This document contains Ali Saleh's research process log for his research project on empathy in non-human primates. In the past week, he completed preliminary research and found 7 sources. He is currently working on finalizing his research proposal and doing additional preliminary research to find more sources. His next steps are to continue research, take notes, and meet with his professor for feedback. The main challenges have been narrowing his topic and allocating time for research.

1. Saleh1
Ali Saleh
College Writing R4B
Stephanie Bobo
May 5, 2016
Research Portfolio Cover Letter
In the writing process, I experienced some satisfaction by how my research essay ended
up. This is because in the writing process, I managed to find sources that allowed me to build my
essay in a progressive fashion where every paragraph adds builds from the previous. I believe
that in my research essay, I definitely provided all the major information that is required for the
readers to understand and learn about my topic.
Although my essay had a very smooth and logical flow, the most difficult thing for me in
my research essay was solidifying a clear thesis or argument that consist throughout my essay.
This was somewhat difficult because some of the questions that I discuss in my essay were
questions from other scholars and sources. Nonetheless, I did manage to incorporate my own
questions and dialogue in the essay.
If I was to do anything differently in my research essay, it would have been to try to
come up with a much more obvious thesis statement. This is because I do have some focus in my
essay, but it is not clear because there are other arguments and guiding questions placed into my
essay.
I have learned that I tend to take more time into completing the preliminary research then
actually writing the essay itself. However, the most interesting thing that I discovered was that
when I actually went into writing my final essay, I actually need to conduct more preliminary
research on the subject as I was writing the essay. I’ve seen the lack of information in some key
concepts, and adding that information drastically improved my overall essay.

2. Saleh2
Ali Saleh
College Writing R4B
Stephanie Bobo
May 5, 2016
Project Proposal
Today’s current research on the subject, empathy of non-human primates, has mainly
traced back similarities of empathy in human primates. Some of the earliest research on this
subject dates back to the “BBS article” in 1978 in which Premack and Woodruff asked, “Does
the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?” (Hirata, 1). Basically they studied if chimpanzees have
the ability to attribute “mental state concepts, such as ‘want and ‘know’" (Hirata, 1). Since this
article in 1978, there have been many sources that confirmed chimpanzees and apes have
displayed some behaviors that conveyed these mental states. Nonetheless there has been little
progress in the amount of research on non-human primate’s empathy gathered. The majority of
the results were similar. For example, in today’s current studies, Frans de Wall, a renowned
researcher whose research focuses on non-human primate’s social behavior and branches out into
other related ideas that also include key information that provided evidence of cognitive
empathy. In a caption from “The Evolution of Empathy”, a mother chimpanzee “reaches to help
her son out of a tree after he screamed and begged for her attention”, thus showing an example of
cognitive empathy. (Waal)
The current research on this subject is similar to the research found in an article:
“Chimpanzee social intelligence: selfishness, altruism, and the mother-infant bon”. Unlike
previous research, this group of researchers wanted to understand the human mind from an
evolutionary perspective, therefore the research has focused on the closest living relative of
humans, chimpanzees (Hirata, Abstract). They used various approaches, “including studies of

3. Saleh3
social intelligence, including deception, understanding of perception and intention, social
learning, trading, cooperation, and regard for others” (Hirata). Many studies showed that
chimpanzees are proficient in using their social intelligence for selfish motives to benefit them
from their interactions with others. It has become evident that the majority of the research was
conducted primarily on chimpanzees because they are our closest relatives. The research results
from these studies on chimps provide us with a better understanding of ourselves as human
primates, making this one of the motivations of my research on empathy in non-human primates.
As I was doing my preliminary research I found a few overarching questions they all
shared. The sources I used to gather my research mainly had studies with the basic question of
whether or not, and how did chimpanzee’s express empathy in their behavioral interactions with
other chimps and species. There were variations of questions that branched out from this
overarching question such as the types of empathy that non-human primates express: cognitive
empathy, or emotional empathy. Cognitive empathy is being aware of others feelings or thoughts
while emotional empathy is actually feeling the same thing as other primates. Hence I decided to
ask the following questions. How has empathy been used as an adaptation for non-human
primates? What are the behaviors that genuinely convey empathy in non-human primates?
Lastly, I wanted to also explore the similarities and differences of empathy between human and
non-human primates.
One of the most motivating factors of conducting research on empathy in non-human
primates is the realization that pro-social behavior is not only found in humans. This was enough
to motivate me to conduct research in this field, however a more profound reason to care about
this subject is that the research results return similar behaviors of human and non-human
primates in the expression of empathy. Therefore, the knowledge that we acquire from this topic

4. Saleh4
will benefit us in the sense that we are not only learning about empathy in non-human primates,
but we are also learning about ourselves.

