training is gym
based, giving ample opportunity to observe the users. The observed users ranged from
complete beginners sitting on an ergometer for the first time (most were school children
from the age of fourteen to seventeen) to advanced international rowers who have racked
up innumerable hours on the machine. This allowed for a wide scope and a varied amount
of information to be studied. After the observation stage subsequent semi-structured
interviews were be carried out on separate sections of the rowing community including,
beginners, novices, seniors, veterans and coaches in order to gain accurate and significant
information about aspects of their rowing life. This included how the ergometer fits in with
their training schedules, their perspectives on the machine itself in its current form and how
the new design might be implemented. Design ideas were then reworked in order to
implement what had been learned from utilising the ethnological method.

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The main goal of this “fly on the wall” observation was to perform a task analysis and to
identify critical stages in the usage of the ergometer with the new design. It was also
important to figure out people’s behaviours and patterns with an outsider’s viewpoint
allowing for non-biased, accurate recording of the users’ actions from start to finish when
using the newly designed ergometer. Doing this allowed examination of where the design
succeeds or fails to carry out its intended purposes of improving the athlete’s performance
and preventing injury. It also allowed for a behavioural study among the rowers to see if
they would enjoy training with the new device or resent having to use such an apparatus. It
attempted to give a clear view of any apparent design flaws.
After the first ethnographical stage was carried out it was then necessary to perform a
second quantitative stage in order to gain specific and more technical data about the device
as well as the users in order to turn the concept into a working piece. This stage utilised a
medium/high fidelity prototype and took place in the later stages of the design process. It
focused on gaining information that can be easily measured and involved generating data
on such factors as how many people find it useful, the averages and ranges in pressure
exerted by the different age groups in order to calibrate the project outcomes effectively
and to gain feedback on possible sensory feedback needs.
The combination and correct usage of prototyping, qualitative and quantitative research
methodologies led to an enhanced and superior end product. The final outcome being a
product that has been produced through participatory design and is meaningfully beneficial
to the users; and not just what the designer thought would be beneficial to them.

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3.1.1 Weaknesses of the Ethnographic Approach
Ethnography has long been associated with the problems of bias and objectivity; coming to
conclusions based on the researcher’s own beliefs and experiences. This can be a drawback
as the researcher/designer has a history of participation in the sport of rowing. However,
the difficulty of bias and objectivity may be analysed and overcome.
‘To mitigate the effects of bias, the ethnographer must first make specific biases explicit’ and
‘place a check on the negative influences of bias’ through ‘non-judgemental orientation’
(Fetherman, 2010)
This researcher has strived to overcome bias by being constantly aware of taking a non-
judgemental stance and by engaging the user groups fully in the design process. Indeed
Campbell and Lassiter argue that complete objectivity is not necessarily the ideal and
consider ‘the pursuit of a purely objective point of view a miscredited foray’
‘Ethnography develops out of an unambiguous consideration of one’s own experiences,
positions and subjectivities as they meet the experiences, positions and subjectivities of
others.’ (Campbell et al, 2014)
3.2 User Groups
The user group was quite broad in terms of age and abilities and ranged anywhere from
fourteen years to sixty plus and from beginner to elite sportsman. It was however, a
localised group, mainly focusing on the rowing community. Although the device is aimed at
rowers it is safe to assume that both gym members and gyms themselves, where the
ergometer is available, will also benefit from utilising the device. This will help to prevent
injury and aid in the teaching of the proper technique and procedure for using the
ergometer in a non-rowing location. This gym use however, will stem from the research
centred on the rowers as it can be assumed that if the device works on the ergometers in

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the rowing club it will also work well in a gym. This assumption is based on all ergometers
being roughly the same and also all rowing technique being uniform.
The focused user group can be broken down into five categories. Each of these sets has
differing usages and expectations for the pressure footstop. They are; beginners, novices,
seniors, veterans and finally coaches. These diverse groups were assessed independently
from each other in order to determine the overall needs of the design of the project.
3.2.1 Beginners
When a person begins rowing they are most likely between the ages of fourteen to sixteen,
this is known as junior level. This age profile comes about due to three separate factors.
Firstly, it is the time one starts second level education and this coincides with the
recommended starting age for the sport. The majority of new members of rowing clubs are
teenage school students who join in relatively large groups of friends. A good example of
this is the growing popularity of rowing in Ard Scoil Ris, a Limerick secondary school from
which St. Michaels Rowing club sources the majority of its new male members. In a year the
new member count can vary from fifteen to twenty from this school alone. Many clubs use
this model to attract new junior members. Secondly, it is the age range in which the dangers
around rowing can be comprehended fully. This includes the awareness of injury and the
possibility of drowning. There is also the subject of the need for discipline around expensive
equipment. Lastly, between the ages of fourteen and sixteen one can pull hard enough on
an ergometer or an oar to begin learning proper technique for on-water training. At this age
a person can exert enough force to do serious long term harm if not taught the proper
rowing technique. This is where the pressure footstop will come into play. The beginner will
use the device in the early learning process. It will allow them, from the very early stages of

