professional ethics unit 2

1. ENGINEERING ETHICS
• Ethics is defined as
– “the discipline dealing with what is good and
bad and with moral duty and obligation”
• Engineering ethics is
– (1)Study of the moral issues and decisions
confronting individuals and organizations
engaged in engineering
– (2) the study of related questions about the
ideals , character, policies and relationships of
people and corporations involved in
Technological activity.
• In short ‘EE’ is the study of morality.

2. Scope of Engineering Ethics
• Ethics of work place:
– Co workers, employers, employees
• Ethics related to product or work:
– end product, safety etc and uses
• Code of EE:
– deals with public safety, environmental
protection, Bribery, honesty in Research etc.
• Early codes:
– personal behavior, honesty and fair in
business practices.
• Newer codes:
– Responsibility to public interest, Personal
Ethics in work place.

3. Professional obligations
(1) Accept responsibility
(2) High standards of integrity
(3) Public interest important
(4) Avoid deceiving public
(5) Maintain confidentiality of technical
process
(6) Shall not be influenced

4. Professional obligations
cont..
(7) Ensure adequate compensation for work
(8) No for career advancement by improper
means
(9) Do not damage reputation of other
Engineers
(10) Recognition / credit for good
Engineering work done
(11) Co operation with others for
advancement

5. Senses of EE
Comparison of Ethics and EE
• Knowing moral
values and finding
solutions to moral
issues.
• Moral questions
from non moral
problems
• Beliefs ,attitudes
habits of individual /
group’s morality
“ethos “ a Greek
word “customs”
• Knowing / finding
moral issues /
solution related to
Engineering
• Total view with
respect to
Engineering
• Using codes /
standards to be
followed by
Engineer /
Engineering society

6. Senses of EE
Comparison of Ethics and EE
• Find out action /
principle ethical or
unethical
• ‘Moral’ – sexually
virtuous conduct
• ‘Moral misleads’–
criminal court
• Spoil personal
reputation
• Find out action /
principle ethical or
unethical
• ‘Moral’ – sexually
virtuous conduct
• ‘Moral misleads’–
criminal court
• Spoil personal
reputation

7. What is morality ?
The term morality concerns with
(a) What ought or ought not to be done
(b) What is right or wrong
(c) What is good or bad
An Engineering decision is good if it
meets technical speech as well as moral
speech such as safety, reliability of product,
easy management and user friendly with
environment.

8. VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES
Engineering disaster greater than the
acceptable level of risk.
Nuclear plant accident at chernobyl
(Russia)
Chemical plant (Gas leakage) at Bhopal
(India)
When malfunction of the system is a
rapid one, the disaster will be heavy and
immediate.

9. Approaches to EE
Micro Ethics:
stresses on every day problems
Macro Ethics:
deals with social problems of regional/national
level
Where and how moral problems arise in
Engineering ?
A product has to undergo various stages
planning,
design and manufacture, testing, sales and
services
of various branches.

10. Approaches to EE
cont...
This product may be less useful due to
(1) Poor design
(2) early obsolescence
(3) out of time – inferior material may
be substituted.
(4) ignorance etc – harmful effect

11. Case
• Defective part in a machine supervisor
takes it lightly so that process is not
affected. Inspector does not want this
but threatened by supervisor.
• Nuclear power plant licensing authority
instructs to take precautions like alarm
system, medical treatment in hospital (no
plan for surrounding population )

12. Case
cont…
• Plant supervisor- it was the
responsibility of local government to
identify the problem. Chemical waste
disposal –whose responsibility
• ABC co. giving advertising for sale, etc
before the product is manufactured.
• Chemical waste disposal

13. Types of Inquiry
Inquiry means an investigation.
1. Normative Inquiries.
2. Conceptual Inquiries
3. Factual or Descriptive Inquiries.
Normative Inquiries (central) :
To guide the individuals and groups in
taking a decision.
E.g. What should be ?
What is good ?
What are the moral issues , moral
rights ?
E.g. Public safety

14. Types of Inquiry
Conceptual Inquiries :
To describe concepts, principles and
issues related to EE
a) what is safety and how it is related to work
‘risk’ how to protect safety
b) Health and Welfare of public
c) bribe
d) profession and professional

15. Types of Inquiry
Factual / Descriptive inquiries :
-- business realities
-- history of engineering process
-- effectiveness
-- procedures in making risk assessment
-- psychological profiles – alternating ways of
resolving those problems.
E.g. : what does safety mean ?
How is it related to ‘risk’ ?

16. Types of Inquiry
To provide facts and to find
solution for moral issues, using scientific
techniques.
These three inquiries are
complementing and interrelated.