5. Saleh5
Ali Saleh
College Writing R4B
Stephanie Bobo
May 5, 2016
Research Process Log 1
 What steps in the research project have you completed in the past week?
In the past week, I have done some preliminary research on my topic, empathy in non-human
primates. In this preliminary research I plan to narrow it down possibly a bit further so that I can
ask a question about how is empathy in non-human primates similar or different to human’s
empathy. I could even possibly narrow my research question further by asking what specific
situations do our expressions of empathy differ and why. Nonetheless, I have looked through 18
articles and sources during this past week and have chosen 7 articles to use as my sources. I am
still working on doing more preliminary research this week. Something that I worked on was the
Research project proposal, I just haven’t submitted it because I believe it needs more work
before I finalize it and submit.
 What work on the research project are you doing now?
As of right now, I am working on my preliminary research so that I can find more good
sources because I only have seven as of now. I am also finalizing my research proposal because I
know that it is a critical part of the Research Portfolio. Therefore, I am placing a huge sum of
time into it this week and finalizing it before I submit it.
 What work on the research project do you need to do next?
The work on the research project I need to do next week is basically continue doing some
preliminary research and then take notes down while reading through the articles so I can start
preparing myself to write the essay and have all of my information on the topic ready to be put

6. Saleh6
into paper. I also need to make sure to drop into professor Bobo’s office hours to get some
feedback and let her know how I am doing in the research project. Also possibly pick up the
teapot and teacups to help her clean out her office.
 What challenges have you faced in working on the research project?
The challenges I have faced working on my research project were mainly coming up with a
narrow topic during the first two weeks. Now the challenges I encountered is mainly making the
time to complete my research in my topic. As of now I did the preliminary research and I am still
in the process of reading more articles to find more good sources. I believe that I also need some
advice on how to collect research information from the articles that will be suitable for the final
essay.

7. Saleh7
Research Process Log 2
 What steps in the research project have you completed in the past week?
The steps in the research process that I have completed in the past week were simply doing some
preliminary research on the potential topics that I might choose as my research topic. As of now I
have presented five research topics to professor Bobo but they were too broad.
 What work on the research project are you doing now?
I am currently working on my preliminary research so that I can find a topic that is not too broad
and suits my interest. I am going through the Berkeley library and other online sources to find
information on my topic of interest, empathy.
 What work on the research project do you need to do next?
The work that I need to do next is mainly gathering some credible sources that I can use for my
research. I also have to take down some important notes down about my research topic.
 What challenges have you faced in working on the research project?
The biggest challenge for me this past week was coming up with a research topic that would be
approved. The second challenge is completing the preliminary research and finding very reliable
sources for my specific topic.
 How have you managed those challenges?
I have managed those challenges by talking to professor Bobo about my research topic and also
getting help to look for some sources from the SLC writing tutors.
 What have you discovered about yourself as a researcher/research writer?
I have discovered that I need to do practice doing preliminary research properly and effectively
so that I can be more productive with the time I have to do it. I also learned that having a
narrowed topic is important when conducting research.

8. Saleh8
 What do you now know about your subject that you didn’t already know?
I now know that empathy is such an abstract topic that has so many meanings to it and is too
difficult to grasp. I also learned that empathy was evolved for the purpose of taking care of the
infants.
 What’s the most surprising/intriguing thing you’ve discovered about your subject?
The most surprising thing that I have discovered is how empathy in non-human primates has so
many sources available for it. This allowed me to really indulge into my subject from all
perspectives, such as the physical and mental aspects of empathy in non-human primates.

9. Saleh9
Research Process Log 3
 What steps in the research project have you completed in the past week?
Steps I have completed in the research project are gathering my sources and reading through
the articles that I gathered. I have also tried to narrow down my topic based on the information
that I found in my preliminary research. In addition, I have looked at some of the requirements
needed to complete my bibliography essay. One of them includes placing my information that I
gathered into different categories.
 What work on the research project are you doing now?
I am currently working on collecting more information for my research topic and then trying
to categorize the research I’ve done into the different categorizes. I am also still looking through
more sources and reading through articles to complete my preliminary research by this week.
 What work on the research project do you need to do next?
I need to complete my preliminary research by this week so that next week I can finish
placing all the information into the different categories they belong. Hence I need to start
working on my bibliographic essay which will require a lot of time and thought.
 What do you need to know how to do for the research project that you don’t already
know how to do?
I need to know how to organize a bibliographic essay and the requirements that are it needs
to be complete. I need to have a systematic approach on how to organize my information in the
most logical way and in categories that can help me explain my topic to my audience. I basically
need to understand the formatting of a bibliographic essay.
 What challenges have you faced in working on the research project? How have you
managed those challenges?