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rowing, to grasp the concept of pushing with both legs simultaneously in order to get the
most out of the stroke as already detailed in chapter one.
Steve Redgrave also stresses the importance of this simultaneous leg drive to boat speed in
terms of faults and solutions; specifically he calls for equal leg pressure in the drive phase of
the stroke to minimise problems of poor performance (Redgrave, 1992)
It will also make sure that they are learning the correct technique thus limiting the potential
for injury involved in the long term, strenuous, repetitive movement on the ergometer or in
a boat. Because it will teach this in the first stages of rowing the expectation is that the
learning curve will continue throughout the user’s entire rowing career making the
pressurised footstop a vital piece of equipment within the rowing community.
3.2.2 Novices
Novice rowers are all those who have been rowing competitively but have not won a status
and recognised event. Novice rowing generally includes college students who may have
rowed in second level education without winning or people who wish to take up rowing
from scratch and have not competed in their junior years. The pressure footstop in this case
still primarily acts as a learning instrument for the user. It will continue to improve those
rowers who have already been trained at junior level and wish to continue into the higher,
more competitive stages whilst also teaching new rowers the basics much the same as it
helped teach the junior level rowers. Because of the increased age profile of the novice
group, a user will have significantly increased strength over their fourteen year old
counterpart. It can then be assumed that an increased amount of pressure will be applied to
the ergometer. This means that if the incorrect technique is implemented, novice rowers

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could do longer term and more serious damage to their body in a much shorter period of
time. Injury at this age and level of the sport could end one’s season or in more serious
cases end one’s rowing career.
One can see that at both junior and novice levels of rowing the pressurised footstop could
potentially reduce overall injury in rowers by allowing them to ensure that the legs are
engaged first in the rowing stroke thus preventing them from doing damage to the lower
back through prolonged incorrect use of the ergometer. In addition, rowers using the
machine in the learning process may now continuously use it to build upon their technique
and racing performance.
3.2.3 Seniors
The senior rowers are those who have taken the sport to a new level of competition. The
sport at senior level is taken very seriously with rigorous training regimes including
prolonged sessions in the gym, on the ergometers and on the water. This group trains most
days of the year to compete at summer regattas and for some seniors to make it to the
international teams. At this stage technique has been, for the most part learned, and the
objective is now to improve the finer aspects of the rowing stroke. The need for the
pressurised footstop now changes. As well as being a learning machine it must now become
a versatile pressure recording piece of equipment for those who need specialised
information relayed to them in order to improve upon specific areas of their technique. It
will do this in two ways. Firstly, it will give feedback in a simple and quickly understandable
visual form to the user as he/she uses the device in real time on an ergometer. This will
most likely be accompanied by audio feedback. Secondly, the device will record more
accurate and specific information gained from the user’s use of the footstop which can be

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accessed by reviewing a computer which has this information stored. This data will need to
be organised and easily readable so that all users can quickly gain the most amount of
beneficial information available to them. The simplest and most meaningful way to do this is
through visualisation of the information through a system such as infographics.
3.2.4 Veterans
Veteran rowing is for those who have been rowing all their lives and it is aimed at the older
age profiles involved in the sport. Although veteran status can be entered in a person’s late
twenties, this is a rarity. The usual age range is forty upward. The veteran team is usually
built from people who have left the sport and now want to come back and begin training
again. It is not as competitive as other levels and most of the time it is based around leisure
rowing in order to keep fit into one’s later years. In recent years veteran rowing has
increased considerably in popularity with many clubs now catering for full veteran
competitive squads. Because of the lack of continuous training and the advanced ages
involved in veteran rowing the pressurised footstops device will take on a role of being
primarily an injury prevention tool. It is difficult for veterans to change aspects of their
technique due to it being ingrained for such a long time. The main focus of the device then
will then be to ensure that the user is engaging the legs first and not opening the back up to
damage. Of all the user groups, injury in the veteran stage may not only stop a person
rowing but may also cause significant problems in day to day life. Injuries at this age will
take prolonged periods of time and extended amounts of effort to correct. The hope is to
minimise this problem by showing and telling the user if they are not rowing correctly.

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3.2.5 Coaches
Although not directly involved in the usage of the device coaches will gain crucial
information on how the rowers under their control are progressing with their training. It will
benefit coaches of all the foregoing user groups by supplying vital data about the power and
strength of the crew, whether the crew are technically proficient leading to minimal injury
to individual crew members. With all this information gathered on land the coaches can
then devise new and improved training regimes to benefit specific rowers and allow simple
tracking of the individual rower’s improvements. This will in turn benefit the crew as a
whole. The coaches can then implement this new training in the boat on the river allowing
the rowers with the pressurised footstop to fully realise their improved abilities.
As seen above, the pressurised footstop device will have many user groups; each with their
own specific needs. The device, if designed and utilised correctly could potentially benefit
the rowing community in quite a fundamental way with the final expectation being a fully
incorporated pressurised footstop benefiting the rowing community on a daily basis with
aspects of technique on and off the water.
Gym users would need all the same information that rowers need when using the
ergometer and as such would fall under and merge with the beginner or novice categories
above. After testing and designing and keeping the rowing users in mind the device should
be easily portable for gym usage. This means a public gym based study of the ergometer
would not be needed in order to determine what the public gym user would need as both
groups require the same thing.