17. Why study Engg Ethics?
1) To increase the ability of Engineers and
other professional to face boldly with the moral
problems arising
2) By studying past cases, to face similar
situation (simulation)
3) To solve problems in more ethical manner.
• Case :
– Two or more conflicting application for a given
situation -promise to meet your friend- sudden
accident to brother – Dilemma – make a
phone call to apologize.

18. Moral Dilemmas
Factors lead to moral issues
Problem of vagueness: Which moral principle
to be applied in a
situation
e.g. New job, Accepting a gift from sales person.
Is it an innocent amenity or unacceptable bribe
?
Problem of conflicting reasons : Two or
more moral principles with clear solutions lead
into conflict with one another. choose the best
one on the basis of importance and
acceptability.

19. Moral Dilemmas
E.g. An Engineer has given a promise
to his employer and also to a colleague.
He has to drop off one problem, which is
of least importance and explains the
situation.
The problem of disagreement :
Reasonable and responsible
individual groups have difference of
opinions
about how to interpret, apply and balance
the moral problems by the following steps.

20. Moral Dilemmas cont..
 Identify the relevant moral factors and reasons.
• Collect all the details.
• Rank them on the basis of importance.
• Consider alternative courses of action.
• Get suggestions from colleagues / friends.
• Arrive at a careful / reasonable judgment (or)
solution .

21. MORAL AUTONOMY
Autonomy means self Governing
i.e .act independently.
Moral autonomy is concerned with the
independent attitude of a person related to
ethical issues.
It helps to improve the self determination
among the individuals.
Moral autonomy is a skill and habit of
thinking ethical problems in a rational manner.

22. The need for moral autonomy to
the field of Engineering Ethics
Engg Ethics helps to improve the
qualities and strengthen the Engineers’
professional values such as honesty,
respecting colleagues, to think of public
welfare etc.
The main aim of studying Engg Ethics
is increase the moral autonomy within him.

23. The need for moral autonomy to
the field of Engineering Ethics --
cont..
The general responsiveness
of moral values are derived only from
the training what we have received as
a child.
So the main aim of Applied
Ethics is only to improve the abilities
to face the moral issues critically, by
improving the practical issues.

24. Skills for improving moral autonomy
The Engineers must have competence
(proficiency)
• For identifying moral problems and Ethical
issues – ability to distinguish and relate
these moral problems with the problems of
law, economics, religious, principles etc.
• Skills of comprehending, understanding,
clarifying assessing the arguments which
are against moral issues.

25. Skills for improving moral autonomy
• Ability to form consistent and
comprehensive view based on facts.
• Imaginative skill to view the
problems from all view points and to
suggest solution.
• Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and
willingness to undergo and tolerate
uncertainty / difficulty in making moral
judgment.

26. Skills for improving moral autonomy
• Increased precision in use of
ethical language to express moral view to
others.
• Better knowledge in understanding
the importance of suggestions, better
solutions, tolerance of difference among
reasonable people.
• Awakened sense of moral honesty,
integrating professional life and personal
conviction.

27. KOHLBERG’S THEORY
On the basis of PIAGET’S
psychological theory, LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
develops three main levels of moral
development.
Pre conventional level:
It is nothing but self centered attitude.
In this level, right conduct is very essential
for an individual which directly benefits him.
Individuals are motivated primarily by the
desire to avoid punishment, by unquestioning
deference to power,

28. KOHLBERG’S THEORY
cont..
(this obedience is compelled by
the threat or punishment by some
authority) or by a desire to satisfy
their own needs.
This is the level of development of
all young children and a few adults
who never manage to go beyond it.

29. KOHLBERG’S THEORY
cont..
Conventional level:
In this level, the norms of one’s family,
group or society are accepted as the final
standard of morality.
These norms are adopted as correct
because they represent authority.
Individuals are motivated by the desire to
please others and to meet the expectations of
social unit, regardless of Immediate effects on
their self interest.
Most adults never mature beyond this stage.

30. KOHLBERG’S THEORY
cont..
Post Conventional level :
This level is attained when an individual
comes to regard the standard of right and wrong
as a set of principles.
Concerning rights and the general good that
are not reducible to self interest or social
conventions i.e. These individuals are called
”AUTONOMOUS” because they only think for
themselves also they do not assume that
customs are always correct.
They want to live by ‘Golden Rule’ i.e.
General principles which are universally applied
to all people in all cultures.

31. KOHLBERG’S THEORY
cont..
Kohlberg's theory of moral development is
very much related to the at goals of studying
ethics at college level.
Moral responsibility comes out of the
foundation of early moral training gives by an
individual’s parents and culture.
As per Kohlberg’s view, only few people
would reach the post conventional level which is
based on the assumption that movement
towards autonomous is morally desirable.