10. Saleh10
I have faced a huge time management challenge while working on the research project. This
is because of the course load of other courses especially computer science. However this is an
ongoing learning process and challenge that I am currently taking on and improving. Another
challenge is completing the preliminary research , however this is because I have to continuously
improve and narrow down my sources.
 What have you discovered about yourself as a researcher/research writer?
I definitely have discovered my lack of time management skills as a researcher due to the
intensive amount of work. I believe this is due to the fact that I place a huge amount of effort into
whatever the given task I have to complete, and in this case preliminary research is taking me a
lot of time because I am trying to be as thorough as I possibly can. Trying to have a perfect essay
and the best gathered research makes me place more time and effort into something that
shouldn’t take as much time.
 What do you now know about your subject that you didn’t already know?
I know that empathy can actually be monitored through an MIR machine that scans the brain
and follows what parts of the brain are being used as an individual is experiencing empathy. In
addition, I learned that people who have autism and other mental disorders may make people
seem un-empathetic. This is due to the different parts of the brain that are being used as I said in
the beginning.
 What do you need to know about your subject that you don’t know now?
I need to know how empathy between non-human primates is similar or different when
compared to the empathy in human primates. I also need to know how empathy is a big factor in
the socializing and interactions between human and non-human primates and why it is necessary
for their survival as well.

11. Saleh11
 What’s the most surprising/intriguing thing you’ve discovered about your subject?
The most interesting thing I discovered with my subject is that empathy can also be found in
other animals that are not primates. In this case, you can find empathy in rats or mice if you
observe them closely.
 What have you discovered that a reasonably intelligent and educated audience will find
interesting?
I discovered that a reasonably intelligent and educated audience will find it interesting to
understand how empathy is expressed through non-human primates. In addition they will find it
intriguing to know why empathy is necessary for non-human primates in their everyday lives
similar to why it is important for human primates

12. Saleh12
Research Process Log 4
 What steps in the research project have you completed in the past week?
The steps in the research project that I have completed in the past week were basically
gathering my information and also categorizing my research findings into their different sub
categories. I have also worked on my research Bibliographic essay and have completed the first
draft.
 What work on the research project are you doing now?
The work on the research project that I am currently working on is mainly the Bibliographic
essay because it is due this Sunday and it is my main priority. I am also trying to refine my
sources so that that they can be in tip top shape for my essay.
 What work on the research project do you need to do next?
I need to work on the outline for my upcoming research essay. In addition I am also trying to
verify that I have all the possible sources needed to write my research essay. In this case, I need
one blog, some articles, print source, and etc.
 What challenges have you faced in working on the research project?
The challenges I have faced during the research project were mainly working on the research
project while at the same time trying to keep up with the day-by-day work and assignments that
we are given. This is because it can feel overwhelming to have to do two essays in a span of four
to five days.
 How have you managed those challenges?
The ways I manage those challenges were mainly by pushing through and trying to prioritize
what needs to get done, versus what can wait. In this case it also required some sleepless nights
but that’s also a side effect from the course work from other classes.

13. Saleh13
 What have you discovered about yourself as a researcher/research writer?
I have discovered that I am extremely diligent in my work and I usually would take an
extended period of time to complete an assignment sometimes. This is why I need to start early
in my work and it can be difficult if there is a time crunch and I am placed under pressure.
 What do you now know about your subject that you didn’t already know?
I know that non-human primates that express empathy are extremely closely related to
humans in many different ways, but mainly though the expression of empathy contagion. There
are also the arguments between non-human primates and then reconciliation that makes us
similar.
 What’s the most surprising/intriguing thing you’ve discovered about your subject?
The most surprising and intriguing thing that I discovered about my subject is that non-
human primates tend to express empathy for the purpose of self-interest at times and this can also
apply to humans. I didn’t think that pro-social behavior would be driven by selfishness.