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3.3 Design Process
The Design Process accompanies the methodologies of data and information collection
mentioned above as this section is based on implementing said theories in a realistic setting.
It is the practical side to design research including Brainstorming, User Centred Design Cycle,
Sketching, Mind Maps, Design Games (Participatory Design), Design Principles, Prototyping
and Evaluation. The first seven will be discussed in more detail below giving an
understanding of how the final design for this project was conceived and how each section
was conducted. Evaluation will be focused on at a later stage and will be based around the
findings of the above methodologies.
3.3.1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming was the first step in the overall process. This technique comprises the laying
out and growth of all current ideas in one’s mind onto paper. It allows the designer to create
a starting point in which he/she can expand upon. Brainstorming creates a space with many
concepts, some of these ideas will be relevant and worked upon and some will be
outlandish or useless and so will be discarded.
‘The group simply provides ideas that might lead to a solution and apply no analytical
judgement as to the feasibility. The judgements are reserved for a later date.’ (Osborn, 1963)
It is good for the designer to get these ideas on paper and out of theoretical space in order
to whittle down and make sense of what he/she is attempting to create. Two stages of
brainstorming took place during this project. The first was a designer centred phase and the
second incorporated those whom the final design will have an impact on. These allowed a
great scope of ideas to be created and meshed together in order to generate concepts that

35
neither of the two groups could have accomplished alone. The designer centred
brainstorm’s purpose is firstly, to help the designer put pen to paper. But it also has a
secondary role, to alleviate tension between designer and user when it comes time to
explain exactly what the brainstorming process is to the user in order to get relevant and
meaningful information from them. Ultimately, brainstorming is the starting point which
feeds into the ‘User Centred Design Cycle’ and focuses the project on two or three core
ideas/concepts to be developed further. (Figure 4)
Figure 4 - Brainstorm Example
3.3.2 User Centred Design Cycle
The User Centred Design Cycle is essential to the overall design process. It generally consists
of four stages of design leading to a fifth and final stage. These stages are plan, design,
prototype, evaluate and end product. The first four are crucial to a reliable, user friendly and

36
effective final design. It is a repetitive cycle concentrated on fixing, redesigning and
evaluating a project multiple times in order to work out all discrepancies. The first section,
the plan, evolves from the brainstorming. The plan consists of the main ideas of the project
which are then worked on by means of sketching, mind mapping and creative
representations. It is an important early stage in the cycle as it allows freedom of expression
for the designer. It does this by permitting any and all design ideas based around the core
ideas developed from the brainstorm to be expanded upon. This may lead the designer to
come up with or to contemplate constructions which he/she may not have thought of
previously.
Natural progression then leads to iterations of design created by the users and designer
through participatory design methods such as Design Games. The drawings and designs
derived from the participatory method are then prototyped and evaluated by the designer
in order to see if the perfect end product has been achieved. If it has, then one moves to the
fifth stage; end product. If it has not been achieved the designer regresses to the plan stage
keeping all previous data to develop and redesign the project. This cycle takes as many goes
as necessary to create a faultless final piece. This method focuses almost purely on design
aspects such as what the piece will do for the user or how the product will look and act. It
does not focus on the creation method such as coding and build. This is, in most cases, due
to users not understanding the background handling of the project. This can be taken as an
unavoidable downside to the design cycle as even after all of the participatory design
processes the designer still creates the underlying groundwork for the piece without the
input of the users due to the their lack of knowledge. This problem can be seen in almost all
electronic equipment which can be bought by the general public. Taking the Windows

37
operating systemas an example, it has been created using the design cycle to provide a
workable interface for the user; however, if the operator encounters a problem with the
software they have little or no knowledge of how to fix the problem themselves. This is
inevitable at the moment due to the complexity of most such systems.
3.3.3 Sketching
Sketching and mind mapping are useful throughout all stages of the cycle. It creates a visual
interpretation of the process in a quick, accessible and alternative way to simply making a
note of it. Sketching takes slightly longer than taking notes and can be beneficial in this
sense. It allows for a longer connection between the designer and the item being sketched.
This in turn allows greater attention to detail on whatever subject matter is currently being
sketched aiding in the design and concept period. Sketching has been used through many of
this project’s stages; however, one must use caution when creating drawn interpretations of
designs. Over attention to detail in sketches may lead to extended amounts of wasted time.
The main idea of a sketch is to convey a point in a simple and effective manner not to create
a masterpiece. (Figure 5)
Figure 5 - Sketch Examples