32. CAORL GILLIGAN’S THEORY
Gilligan , a former student of Kohlberg
, in her book ”IN A DIFFERENT VOICE” ,
she charges that Kohlberg’s studies are
based on male bias and his studies are of
typically male pre- occupation with general
rules and rights.
She also suggest that men are always
interested in resolving moral dilemmas by
applying most important moral rules .

33. CAORL GILLIGAN’S THEORY
cont..
But women always want to keep up the
personal relationships with all those involved in
a situation and they always give attention only
on the circumstances responsible for that critical
situation and not on general moral rules.
According to Gilligan, Kohlberg’s theory is
only an Ethics of rules and rights. But her theory
is known as Ethics of care

34. CAORL GILLIGAN’S THEORY
cont..
i.e. Context oriented emphasis
required to maintain the personal
relationship (OR)
men are more guided by CONTENT (what
is right or wrong), whereas women are
more guided by CONTEXT (the
circumstances)

35. Levels of moral development
Gilligan recasts Kohlberg’s three levels
of moral development, based on her study
Pre conventional level:
This is almost the same as Kohlberg’s first
level. Right conduct is viewed in a selfish
manner as solely what is good for oneself.
The conventional level:
Gilligan’s second level differs from Kohlberg’s
second level. According to Gilligan, women
always want to give up their personal
interests in order to help others to fulfill their
(others’) needs.

36. Levels of moral development
• The post conventional level:
This level also differs from Kohlberg’s
level.
• In this level individual (particularly
women) want to balance between caring about
other people and their interests. The main aim
here is to balance an individual’s needs with
those of others on the basis of mutual caring.
This can be achieved only through context
oriented reasoning and not by abstract rules.

37. Compatibility:
Gilligan’s theory of moral
development is also entirely compatible
like Kohlberg’s theory. So actually both
theories emphasis on moral autonomy.

38. Compatibility:
• Gilligan
- Caring for others
within a community
based on personal
relationship
- Sensitive to special
situations ie.
Emphasis on context
oriented reasoning
• Kohlberg
- Sensitive to general
principles and human
rights.
- Appreciation of
general principles and
rights

39. Demerits or difficulties of
Kohlberg’s theory
While in theory, Kohlberg’s
clarifications are clear, these are obvious
difficulties in applying this theory to practical
situations.
• How to judge, whether an individual
belongs to first or second or third level? What
is the criteria ?what are the measurements?
• The theory implies that the individual’s moral
level is pre programmed inborn .It can’t be
changed, If at all, any level can be changed, it
is not clear what are the factors that shape an
individual from one level to another level of

40. Kohlberg’s six stages of moral
Development
Stage Social
orientation
1. obedience and
punishment
2 . individualism,
instrumentalism
and exchange
3 . “Good boy / good
girl”
4 . Law and order
5 . social contract
6 . principled
• Level
• Pre conventional
• Conventional
• Post conventional

41. Moral Development- Kohlberg’s
stage theory
Approximate age range Stage sub
stages
Birth to 9 pre-conventional i) Avoid
punishment
ii) Gain
reward
Age 9 to 20 Conventional iii) Gain
approval &
avoid
disapproval
iv) duty &
guilt
Age 20 + may be never post conventional v) Agreed

42. Gilligans stages of cognitive
Development
Approximate age range stage Goal
i) Not listed Pre conventional Goal is
individual
survival Transition is from selfishness to responsibility to
others
ii) Not listed conventional self
sacrifice is
goodness
Transition is from goodness to truth that she is a person
too
iii) May be never post conventional principle of
non violence do
not hurt others or self

43. HEINZ’S DILEMMA
Gilligan’s criticism on Kohlberg’s theory was
based on Heinz’s Dilemma.
A woman and her husband were living
in Europe. The woman was affected by cancer.
The doctor told her to use an expensive drug
to save her life.
The pharmacist who also invented the
medicine charged ten times the cost of making
the drug. Heinz tried to borrow money but he
could get half of the amount needed.

44. HEINZ’S DILEMMA cont..
He even begged the pharmacist to sell
the medicine at a cheaper price or allow him
to pay for it later.
But the pharmacist refused to do so.
Finally without any hope, Heinz forcibly
entered into the pharmacy and stolen the
drug.
The question is “Was the theft morally
right or wrong?” By asking this question
among male

45. HEINZ’S DILEMMA cont..
Kohlberg has received two sets of answers:
1) Based on conventional level i.e. Heinz did a
wrong thing.
2) Based on post conventional level i.e. Heinz
was correct as the life of the wife is most
important than the property right of the
pharmacist.
But when the same was asked among
women, they (all women) gave same answers.
i.e. Heinz was wrong.
Heinz could have tried other
alternative solution say for e.g. convincing
pharmacist.

46. KOHLBERG’S Conclusion
From the above, he concluded
that women’s decisions are always based
on conventional rule
and
Also they always have different
opinions in applying the general moral
rules and principles about the right to live.