14. Saleh14
Research Process Log 5
 What steps in the research project have you completed in the past week?
In the past week I have completed drafting and revising my Bibliographic essay and
gathered some research data. I have also outlined my research essay and started creating a
storyboard to help me in drafting my essay.
 What work on the research project are you doing now?
I am currently working on creating a storyboard for my research essay and am planning
to draft it soon. I am also working on my Bibliographic essay trying to revise it because I believe
I didn’t fulfill the purpose in writing a Bibliographic essay.
 What work on the research project do you need to do next?
I need to work on my storyboard for my research essay and start drafting my essay. I am
working on generating a logical flow of my research paper so that my research can be exposed to
the audience in a proper fashion that would allow them to understand each key point I present to
them.
 What challenges have you faced in working on the research project?
Some of the challenges that I have faced working on the research project were trying to
write my bibliographic essay because when I was writing this essay I made the mistake of
writing a synthesis essay. Therefore, when writing my essay I didn’t analyze the sources used in
my Bibliographic essay.
 How have you managed those challenges?
I have managed those challenges by going to the SLC and getting some tutoring for my
essay. I analyzed each of my paragraphs with a tutor and evaluated whether or not I have a clear

15. Saleh15
subject and if I made sure to compare/contrast my sources. I also made sure to note to try to
question the credibility of my sources.
 What have you discovered about yourself as a researcher/research writer?
I have discovered that when I write an essay I need to first know the purpose of an essay
and then try to create an outline that will allow me to fulfill all the important points need to
complete in the essay.
 What do you now know about your subject that you didn’t already know?
I now know that empathy in non-human primates is very similar to empathy in human
primates. In addition I realized that the many scholars define empathy in the context of human
species. There are also many articles that compare empathy between human and non-human
primates.
 What’s the most surprising/intriguing thing you’ve discovered about your subject?
The most surprising thing I have discovered is how empathy has evolved throughout time
as an adaptation for survival. This means that the most recent evolution of empathy is found in
human primates.

16. Saleh16
Research Process Log 6
 What steps in the research project have you completed in the past week?
In the past week I have completed working on my storyboard and have also prepared for
my research presentation. I have been working on outlining my research essay and looking at
other parts of the portfolio that need revision.
 What work on the research project are you doing now?
I am currently working on my first draft of my research essay and I am planning to also
work on revising my research proposal.
 What work on the research project do you need to do next?
I am planning to work on my abstract for my research essay. However I need to first
complete my research essays so that my abstract can be much more accurate on what will be on
the essay.
 What challenges have you faced in working on the research project?
Some of the challenges I faced working on the research project were primarily linking the
research together and trying to have a flow of ideas when drafting my research essay. I have
struggled early on with creating questions for my research and that has now been resolved during
the preliminary research
 How have you managed those challenges?
I have managed those challenges by going to the SLC to get support and I talked to one
of the tutors and they challenged me to have new insights and advised me through the research
process to acquire key ideas and questions for my research topic.
 What have you discovered about yourself as a researcher/research writer?

17. Saleh17
I have discovered that I need to practice editing my essays and fixing my sentence
structure. I believe the grammar mistakes make my essays more difficult to read.
 What do you now know about your subject that you didn’t already know?
I now know that empathy in non-human primates is the same empathy that human
developed except the key difference is that when we express a reactive instinct of emotion it is
voluntary versus non-human primates where it is involuntary.
 What’s the most surprising/intriguing thing you’ve discovered about your subject?
The most surprising thing I have discovered is how empathy can expand is not only
found in primates, but is also found in rodents and this makes me question how empathy can link
species together.

18. Saleh18
Research Process Log 7
 What steps in the research project have you completed in the past week?
I have completed the revision of the research proposal, and the outlining and drafting of my
essay. In addition I also presented my research, which I consider to be important preparation for
the festival on May 2.
 What work on the research project are you doing now?
I am currently working on my research essay, which is taking a lot of time, but I am slowly
progressing through it. In addition, I am working on my presentation board for the research
festival.
 What work on the research project do you need to do next?
The work that I need to do next for the research project is mainly completing my research essay
and then revising my bibliographic essay and abstract.
 What challenges have you faced in working on the research project?
I have faced the difficulty of meeting the entire twelve-page requirement for the research essay.
This is because I believe that my outline needs to be revised and I assumed that I might have
enough content in each topic.
 How have you managed those challenges?
I realized that I need to go into further specifics in the material which will help me explain my
research topic and meet the requirement.
 What have you discovered about yourself as a researcher/research writer?
I have discovered that when it comes to writing long essays, I need to view the essay into little
chunks. Therefore, I view the essay as the combination of many little essays and then I try to link
them all together with the same guiding thesis.