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3.3.4 Mind Mapping
Mind mapping can be used at any stage during the design cycle and acts as a visual brain of
sorts. It maps the processes which have been and are currently being carried out by the
designer. It places everything in order which allows easy tracking of ideas, concepts and
prototypes which have been created and are in creation. It is a more complex and focused
version of a brainstorming session.
3.3.5 Design Games
Design Games are a fun, interesting and creative way for the designer to interact and gain
valuable information about the end users and what they themselves would like to see come
out of the project. The game should be kept simple enough in order for the participants not
to get confused or bored. In this project four users and the designer participated in a design
game. The players drew random cards from a small deck with descriptions of a sketch they
were to create. Then each player passed their sketch around. Each time a new section was
added to each drawing by taking a new card from the deck. (Figure 6)
Figure 6 - Design Game deck

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This created an entertaining and creative atmosphere in which unusually shaped concepts
where derived from the users themselves. After the game concluded a short talk then
proceeded to single out some interesting ideas conceived by the group effort. This allowed
the users to create work and come up with ideas without focusing on creating an end result.
An important note however; the game must be kept on the right track or the designer runs
the risk of the game going off topic and not reaching any interesting outcomes.
3.3.6 Design Principles and Prototype
Up to now designs have been drawn, talked about and sketched by the designer with the aid
of the users through participatory design. At this point the designer takes all relevant
information and begins working on a prototype. Before jumping to this stage however, the
designer should reflect on the design principles, incorporating them into the prototype. This
includes Mapping, Visibility, Feedback, Constraints and Affordances of the piece.
Mapping is the ability to form a relationship with what a user wants to do with what is
actually achievable. This means that the design should be simple for the user to understand,
allowing for a very fast learning curve. If the user cannot operate the system that has been
created then the design should be reworked to incorporate feedback which user studies
provide to create a simplified interface which, in a perfect world, can be operated by
everyone.
Visibility is concerned with the operational areas of a given piece. If the design has
moveable areas then these areas should be completely understandable to the user. The
user should be able to operate the piece by anticipating what each section does in advance
of actually using it.

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Feedback from the piece should be focussed on creating a relationship with the user. When
a person interacts with the piece this interface should provide feedback that something has
changed. This reassures the user that the device is working and that he/she is in fact having
an effect on the device. Without feedback the user is unsure if they are making a difference
or even using the piece correctly and this makes feedback an essential part of any design.
This feedback can be as simple as a beep when the user and device interact.
Constraints and limitations of what can be done are also beneficial to the overall use of the
device. Limiting the amount of actions a user can make allows easier usage. The creation of
a system with too many options can lead to confusion.
Affordance is the relationship of an object and organism that uses the object to perform an
action. This is about what an object looks like and questions whether this image
communicates what it can do. A design should look like it is built for its purpose. A simple
example of this is a chair. A chair is shaped for its use. When a chair is seen a user
automatically thinks ‘sitting’. This is the affordance of the chair. A technical explanation of
an affordance is all actions of an object of which a person is aware.
After examining each of these Design Principles a prototype was created. This prototype
incorporated as much of the data as possible which the designer had discovered using the
above methodologies. The prototype certainly was not perfect the first time and much
iteration of low fidelity prototypes needed to be developed before moving onto high fidelity
versions. Low fidelity designs should be created, evaluated and discarded quickly, taking all
valuable information gained and incorporating it into the next improved version. This way
time is not wasted on trying to force a singular design into being the final piece.

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3.3.7 Weaknesses of Cooperative design
Much of the weaknesses of cooperative design have already been discussed in section 3.1.1
‘weaknesses of the ethnographic approach’. The cooperative elements of this process have
their foundations in the ‘ethnographic user group’ approach utilised in this work. However,
there are specific difficulties concerning the lack of design experience within the user
groups.
Users, in most cases, are not designers. This is the main problem when working with non-
designers to build a suitable piece. Most users do not have a grasp of the fundamentals of
the design process. This is due, largely, to them having no background in the area. This is not
the fault of either party; it is simply the fact that not everyone is interested in design.
This means that getting appropriate information and data from them becomes difficult and
time consuming. Each section must be explained in detail and one must insure the users
know what is happening. This sometimes does not go to plan and thus, the data received is
unusable or simply not related to the intended problem. This can cause major setbacks due
to repeat testing, carried out again and again, until the data that is needed is received.
The designer must also differentiate between the users telling the designer what he/she
wants to hear as apart from what the user really thinks about the project. This problem has
the potential to trick the designer into thinking the piece is perfect when it indeed still has
many flaws.
Also the users are often only consulted when it is thought that they may have valuable
information which can be gathered by the designer. Ultimately not having any say in the

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technological aspects of the design itself. This in itself can limit the input of the users on the
final outcome (Kensing, 1998)
Although these problems are quite serious in their nature the pros gathered from the
process carried out far outweigh the cons therefore making cooperative/participatory
design a feasible method of creation.