47. Gilligan’s conclusion
She tells that it shows that ‘greater
sensitivity to people and personal
relationships’ i.e.
The decision taken by women is
context oriented and not on the basis of
general rules ranked in the order of
priority.

48. CONSENSUS AND CONTROVERSY
Consensus -> means Agreement
Controversy -> means Disagreement
Both play a vital role while considering
moral autonomy.
When an individual exercises the moral
autonomy, he can not get the same results as
others get. i.e. the results of verdicts will be of
controversy, which is unavoidable.
These disagreements require some
tolerances among individuals who are
autonomous, reasonable and responsible.

49. Two general points
Relationship between (moral) AUTONOMY and
(respect for the) AUTHORITY with respect
to class room
1) Moral autonomy is exercisable on
the basis of moral concern for other people
and also recognition of good moral reasons.
Authority provides the frame work in
which learning can take place.
It is based on the acceptance of
authority by both the students and professors
without this acceptance classes cannot be
conducted in a smooth way.

50. Two general points
cont..
2) A tension may arise among
individuals regarding the need for
consensus about authority and need for
autonomy.
This tension can be reduced by
discussing openly regarding a moral
issue between students and faculty with
the help of authority.

51. Two general points
cont..
In short conflicts will arise
between autonomy and authority, when the
authority is misused.
E.g. In small classes , the
students are having the authority to express their
own views. But when the professor doesn’t allow
them to do so, he misuses his authority.
This will create some moral
problems between the students and the faculty.

52. Profession and professionalism
Engineering is a profession.
The work done by an Engineer is open to all.
He cannot hide his mistake as doctors do.
He cannot blame others for his mistakes like the
politicians.
If his work done is wrong then he will be
condemned by others. So the Engineers must
have some responsibility to do good to the
public by their profession or as a professional.
The word profession is used as a synonym for job
or occupation and to be a professional at some
activity means to earn one’s living through it.

53. Definition :
Professional :
means a person who does any work
for an occupation which requires special skill or
training.
Profession :
means a type of job that requires
special training and that brings a fairly high
status
for e.g. work connected with medical, law
and education.

54. Profession and professionalism
Profession can be applied only to
certain occupations which meet the
following special criteria.
1. Knowledge :
The job / work must include
complicated skills, theoretical knowledge, a
clear judgment and cautions. Preparation of
a person to a job requires the skill.

55. Profession and professionalism
2. Organization :
Some special societies and
organization must be formed for the
professionals.
These societies and organizations
must be accepted by the public to set the
standards code of ethics for that profession
enforcing standards of conduct and representing
the profession before the public and Govt.
E.g. ECE

56. Profession and professionalism
3. Public Good :
The job / work must help the
public by doing a favor to them quoted in its
code of ethics.
For e.g.
Medicine is for promoting health,
Law is for protecting the people’s legal rights
of the people and
Engineering towards improving the public’s
health, safety and welfare with the help of
technological advancements.

57. Profession and professionalism
The words ‘Profession’ and
‘Professional' have acquired positive emotional
connotation and suggest a highly desirable
status for occupation and individuals.
Professionals are regarded as
deserving high pay, prestige and other social
benefits.
Only those engineers whose work
directly affects public safety are required to be
registered as Professional Engineers (P E s)

58. MEMBERSHIP CRITERIA
The following are the criteria for an
engineer or a professional engineer.
1) To get a bachelor’s degree in Engineering.
2) To perform the work based on the qualification.
3) To obtain license from the competent authority
and also having 4 or 5 years experience in the
field concerned.
4) To behave in moral responsible ways, making
the standards and code of ethics.

59. Persuasive definition:
means giving definition, making the
people to agree that meaning or definition.
i) Professional as independence:
Robert L. White law defines
“Professionalism and employee status as
logically incompatible” so long as the individual
is looked upon as an employee, there is no
professional status. Therefore, only
consulting engineers are said to be the
professionals.

60. Persuasive definition: cont..
An engineer cannot be a
professional engineer if he works merely
on the basis of his employer’s orders
which are concerning about the public
good.
He (Robert L. White law) further
views that professional involves the
freedom to act according to his / her own
judgment about conduct.

61. Persuasive definition: cont..
ii) Professionalism as serving employers:
This definition given by Samuel C.
Florman, is entirely opposite to the above
definition (given by Robert L. White law).
Loyal service to employers (or to
clients, in case of consulting engineers) is the
heart of professionalism in Engineering.
Engineers have to meet the
expectations of their clients and employers in a
satisfactory manner. The restraint should
be only the laws and Government regulations
rather than personal conscience.