19. Saleh19
 What do you now know about your subject that you didn’t already know?
I now know that empathy is only possible if the non-human primate has some form of theory of
mind. Hence empathy is an application of the “theory of mind”
 What’s the most surprising/intriguing thing you’ve discovered about your subject?
The most surprising thing that I discovered is that the theory of mind has three different levels
which each go into a deeper understanding and manipulation of the theories a species makes.

20. Saleh20
Ali Saleh
College Writing R4B
Stephanie Bobo
May 5, 2016
Bibliographic Essay
There are many different scholarly sources in the field of empathy in non-human
primates. There are a variety of sources that will be used in this Bibliographic essay which
include books, journals, articles, blog post, and web pages. Empathy in general is a new field of
study that is still being researched today, making it more difficult to find specific sources of
empathy in non-human primates and also critiquing the credibility of some sources since there
isn’t any previous sources to verify it. After collected research data from the sources, I
categorized my research into the following four categories: the general definition of empathy,
how empathy evolved with time in non-human primates, the physical manifestation of empathy
in non-human primates, and the compare and contrast of human and non-human primates.
When searching many sources for the definition of empathy in the context of non-
human primates, it was very difficult because there is mainly a general definition. One of the
multiple definitions of the word empathy is defined by Atkins in “The relationship of empathy
and developmental maturity among a group of college students”, as a “multidimensional
construct involving both affective and cognitive dimensions… [and] was operationalized through
the Interpersonal Reactivity Index” (Atkins, 3). Atkins basically describes empathy as something
that is mainly one of our reactive instincts that functions in the Reactive Index of our brain,
which is the section of the brain that influences how we respond to our surrounding environment.
This source mainly provides us a definition in the context of the relationship of empathy and
developmental maturity among a group of college students. Therefore, not making it the best

21. Saleh21
source in this context of non-human primates. In another article by Harrison Marissa –
“Anthropomorphism, Empathy, and Perceived Communicative Ability Vary With Phylogenetic
Relatedness to Humans”, empathy is described as “the attribution of human characteristics to
non-human animals, [and] is likely a byproduct of the ability to draw upon one’s own beliefs,
feelings, intentions, and emotions, and apply the knowledge of these experiences to the
understanding of the mental states of other species” (Marissa, 2). This is an interesting view on
what empathy should be defined by because it gives us a better definition that can be applied
towards non-human primates under the “species” category. This source is more reliable than the
previous source because it discussed animal welfare, which includes non-human primates. In
“The Evolving Empathy: hardwired bases of human and non-human primate empathy”, Castro
says empathy’s “overall meaning is accepted as the sharing of the emotional experience of
another individual…it involves cognitive abilities such as perspective taking, knowledge of
emotion and even another deeply interconnected emotional reaction – sympathy” (Castro, 2).
Throughout all of these sources, they all have their own definition of empathy in one context or
another due to their different studies. Nonetheless, the sources do share a common definition of
empathy consistently throughout, making them credible to some extent.
One of the important categories to cover when analyzing empathy in non-human primates
is mainly how it has evolved over time. For example, it is believed that empathy has been
constantly developing as a niche for some species to survive and thrive in certain environments
between certain species. In the article by Castro, it states “empathy might have had important
advantages throughout the evolution of pre-human societies and even more ancient primate
societies. Empathy is no longer seen as an obstacle to the biological urges of power and personal
satisfaction” (Castro 4). This quote signifies how empathy has continued to evolve throughout

22. Saleh22
the primate’s lifetime of evolution. This source is credible because it incorporates some scientific
studies to back up its claim and it uses a more logistic approach when providing their
information. Others scholars like Eric believe that empathy in non-human primates has evolved
specifically in mammalian mammals that lactate for example due to various reasons. One of the
main reasons is that these mammals have children to care for; hence empathy has evolved to
incorporate the motherly emotions and behaviors needed to care for the young. Hence Eric
concludes that “Because of lactation, mammals are unique—mammalian mothers had to evolve
to be more sensitive to their offspring while their offspring were evolving to communicate their
needs more effectively to mothers” (Eric 2). In Toward a “Phycology of Human-Animal
relation”, Catherine describe empathy as an advantage for other animals stating when she says
“other support comes from work demonstrating that preadolescents displayed more empathy and
perspective-taking toward their pets compared to children in early childhood” (Catherine 3). This
source is viewed as a reliable source because of its observations on how empathy can be used to
interact and benefit species of different kinds, for example a pet owner expressing empathy and
care for his pets.
When exploring empathy in non-human primates, we must examine how does empathy
influence the interactions between non-human primates through pro-social behavior, or other
forms of behavior they act upon to convey empathy. In “Neuroconomics”, Silk goes into some
detail of how non-human primates express this empathy and use it as a social adaptation. Silk
says, “monkeys and apes have considerable knowledge about social information. For example,
they are able to recognize dozens of individuals, identify kin, compute the values of resources
and services, keep track of past interactions with group members, make transitive inferences,
discriminate between cooperators and defectors” (Silk, 274). As we have seen here, this source