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Chapter Four
Data Collection and Evaluation

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Chapter Four: DataCollection, Evaluation, Prototyping andBuild
4.1 Collection of Empirical Data
Data was methodically collected over the course of this project in a particular order and
fashion to aid in the effective and accurate production of prototypes. This allowed for a
series of low fidelity prototypes to be developed leading to the design of a high fidelity
model and ultimately the creation of the final design for the build section of the project. The
order in which data was collected and analysed was as follows; observations and note taking
based in St. Michaels Rowing Club Limerick, interviews with three separate targeted users,
followed by close inspections of the ergometer which was discussed earlier on in greater
detail. After this process was completed a group of users from the previously described
user groups (Junior, Senior, Novice, Veteran and Coaches) were gathered together for a
brainstorm and design game session followed by subsequent discussions based on what had
been brought forward by the meeting. Following this meeting prototyping began. After low-
fi prototype one, two and three were designed, tested and evaluated with users the third
prototype was deemed effective and warranted a fourth high fidelity design to be
constructed and tested using video prototyping. After working out the final issues with this
fourth prototype a final design was decided upon; to be created for the build process. This
build process represents the creation of a real life functional and working piece accurate to
the design. This piece will be displayed during the 2014 DAWN exhibition which takes place
in the Computer Science build in the University of Limerick.

45
4.2 Evaluation of each section of collected data
4.2.1 Observations
Observation was performed over multiple days during the design process at St. Michaels
Rowing Club. This was done in order to gain specific, important and relevant information not
from a singular group of users but from a broader range of people. This allowed for the
detailed viewing of all user groups targeted for study; juniors, seniors, novices, veterans and
coaches.
Arriving at the rowing club it could be clearly seen that that the rowing community is
actively social. All age groups interacted and respected each other creating an atmosphere
of close friendship. All athletes have a strong desire to progress in the sport.
Upon entering the club’s gym area ‘rowing mode’ takes over. All members become focused
on the tasks at hand and the coaches direct the training programs. Observations were
mainly made in the gym area of the rowing club where the ergometers are situated.
As the subjects enter the gym they firstly place the ergometers into a certain pre-
determined location. Generally there are teams of four to eight people training at one time
making the fixed wheels which are attached to the ergometer quite awkward as they only
allow forward and backward movement with no horizontal movement; setup is a chore and
unnecessarily time consuming. The next step taken by the athletes was to sit down and
strap in their shoes to the footplate. There is a lack of diagrams or written messages to tell
the user that the foot size must be chosen prior to strapping in. This led to many people
completely ignoring the footplate setup and perhaps allowing themselves to be at an
immediate disadvantage from not having the potential to apply the maximum amount of

46
force and pressure from the legs to the footplate. Following this the subjects turn their
attention to the LCD screen. The LCD must be changed in the seated position and is situated
just too far away from the user for a relaxed set up. The usage of the LCD varied from
athlete to athlete. All subjects only used the five hundred meter split time and clock. The
calorie and watt counter were completely ignored. Apart from the split time output at a
specific moment there was no feedback or indication to how the user performed from start
to finish which is a vital piece of information that has been overlooked. Aside from the
subjects who already had prior knowledge of the machine there was a full cognitive
walkthrough and breakdown of the correct movements to make in order to minimise injury
to new users. This, however, is not the case with all ergometer users; especially those in
public gym settings. Without these instructions it is very easy to do heavy and possible
permanent damage to lower back over a long period of time repeating incorrect
movements.
4.2.2 Interviews
After breaking down the sequence of steps used by multiple athletes on the ergometer
during observation, a series of three interviews were held. The interviewees were male,
aged twenty to twenty three with long term experience in rowing and using the ergometers.
The interviews were loaded with information about the machine and how it could possibly
be improved upon.
The LCD screen was commented upon over and over again. The athletes all had a combined
opinion that the screen should be easier to access physically and that the interface design
(HCI) could be more user friendly and perhaps provide more feedback about the athlete’s
performance. It was also noted there was no way to save your information over a long

47
period of time to facilitate meaningful analysis of long term performance improvement. The
most prominent feature recorded was time over 2000 meters. It was also felt that more
electronic data could be stored about performance throughout the 2000 meter period.
Upon deeper questioning of one of the athletes it was stated that ‘sometimes rowers
unconsciously engage only one leg fully in the leg-drive section of the rowing stroke; mainly
the leg one is more competent with’. This means that a considerable amount of strength is
more or less wasted when both driving legs are not fully engaged. It was also noted that this
goes completely unnoticed and unchecked in addition to being a very difficult habit to
eradicate. Correcting such poor technique is difficult without some measurement device.
This is however, something that the ergometer could have built into the foot plate as it is a
fundamental positive movement of rowing to push with both legs (Redgrave, 1992).
Pressure pads in the foot plates connected to the LCD screen would immediately improve
this problem as the user would get dynamic feedback of how much pressure he or she is
exerting on the foot plate at any given time, with either leg.
Although the interviewees had a lot of information on how they use the ergometer and how
to improve it, they also stressed that it does perform the function of getting you strong and
fit and it performs this function very well in its current form. The one downside identified by
all was boredom and lack of stimulation whilst using the machine. The interviewees said this
boredom along with being stationary for extended periods of time were the main reason
they did not enjoy land training on the ergometer. Indeed most athletes wear headphones
to listen to music while working on the machine, thus diluting their concentration on
technique further.