62. Persuasive definition: cont..
iii) An Intermediate position:
As per this definition, Engineers have
larger obligation to both employers and public.
Accordingly Professional Engineer has to meet
two criteria:
1) Achieving standards of achievement
in education, job performance and creativity in
Engineer’s field, which differentiates Engineers
from Engineering technicians and technologists.
2) Accepting as part of their
professional obligation at least the most basic
moral responsibilities to the public as well as to
their employers, clients, colleagues and

63. MULTIPLE MOTIVES
There are many motives for
professionalism in engineering, that meet the
moral responsibilities.
The under graduate curriculum
for engineering is generally acknowledged to
be more vigorous and difficult than the majority
of academic disciplines.
In spite of its difficulty, the
students are motivated to enter engineering
primarily by desire for interest and challenging
work. i.e. they have an “ACTIVIST
ORIENTATION”.

64. MULTIPLE MOTIVES cont..
Some existential pleasures
offered by engineering as per Florman and
others.
• First pleasure is the personal
involvement for achieving improvements
• Happiness involved in creative effort.
(plan, design, list, produce, sell etc.)
• Like scientist, understanding the world
by using the laws and riddles of the world.
• Related to size- i.e. Engineers produce
large ships, bridges, tunnels etc.
• Importance of machines- mechanical
environment only can create a comfortable,
controlled world.
• Sense of helping others – i.e. to

65. Models of professional roles:
The engineer has to play various
models to achieve the objectives
(i) Savior :
Creating an URBAN society can be
achieved only through technological
developments by engineers.
(ii) Guardian :
Engineers should be given position of
high authority based on their expertise,
guarding the best interests of the society.
(i) Bureaucratic servant :
Engineers have to solve the problem,
given by the management, within the limit
set by the management.

66. Models of professional roles: cont..
(i) Social servant :
The engineers with the co operation of
the management have the work of receiving
society’s objectives and satisfying the desires
of society.
(i) Social enabler and Catalyst :
Though ultimate power and authority
rest with the management, the engineer has to
play a role of creating a better society by
means of technological development.
(i) Game player :
Engineers are neither servants nor
masters of anyone. They play the economic

67. MORAL REASONING AND
ETHICAL THEORIES
Professional ideals and virtues
Virtues means our ideals of what
is right and what is wrong.
Virtue define moral excellence of
behavior of a person or group.
William Hearst says Ethics is the
consolation of losers.
Michael Josephson says Ethics is
not for wimps (weak persons)

68. MORAL REASONING AND
ETHICAL THEORIES
cont..
Theories about Virtues:
i) Virtue by Golden Mean :
Aristotle in his “Traditional theory”,
defines virtues as the habits acquired by an
individual which makes him to get involved in
rational activities in an effective manner.
The most important virtue is the
wisdom or good judgment.

69. Theories about Virtues:
cont.
Here ‘MEAN’ means the mid path or
not going to extremes.
For e.g.
If ‘cowardice’ is the extreme and
‘rashness’ is the other extreme, ‘courage’ is the
golden mean or the mid point.
Such a ‘mean’ is essential in virtue
also, to get a proper balance between extremes
in desire, attitude, emotion to conduct.
For e.g.
1) Truthful lies between avoiding
offences and confidentiality (excess) and hiding
information without frankness (deficiency)

70. Theories about Virtues: cont.
2) Courage:
Courage is the middle characteristic
between bold (the act without any due
consideration of risk excess) and lack of
Courage (deficiency of self control)
3) Generosity:
is that virtue lies between wastage of
the resources (excess) and one being miser
(deficiency)

71. Theories about Virtues:
cont.
4) Modern theory :
Contemporary theory as per this
theory, virtues are related with social
practices which are aimed at integrating
co-operative activities towards
accomplishing public goods.
He also defines professionalism
as the service related to achieving the
public good.

72. Professional responsibility as a
Professional virtue
Professional responsibility is the
most basic professional virtue.
Professional responsibility is being
morally responsible.
Professional responsibility
includes a variety of specific virtues as
given below.
(1) Self direction virtues : exercise moral
autonomy and responsibility. Two groups
of virtues

73. Professional responsibility as a
Professional virtue cont..
i) Virtues focus on understanding
and gaining knowledge through
perception.
ii) Virtues focus on commitment and
understanding the action such as
courage, self discipline, perseverance
(continue in spite of difficulties), loyalty to
commitment, self respect and integrity.

74. Professional responsibility as a
Professional virtue cont..
2) Public spirited virtues :
These are virtues dictated by the
needs of the community.
The Engineer owes service to the
society to benefit the society, with his
specialized status in life.
3) Team work virtues :
An Engineer must work with teams.
Therefore he should possess virtues like
team spirit, collegiality, cooperativeness to
communicate and to integrate individual’s
contribution into collective contributions.