23. Saleh23
emphasizes that empathy is constantly applied in the non-human primates lives for a number of
applications that involve social behavior. In another article, “Chimpanzee Social Intelligence:
Selfishness, Altruism, and the Mother-Infant Bond”, Hirata describe a key term “tolerated theft”,
which can be explained as “calculated self-interest to gain benefits in later interactions” (Hirata,
1). In this case it is believed that these acts of social behavior may be due to self-interest.
However, “the active offering of food by the mother appears to imply something beyond just
“tolerated theft.” In addition, mothers do not expect anything in return from the young infant;
thus, it is difficult to interpret such cases as calculated self-interest” (Hirata, 1). This source is a
journal and is composed of mainly research observations that are focused on non-human
primates and their social intelligence. Hence making this a reputable source for the most part in
comparison to other sources that lack the research. These sources indicate that non-human
primate’s express empathy in multiple different ways, but more importantly for many different
purposes.
Although we found sources about empathy in non-human primates, there are also sources
that relate empathy in humans and non-human primates. The common animal that scholars
studied is apes, chimpanzees, and monkeys. In “Empathy: of monkeys and men”. Frans de Wall
has studied animal behavior and has made many findings on empathy in non-human primate’s
behaviors. When he was asked about what attracted him to the study of empathy, Wall said “my
initial interest was aggressive behavior and violence, things like that, and power politics. And in
that context I discovered that chimpanzees reconcile after fights, which became a big deal
because no one thought that that was possible” (Mind the Gap – Blog). From Walls experience,
he has observed the monkeys go through similar scenarios such as humans. When evaluating this
source, it has data and observations from a researcher that has personally conduced his

24. Saleh24
observations on non-human primates. This is also one of the most recent sources with
observations on empathy in non-human primates. This source agrees with another scholar,
Mathew Campbell, a primatologist at California State University Channel Islands, who has also
received some interesting results from her studies. In “Are Apes as Empathetic as Humans?”
Campbell’s studies “show that the most basic form of empathy, also called emotional contagion,
appears to work very similarly in humans and bonobos, who are as closely related to us as
chimpanzees” (Dasgupta 3). From these two sources, we can easily conclude that empathy in
non-human primates does not differ from the empathy in human primates. With sources that
complement one another, this allows us to conclude that empathy in non-human primates could
potentially explain why we are closely related to monkey, apes, and even chimpanzees.
There are many sources that are available for empathy in non-human primates, however
not all of them are credible. Empathy in non-human primates holds species as one bounded force
that relies on the success of each other to advance. Although we’ve taken in so much information
at once, there is still potential research that needs to be completed to help us expand on this topic
because conducting research in empathy in non-human primates is still a new field which needs
to be expanded.

25. Saleh25
Working Bibliography
Amiot, Catherine E., and Brock Bastian. “Toward a Psychology of Human–animal Relations.”
Psychological Bulletin 141.1 (2015): 6–47. ProQuest. Web.
“Are Apes as Empathetic as Humans? | The Scientist Magazine®.” The Scientist. N.p., n.d. Web. 16
Apr. 2016.
Atkins, Michele Whaley. “The Relationship of Empathy and Developmental Maturity among a Group
of College Students.” ProQuest Information & Learning (, US), 2000. ProQuest. Web. 16 Apr.
2016.
“Castro, R., Gaspar, A., Vicente, L. (2010). The Evolving Empathy: Hardwired Bases of Human and
Non-Human Primate Empathy. Psicologia, XXIV(2): 131-152 | Augusta Gaspar -
Academia.edu.” N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
“Empathy: Of Monkeys and Men.” Mind the Gap. N.p., 25 Oct. 2012. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
Harrison, Marissa A., and A. E. Hall. “Anthropomorphism, Empathy, and Perceived Communicative
Ability Vary with Phylogenetic Relatedness to Humans.” Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and
Cultural Psychology 4.1 (2010): 34–48. ProQuest. Web.
Hirata, Satoshi. “Chimpanzee Social Intelligence: Selfishness, Altruism, and the Mother-Infant
Bond.” Primates; Journal of Primatology 50.1 (2009): 3–11. PubMed. Web.
Knafo, Ariel et al. “The Developmental Origins of a Disposition toward Empathy: Genetic and
Environmental Contributions.” Emotion 8.6 (2008): 737–752. ProQuest. Web.
Lichtenberg, Joseph D., Melvin Bornstein, and Donald Silver. Empathy I (Psychology Revivals).
Routledge, 2014. Print.
Moriguchi, Yoshiya et al. “Empathy and Judging Other’s Pain: An fMRI Study of Alexithymia.”
Cerebral Cortex 17.9 (2007): 2223–2234. cercor.oxfordjournals.org. Web.