48
The final and perhaps one of the most important issues raised by the interviews was that
the athletes did not think the ergometer was an accurate measurement of how fast one
could move a boat on the water and instead was very biased towards heavier and taller
athletes. This again touches on the area around lack of enjoyment, in that if you are a
smaller rower you will constantly be beaten on the ergometers by peers you may be
significantly faster than on the water. However, if the machine were able to measure good
technique such as efficient use of the leg drive on the footplate this might ‘even things up’
for those who simply ‘can’t pull as hard’. Such factors may affect athlete’s mentality,
promoting ability to perform to the highest standard.
It was agreed by all interviewees that the ergometer currently fulfils one of the two areas it
is designed to accomplish. This is the area of fitness. “There’s nowhere to hide on an ergo,
the coaches can see your work, what you’re up to all the time by having a look at the screen.
In a crew boat during a training session nobody knows how hard anyone is really pulling
because it can’t be measured”. With the current ergometer design one can get on a machine
pull the handle and do exercise allowing you to become physically stronger and fitter.
However, when it comes to its other capacities, that is, teaching someone how to row or
improving upon already existing technique it is lacking in certain design aspects as stated
above.
4.3.3 Brainstorming
Brainstorming was the next step in the design process. It involved the evaluation of the
above information that had been collected. All ideas that had been triggered where laid out
on paper no matter how crazy or irrelevant. This process allows the designer to clear his/her

49
mind whilst also getting a view of the path which might be the most useful and interesting
to take.
Because it is easy to become obsessed with one’s own ideas it was decided to keep the
users constantly in mind and allow them to partake in as much of the design process as
possible. A group of users were selected consisting of two females from the senior team,
two males, one from the senior team the other from the veterans, and the designer. This
group then carried out a brainstorming session which led to some further interesting ideas
which may have been very easily overlooked had the designer continued on alone. (Figure
7)
Figure 7 - Brainstorming
Throughout the session it was seen that the footplate section of the ergometer was the area
that needed the most attention due to its importance in the power, accuracy and
movement of the athlete. This group meeting grounded this main area which needed to be
focused on; essentially shaping how the rest of the project was created.

50
4.3.4 Design Game
After the brainstorming session the same group of users were again contacted to take part
in a design game. This is a game that focuses on trying to further develop as many designs
for the project as possible. This section was also videotaped for the purposes of evaluation
at a later stage.
The game created a relaxed atmosphere in which non-designers can be creative without the
pressures of having a designer looking over their shoulder. The game consisted of simple
items including, paper, markers and a deck of cards containing actions for the players. This
deck of cards was previously created by the designer to keep the team on track.
The game output created many different designs for a device that could measure data from
the footplate of the ergometer. The footplate quickly became the main topic of discussion.
With a fifteen minute timer for each round, fast and loose ideas where created. This helped
the users to stay flexible and not become bogged down with a singular idea. It also kept the
game moving at a good pace.
Although the gaming was a success at getting the user involved and indeed created some
interesting design ideas, it also had its limitations. The fact that the users are not designers
can sometimes lead them to go off topic or create ideas that involve technology so
advanced it would not be feasible. However, with this said, the design game ultimately was
a success in providing another valuable set of information about what the end users would
like to see in the final outcome.
When the design games ended a discussion was initiated by the designer. This talk was
focused around some of the ideas that had been identified by the group. The conversation

51
led to the idea that a pressure pad connected to the footplate of the ergometer may be the
best way to satisfy the greatest amount of users. The group came up with many different
ideas of what should be measured by this plate. Again, due to lack of knowledge in the
design area some ideas would have required years of work to create.
Overall the game was a success and allowed for the designer to begin prototyping low
fidelity pieces which would then be tested, evaluated and improved upon until a workable
design was produced. (Figure 8)
Figure 8 - Design Game Results

52
Chapter Five
Prototyping, Build and Findings

53
5.1 Prototypes - Low Fidelity
5.1.1 Prototype one – Paper
The first piece that was assembled consisted of paper. It combined as many elements
gathered through the previous meetings and discussions as possible. Using cut out pieces of
paper the prototype (Figure 9) was shown to the users by means of a human controlled
design. This consisted of the manual changing of elements of the design in order to simulate
what the finished item might look like. Using small sheets the designer changed pressure
counts and how the system might react when a user applies pressure to the device. This
gave the test subjects the ability to determine the pros and cons of the prototype for
themselves and to suggest improvements.
This design incorporated ideas that came from the pre-existing digital display on the
ergometer including, watt count, calorie count and pressure count, timer and different
areas of pressure on the foot.
The prototype was tested and analysed by many users in order to gain valuable feedback on
how to improve the project’s structure, functionalities and usability. It was seen that the
design was attempting to be too ambitious and was deemed to be overcomplicated.
Figure 9 - Paper Prototype 1