75. Professional responsibility as a
Professional virtue cont..
(4) Proficiency virtues or intellectual virtues :
These means mastery over the
profession, through job knowledge and ability to
apply the knowledge in practice.
These four categories of virtues overlap with
each other or interconnected. (i.e. If you have
one, you have all)
These virtues may be compared with
those of Aristotle's doctrine of “Unity of the
virtues”, said as four cardinal virtues wisdom,
courage, temperance and justice.

76. Related concepts of virtue:
1) Integrity 2) Honesty 3) Self respect
• Integrity:
Integrity is the bridge that links the
responsibilities between personal life and
professional career.
i.e. there should be perfect morality
both in official life and in personal life.
i.e. the concept of moral unity and not
compartmentalized.

77. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
Sometimes, we may have to
COMPROMISE.
In a negative sense compromise
means sacrificing morals,
but in a profile sense, it means to settle
differences through changes in attitude and
conduct.

78. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
2) Honesty :
It has two aspects
(i) Truthfulness –
speaking the facts and sincere to
oneself and job.
(i) Trustworthiness-
fulfilling the tasks without fail.
Honesty in acts (not bribing)
Honesty in speech (not deceiving)
Honesty in belief (intellectual honesty)

79. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
Discretion (sensitivity to the
privacy of employer or client i.e.
confidentiality)
So honesty is a fundamental
virtue for whose who engage in
relationship between Engineers and their
employers and clients. Also honesty
is an absolute virtue (not accepting bribe
of Rs. 50, but accepting bribe of Rs.
50000, is dishonest)

80. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
3)Self respect :
Self respect is valuing oneself in
morally appropriate ways.
Self respect is closely related to self
esteem, but should be distinguished.
‘Self esteem’ is a psychological
concept. i.e. a positive attitude towards
oneself.
Self respect is a moral concept. i.e.
valuing oneself.

81. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
Self respect has two aspects –
(1) Recognition self respect
(2) Appraisal self respect.
Self respect has the following virtues
(i) A sense of honor
(ii) Self control
(iii) Courage
(iv) Good judgment.

82. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
Senses of responsibility :
Moral adjustments are also attributable with
the following senses of responsibility.
(a) A virtue as a characteristic quality :
Professional responsibility is the
control virtue of Engineers. If a person is said
to be responsible, it means that he does his
duty with care and effort.
(b) Obligation :
Obligation is nothing but the moral
responsibility of a person. i.e. Right acts in a
moral way. i.e. accurate, realistic, fair and
promoting justice.

83. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
(c) General moral capabilities of people :
i.e. the capability of a person to act in
morally suitable way in performing task.
(d) Liabilities and accountability for actions :
Responsible means accountable,
answerable and liable for meeting the
Obligation i.e. action are open to comments.
(e) Blameworthiness or praiseworthiness :
Blameworthy – for his wrong doing
Praiseworthy – for his right conduct

84. Related concepts of virtue:
cont..
Accountability and Voluntary action :
When a person is accountable for an action,
that action may not completely be involuntary.
Aristotle describes involuntary actions of two
types.
(1) Action with ignorance :
E.g. A lends his motor cycle to his friend. But his
friend met with an accident.
Is this help is voluntarily accountable or non
voluntary one ?
Difficult to judge.

85. Accountability and Voluntary action :
(2) Action with compulsion :
E.g. A kidnapper kidnaps a child of an
industrialist and demands a huge amount for
releasing the child.
The industrialist gave and got back the
child.
In this case the industrialist does not
voluntarily give, but acted (or) compulsion of
the kidnapper.

86. Casual and legal responsibility:
These two concepts should not be confused with
moral responsibility.
(i) Casual responsibility :
It is the cause of some event.
For example
A child may cause fire while playing
with matches.
Child is not morally responsible but the
parents are morally responsible for the fire,
since they should take proper care of the child.

87. Casual and legal responsibility:
(i) Legal responsibility :
It is bounded with legal aspects.
An engineer or firm is legally hold
responsibility for the harmful caused effects
due to the effects in their products but they are
not morally responsible for those harmful
effects or defects.
E.g. A worker lost his one of his eyes
while inserting a chip by using a hammer.

88. Casual and legal responsibility:
Court said manufacturer has to give
compensation, even though he was not morally
responsible.
Another case :
morally responsible but legally not responsible.
E.g. Because of the words in a contract, the
engineer is tried from legal responsibility for not
observing some safety aspect. But morally he is
responsible.

89. Theories about right action :
The following and types of theories are essential
for cause of right action and morality.
1. “Golden mean” ethics :
The best solution is achieved through
logic / reason. It is a compromise or
‘golden mean’ between extremes of
excess and defiance.
Problem : Variability from one person to another in
their powers of reasoning and the difficulty in
applying the theory to ethical problems.
2. Rights based ethics : every person is free and
equal and has the right to life , health, liberty
and possessions.
Problem : one person’s right may be in conflict with

90. Theories about right action :
3. Duty based ethics :
Every body has the duty to follow a
courage of action that would be universally
acceptable.
Problem : Universal application of a rule can be
harmful.
4. Utilitarian ethics :
The best choice is that which produces
maximum benefit for the greatest no. of people
(may end anger minority rights)
Problem : Qualification of benefits is difficult.