26. Saleh26
Morris, Craig Eric. “Exploring the Necessity of Others in Human Evolution.” Journal of Social,
Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology 5.4 (2011): 293–295. ProQuest. Web.
Shreya Dasgupta.“Are Apes as Empathetic as Humans? | The Scientist Magazine®.” The Scientist.
N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
Silk, Joan B. “Chapter 18 - Social Preferences in Primates A2 - Glimcher, Paul W.” Neuroeconomics.
Ed. Colin F. Camerer, Ernst Fehr, and Russell A. Poldrack. London: Academic Press, 2009. 269–
284. ScienceDirect. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.

27. Saleh27
Ali Saleh
College Writing R4B
Stephanie Bobo
May 5, 2016
Abstract
The research conducted on this essay ponders on empathy in non-human primates. However,
empathy is simply an attribute to the “theory of mind” and for a specie to express empathy, that
specie must have some level of the “theory of mind”. Hence there is an overwhelming amount of
research asking the primary question “do non-human primates have theory of mind?”. The
research conducted in this field of study lead to other similar questions such as do non-human
primates have empathy, and if so, what are those empathetic behaviors? Such questions can’t be
answered without the understanding of what you are looking for as a researcher. Hence the
“theory of mind” was defined along with empathy. However, the “theory of mind” must be
understood at a much more sophisticated level in order to understand its relationship with
empathy. There is also a biological explanation of empathy that provides a scientific explanation
of the occurrences of empathy in the brain. With this knowledge, the behaviors of non-human
primates (mainly chimpanzees) are observed through many documented observations and are
then evaluated to examine if their specific behaviors indicate the application of the “theory of
mind”. There are also experiments that asses if there are empathetic behaviors from non-human
primates. These behaviors are then explained through the synthesizing of all the previous
knowledge adopted from research and scholars. The research and observations concluded that
non-human primates are believed to have some level of “theory of mind” and empathy.

28. Saleh28
Ali Saleh
College Writing R4B
Stephanie Bobo
May 5, 2016
Empathy in Non-Human Primates
Empathy is such an abstract topic that I wanted to include in this research portfolio. Hence the
subject of the matter is narrowed down to empathy in non-human primates. The purpose of this
research was to understand how is empathy expressed through non-human primates in certain
behaviors and if there are certain limitations on the adaptations of empathy on a mentally stable
primate. When trying to understand empathy through this domain of non-human primates, there
is an overwhelming amount of information that can be extrapolated from the different scholarly
and non-scholarly sources. However, to truly come to an understanding of empathy in non-
human primates, one must understand the definition of empathy itself. Although many people
have an understanding of what empathy may be, it is still critical to define it because the context
can change its definition. When studying empathy in non-human primates, the first thing
researchers wanted to identify is whether or not non-human primates had a “theory of mind”.
This is critical because empathy is a form of “theory of mind” where non-human primates
basically come up with a theory of what another species might be feeling for example.
The “Theory of mind” in non-human primates has been researched for decades until this
point. According to Heyes in Theory of Mind, it is assumed non-human primates have “theory of
mind” (101, etpassim) if they “have mental state concepts such as “believe,” “know,” “want,”
and “see,” and that individuals with such concepts use them to predict and explain behavior.”
(101). This definition of theory of mind is similar to the definition found in the “Concept of
Mind in Non-human Primates” as this “article will assume the definition, put forward Penn and