54
Menus and setup caused many problems and it was stated that the systemshould be ‘sit on
and go’ involving as little set up as possible. The layout of the feedback needed to be re-
designed in order to make the interface more user friendly. It was stated that the piece
looked like ‘a messy desktop’ and should ‘only have a single display so it’s not distracting’
Figure 10 - Paper Prototype 2
It was also seen that the design for the pressure sensing pads attached to the ergometer
needed to be much more durable and possibly flexible in order to fit the device into kit bags.
Although not essential to the overall functionality of the piece, it was noted that the visual
design was important and needed to be addressed.
Although there were many flaws in this first prototype it laid a down a solid foundation for
the next models to be created.
5.1.2 Prototype two – paper/cardboard
Leaving all methods of measuring data still intact, prototype two attempted to deal with the
problem of visuals and usability issues encountered in the predecessor. This build was
created using sturdier materials like cardboard and card paper. Using a tougher prototype

55
alleviated some of the worry that the device would be too flimsy, however it was still seen
to be too bulky and uncomfortable. Soft insole type material was suggested as an
alternative to plastic as the contact material for the foot.
Figure 11 - Prototype 2
The function of measuring all parts of the side of the foot was removed from prototype two,
opting instead for sensing the ball and heel of the foot only. This allowed for more
concentration on correcting the overall technique instead of improving multiple selective
areas of the foot. Although the feedback was now much simpler for the users to grasp due
to revamped visuals the system was again looked upon as overcomplicated. The watt and
calorie count were ‘simply not needed for the pads to benefit the oarsmen’. It was concluded
that this was a vast improvement on the original prototype; however the design still
possessed some fundamental flaws which needed to be addressed in the future builds.
These included where the pressure would be exactly measured from when the device was
placed on the ergometer, the visuals of the interface, what measurements would be taken
and what material would be used for final design.

56
Figure 12 - Prototype 2 testing
Waterproofing the entire piece was also discussed during the testing and evaluation of this
piece but due to this project being ergometer specific was dismissed as a problem for a
future project.
5.1.3 Prototype Three – paper/cardboard/fabric/screen
The third iteration was pared back to incorporate only the essential areas that the tested
users had commented on previously during prototype two. Watt and calorie count were
removed from the entirety of the design. New visuals for the rower when on the ergometer
were developed. This removed all numbers from the interface replacing it with graphical
interface of feet allowing better concentration on technique. Pressure was now measured
directly from the ball and heel of the foot.
This stripped back interface and measurements system received a much better review from
the rowers. It was exactly what was needed to perform its task accurately and in the least
complicated manner. Some simple design issues still needed to be addressed such as
stylistic features; these would be addressed during the final build.

57
Also during this build the use of fabric insole in order to simulate the new materials that
would be used in the final piece were examined. The fabric selected was conductive textile
and conductive string allowing the pressure placed on the footstop to be measured using
connections to an Arduino and subsequently a PC.
Figure 13 - Insole material
The use of fabric allows the design to bend, flex and to be very durable. This material will
not break under continued and strenuous use addressing the early worries of the user
group.
This prototype was deemed to be effective and thus warranted a higher fidelity model to be
created in order to validate the final usability, functionality and visuals.
5.2 Prototype - High fidelity/ Final Design
5.2.1 High Fidelity Prototype
After the success of the third design it was agreed to take the fourth version further in terms
of construction. This allowed the users to examine a prototype not made from paper or

58
cardboard and to get a better feel for how the design would transfer to a real electronic
device.
This fleshed out piece was built by using two insoles with cut-outs where the balls of the
feet would place the most pressure onto the footplate. By placing tin foil (Figure 14) on both
insoles and connecting this to a battery and LED a rudimentary pressure pad was created
(Figure 15). This worked by lighting the LED when pushing the two foil sections together
completing the circuit when ample force was applied.
Figure 14 - Foil
The feedback was given on screen essentially creating a basic electronic version of the
previous designs. Because rigorous testing to get to this point had already been carried out
there were not many major design flaws which needed to be attended to from the user’s
perspective. After this design had been tested and examined on the rowers using the
gathered data, a video evaluation of the prototype was carried out by the designer. This
involved recording the use of the device from start to finish and then evaluating the
usability of the piece incorporating all data, information and influences gathered from the

59
test subjects previously. This was to ensure that all identified problems had been addressed
before the final design was created.
Figure 15 – Prototype 4
The video recording revealed some minor design issues with the device. These were quickly
corrected and a final design was drawn up for the build section of the project.
5.2.2 Final Design
The final design takes all gathered information collected from the user studies and creates
the template for the build (Figure 16). It consists of conductive fabric which measures the
amount of force applied to the footplate of the ergometer. This pressure pad connects to an
Arduino board which then relays the gathered data from the pad to a PC. Here it is
converted into a display which can be viewed by the user whilst on the rowing machine
itself.