91. Queries on theories of right action :
Case :
A chief executive with his authority
worked at the top of a lucrative kick back
scheme. Some engineers of competitive
companies paid secret payment, for expanding
business; they didn’t get order of lack of
political connection.
Answer based on theories of right action :
1) Answer in terms of virtue ethics :
as per virtue ethics , chief executive
and the engineers should unfairness,
dishonesty.

92. Queries on theories of right action :
Other engineering firms were cheated
even though they are qualified. This kickback
system removed the benefits of healthy
competition such as lower cases and better
products for public. Hence better utility is lost.
3) The third answer based on duty ethics:
Duty ethics is based on ‘not deceiving’
and ‘be fair’. But the chief executive and the
engineers deceived others. Hence they violated
the principles of duty ethics.
4) The last answer based on ’Rights ethics’ :
Rights ethics deals with the rights of
people. In a kick back system the rights of other

93. Theories of Right action :
From the above said ,the following and main
theories are responsible for morality or Right
action.
• Virtue ethics which is based on behavior of
moral excellence and criminal & immoral
practices.
• Utilitarianism which implies that do most good
for the general people.
• Duty ethics i.e. Action or duty should be done
to respect other people.
• Rights ethics which deals with the human

94. Theories of Right action : cont..
Utilitarianism :
This says that we ought to produce
good thing for people.
This theory is divided into two phases.
• Rule utilitarianism :
gives straight forward disapproval of
participation in kick back schemes.
In our e.g. the engineers of the firm act
on rule such as “engage in secret pay off when
it is necessary for a profitable business”.
But if this rule were followed , it would
result in a breakdown of trust between people
and their client.
Hence utilitarianism seeks to establish the
best rule or policy for promoting the public

95. Theories of Right action : cont..
2) Act utilitarianism :
will seek at each situation to see
whether and how far professionals should be
allowed to exercise their consciences in
pursuing their duties to the public.
Act utilitarianism says we have to
focus only on individual actions and not on
general rules.

96. Theories of Right action : cont..
An act can be said as right only when it
produces the most good for most of the people.
i.e. Act utilitarianism leaves it open
whether participation in a kick back scheme may
produce overall good.

97. THEORY OF DUTY ETHICS
(Respect for persons)
This theory given by Immanuel kant
regards duties as fundamental rather than
good consequences.
According to him right action
require some duties such as be honest
keeping promises be fair, show kindness etc
to others.
Duty ethics are based on three conditions as
explained by Kant.
1. Show respect for others:
i.e. To respect people is to respect
their autonomy and their attempt to meet their
duties.

98. THEORY OF DUTY ETHICS
(Respect for persons)
2. Duties are binding on us only if they are also
applicable to every one.
i.e. Duties must be universal.
3. Duties prescribe certain actions categorically
called “Hypothetical imperatives” , moral
imperatives or commands require us to do
certain things whether we want or not.
E.g. To become heal their stop smoking , stop over
eating etc.

99. Contemporary theory of duty Ethics
(John Rawls)
According to Rawls Valid principles of
duty means those principles that would be
voluntarily agreed upon by all rational agents
in a hypothetical contracting situation that
assures impartiality.
All these hypothetical contracting
situations help us to reason more easily and
honestly about moral principle and enables us
to check our powers to set aside our biases.

100. THEORY OF RIGHT ETHICS
(Human Rights Ethics) :
As per this theory, duties arise only
because of people having rights
These rights are classified as :
1) Liberty rights :
evolved by John Lokhe : Rights are the
claims that present other people from
interfering in one’s life.
2) Liberty and welfare rights : evolved by
A.L.MELDON
Human rights are intimately related to
communities of people or social welfare
system i.e. Meldon creates positive welfare
thoughts which are the rights to community
benefits needed for living a decent human life.

101. TESTING ETHICS THEORIES :
Each theory has its own insights to offer. All
the and theories (Golden mean, rights
based, duty based and Utilitarian) gives
the general principles we ought to follow.
The theories are complimentary to each
other, though they dis agree on source
points.

102. TESTING ETHICS THEORIES : cont
All the ethical theories have the
essential elements of a sound moral reflection
and for the purposes of engineering ethics, all of
them arrive at similar conclusions.
To conclude, ethical theories have
been developed to illuminate to unity and correct
judgments above specific situation.
A further good theory to be developed
in future, will correct our wrong judgments if any
made earlier.