60
Figure 16 - Final Design
Without the prototyping and testing of all built pieces a fully rounded, simple to use and
functional device would never have developed. This process allowed an effective design to
be created using cooperative design methods ultimately leading to a design which suits the
purposes of the end user successfully.
5.3 Build
This build is based around an existing pressure sensor found on the Instructables website
(Instuctables, 2014). The items needed to build the piece include thread, conductive fabric,
Neoprene (wetsuit material), conductive thread, Velostat and fusible interfacing. In order
for the pressure pad to be read crocodile clips, male headers and an Arduino Board must
also be used.
Firstly a stencil of the design was created. This stencil shows placement of where the
pressure will be measured from the pad and also allows for the accurate cutting of fabrics
limiting waste and creating a neat finish. The stencil shows the shape of the Neoprene and

61
Velostat sections and also how the conductive thread is sewn into the Neoprene. Velostat
allows the piece to be more or less sensitive depending on how many layers are
incorporated into the design.
The next step was to fuse small tabs of conductive fabric to the Neoprene using the fusible
material. This was done using an iron and creates the pads into which the crocodile clips sit
allowing for the transfer of data from the pad to the Arduino.
Using the previously drawn stencil the conductive thread was carefully sewn into the
Neoprene and connected to the previously fused conductive fabric tabs. This was done by
simply sewing the conductive thread into the tabs themselves. At this point Velostat was
placed between both sections of Neoprene and then the two separate sections were sewn
into one piece. Placing a gap in the sewing allows for extra Velostat to be fitted or removed
changing the sensitivity of the piece.
The piece was now ready to be connected to the Arduino board. Using the free Arduino and
Processing software the device can be connected and utilised by the user. Arduino and
Processing allow for the graphical interface to be accessed completing the design.
5.4 Findings
The cooperative design approach was utilised extensively throughout this work. Within this
framework the designer attempted to include a wide variety of potential rowing users.
Because these users were closely and physically involved throughout the entirety of the
design the final piece was a success in supplying what was needed; that is, a device that
measures pressure to the footplate from the user, accurately allowing the rower to focus on
the technique of the leg drive section of the stroke. Crucially, the device is simple, accurate

62
and cheap. These attributes allow for it to be available to many and not just elite athletes
thus providing the ability to broadly improve technique and lessen back injury within the
larger ergometer using community.
The research carried out in this piece can be associated with many other discussions around
pressure sensitive designs such as those described in chapter two. However, it adds to the
field by attempting to create a focused piece for the everyday person; it is easy to use and
relatively cheap as a HCI device. Furthermore, it directly confronts an area of the rowing
stroke which has been neglected in data collection and analysis in the past. It also addresses
the interaction of poor sporting technique with physical injury in a specific way. In this way
the research differentiates itself from that which went before it. By creating a simple but
effective device this research has filled a gap within the overall field of interactive pressure
sensing devices.
With continued research it is feasible to conclude that the device created during this thesis
could be adapted to a wide range of sport and exercise including running, javelin, long jump
and many other leg and foot focused sports. Even closer to home, the piece could be
adapted to fit all aspects of rowing training such as weight lifting and ‘on the water’ training
sessions if it were fitted to the boat.
As a rowing device the footplate measure could be further developed by interfacing with
other devices which measure pressure applied to the oar. It would be useful, for example to
visualise the pressure on the footplate with pressure applied to the oar. Additionally, the
position of the sliding seat in relation to footplate pressure would provide a measure of
wasted backward drive if the seat were pushed without footplate contact. Ideally a fully
incorporated interactive measurement system comprising footplate, oar and seat outputs

63
would provide useful data; especially to elite athletes and their coaches. Furthermore, the
output from the footplate could be correlated with the existing power outputs as they exist
on the ergometer to examine footplate technique and overall power generation. There may
be other measurements which interact with footplate outputs which may come to light with
further cooperative design efforts.
5.5 Conclusion
The use of Research, Ethnography, the Design Cycle and the User Groups are essential
components in the field of Interactive Media. This applies in almost all cases from
interactive art installations to specifically designed pieces for select user groups. This
concept was critical to the outcome of this project. The needs of those who will ultimately
use and interact with what the designer creates must be fully understood before a
successful product is created.
During this project it was seen that many iterations of design and design techniques were
undertaken. The end game was the building of a device that is fit for purpose. Because the
footplate has been completed using a combination of the designer’s creative abilities and
the users experience in the field it is a design that can benefit all in a way which they
themselves need and not what the designer thought was essential. It is this fact that shows
the practicality of user centred design when building devices for others.

64
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