103. SELF INTEREST , CUSTOMS AND
RELIGION
The above are other three types of values.
Self interest and ethical egoism:
Self interest in nothing but one’s personal
good. It refers to the goodness of the self in the long
run.
Self interest must be balanced and kept
under control by moral responsibilities to other
people. Ethical egoism challenges all the ethical
theories.
 “Ethical” because it is a theory about morality.
 “Egoism” means to maximize our own good.

104. Self interest and ethical egoism:
Ethical egoists argue that if every
one rationally pursues one’s self interest,
then every one gets benefited.
The society is benefited mostly
when (1) individuals pursue their private
good and (2) the corporations pursue
maximum profit in a competitive market.
This leads to the improvement of
economy benefiting everyone.

105. CUSTOMS AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM:
• This society is diverse in nature.
• It is more important to have tolerance for
various customs and outlooks.
• Hence the concept of ethical pluralism
emerges that is reasonable persons always
have reasonable disagreement on moral issues
including issues in engineering ethics.
Ethical relativism says that
actions are morally right when they
are approved by law or custom and
they (actions) are said to be wrong
when they violate laws or customs.

106. Reasons for accepting ethical
relativism
• 1. The laws and customs seem to be
definite real and clear one.
Laws in seem to be an objective way to
approach values.
This argument fails in some lives.
For example apartheid laws (racial
segregation) in south Africa.
This law violated the human rights
of the majority of black citizens that is
morally the black people ought to be given
rights.

107. Reasons for accepting ethical
relativism
 2. The values are subjective at the cultural level.
 Moral standards vary from one culture to
another.
 i.e. Encourages the virtue of tolerance of
differences among societies a rather confusing
one.
 E.g. Ethical relativism would allow that Hitler &
his followers (NAZIS) acted correctly when they
killed six million Jews based on hostility to Jews.

108. RELIGION AND DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS :
Moral responsibilities and religion belief are
interrelated in many positive ways.
(1) They are related historically. Each religion
(Hinduism, Islam, Christianity) is famous in
different country e.g. India, Pakistan, England
respectively.
(2) Faith in religion implies trust. This trust gives
an inspiration to be normal. Religion promotes
tolerance and moral concern for others.

109. RELIGION AND DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS :
(3) Religions form a set of higher moral standards.
Right action to defined by ‘Divine command
Ethics’.
But it is difficult to know what are the God’s
commands and whether God exists or not.
Suppose a man claims that God
commands him to kill other people. Then he is
mistaken.
Religions beliefs provide an added inspiration
for responding to moral reasons.

110. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES :
Ethical theories are very useful .
(i) In understanding and resolving moral
dilemmas.
(ii) In estimating the professional obligations
and ideals.
(iii) Determining to what extent, the
obligation can be exercised in a given
situation.

111. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES :
(iv) To interpret the facts of a given situation
and to find out who is right and who is
wrong.
(v) To provide a conceptual base for
evaluation and analysis of facts and
circumstances.
(vi) To provide a relative ranking of various
dilemmas involved in a case.
Case : In 1974, a fully loaded DC -10 jumbo
jet crashed, killing 346 people in the
central part of Paris.

112. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES :
The body of the plane was developed
by a subcontractor convair, for one main
contractor .
Two years prior to plane crash, senior
engineer of the sub contractor wrote to the vice
president of the company enlisting the dangers
that could result from the (defective) design.
i.e. Cargo doors could burst open
during the time of flying , collapse if passenger
cabin floor leading ultimately loss of full control
of the plane.

113. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES :
The management engineer
recommended for redesigning the door /
strengthening the door.
In response to this top management of
contractor disputed neither the technical facts
cited by management engineer nor his
predictions.
Company officials maintained their
possible financial liabilities. The contractor might
incur prohibited them from passing on this
information to higher ups.

114. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES :
Thus the dilemma he mgt
engineer confronted involved a clash
between two general professional
obligations
one to his employer and one to
the public i.e. A clash between
professional and personal obligation.
Theories and their use in justifying
moral obligation or relating professional
morality and ordinary morality.

115. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES :
Why should engineers have moral responsibility at
all?
For example with respect to safety related issues .
1. Engineers are bound by certain laws/ codes to
take care of safety aspects while doing their
projects.
2. Engineers, as members of professional
societies are bound by all its rules, including
safety obligations.

116. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES :
3. Engineers are bound by contractual obligation
with their clients to carry out the project.
4. At the highest level, engineers by virtue of his
specialized occupation, all his obligations will
not cause any harm to the society as per Duty
ethics and Right ethics.

117. USES OF ETHICAL THEORIES : -CONT
• 4. Highest level – Tacit guarantee (no harm to
the society)
• 3. Contract with client – safety to be ensured
• 2. Professional code – (professional body’s
rules)
• 1. Legally bound to do things correctly and to
incorporate safety aspects.