29. Saleh29
Povinelli in 2007, of theory of mind as any process, which informs the subject about constructs
of another's mind, allowing for behavioral prediction.”(Sara,1). Sara agrees with the definition
that is presented in Heyes article by confirming that the definition we have seen is in used in the
correct context.
A more in depth understanding of “theory of mind” would be found in Sarah’s research
as she says “Perner broke down the “theory of mind” into three components: primary
representation . . . secondary representation . . . and meta-representations.” (1). A basic
explanation of the first component, Primary Representation, is knowing that you exist and
everything around you is real. The second component, Secondary Representation, is the ability to
manipulate things in your mind and express one object as another object as means of expression.
For example, your hand can represent a gun. The third and last component, meta-
representation, is basically the “representation of a representation” (1). An example of this is “I
think that he thinks that banana is a phone” (1). With this definition of “theory of mind”, It
makes us want to ask if a non-human primate has “theory of mind”. Does that mean they should
also have the ability to express empathy? This should be a logical assumption because the
attributes that are in the definition of “theory of mind” contribute to the meaning of empathy.
There is a mutual relationship that can be found in the “theory of mind” and empathy.
This relationship can become more obvious once you know their definitions. However before
defining empathy, it is essential to make a clear distinction between the two natures of empathy:
“cognitive empathy” and “emotional empathy”. Thomas provides a definition of empathy in
“Emotional Empathy and Cognitive Empathy” as the “ability to recognize a broad spectrum of
emotional signals, allowing [us] to feel the unspoken emotions of other individuals or groups.”
(1). Thomas’s definition of empathy is nothing new in this case, however he also defines

30. Saleh30
“emotional empathy” (1, etpassim) as our “automatic drive to respond appropriately to another’s
emotions. This kind of empathy happens automatically, and often unconsciously. It has also been
referred to as the vicarious sharing of emotions” (Thomas, 1). In “emotional empathy”, there is
almost little to no thought that occurs when it is experienced. This is the main difference from
“cognitive empathy” (1, etpassim), which is “the largely conscious drive to recognize accurately
and understand another’s emotional state.” (Thomas, 1). With these definitions of empathy,
thanks to Thomas, it is much clearer how “theory of mind” is applied in empathy.
We know that for non-human primates to have empathy, they must have a theory of mind
to begin with. Therefore, in the year 1978, “Premack and Woodruff asked, ‘Does the
chimpanzee have a theory of mind?’” (Heyes, 101). Since then, the research in this field has
continued for over 20 years in order to find an answer. To answer this question, there must be
some sort of procedure that can allow us to indicate that non-human primates are expressing
“theory of mind” and “empathy”. In Sarah’s article, she stated that “Many advanced behaviors
have been observed in non-human primates including learning, tool use and forms of
communication.” (1). The observation of behavior in certain settings and situations can help us
identify “theory of mind”, however can the chimpanzees identify mental states with behavior?
According to Heyes, it is believed that chimps “do not identify mental states with behavior”
(102). To explain this, Heyes provides an example of scenario where if a chimpanzee, Al, had a
“theory of mind”, then he “may judge [another] chimpanzee Bert to be able to ‘see’ a predator
because it is daylight, Bert’s eyes are open, and there is an uninterrupted line between Bert’s
eyes and the predator” (102). Therefore, the chimpanzee Al should be able to identify a predator
from seeing Bert running away (102). But the problem is that “Al does not take seeing the
predator to consist of these observable conditions” (102). When trying to identify if non-human

31. Saleh31
primates have “theory of mind”, there are many different experiments conducted for that
purpose.
There has been other similar research asking about if there is evidence of “the theory of
mind in chimpanzees. In the article “Empathy in Chimpanzees: Evidence of theory of mind?”
there are studies where researchers observe key behaviors of empathetic acts in chimpanzees and
categorized the results they acquired in a structured matter. (O’Connell, 1). The researchers
completed very specific experiments to assess specific features of empathy in non-human
primates. Eventually they completed taxonomy on the empathetic actions found in non-human
primates. “The classificatory system has been split into four categories: visual empathy;
emotional empathy; concordance: and extended empathy” (3). There detailed descriptions within
each category to explain it in more detail. For “visual empathy”, this is the “understanding of
perspective” (4). As for “emotional empathy”, this has to do with “understanding the target’s fear
of another individual … fear of the agent … fear of an object … [the] targets excitement, …
[and] targets grief/frustration/sadness” (4). The third category, concordance, is “understanding
the target’s non-emotional mental states”, for example if they are possibly “hungry” or “thirsty”
and “understanding their attitude” (4). Lastly, the last category is known as “extended empathy”
which is when the chimpanzee has an “understanding of the implications of the targets mental
and physical state” (4). This last category expands into a much stronger expression of empathy,
and this involves “adopting an orphan”, wanting “revenge”, and “rescuing the target from a
dangerous social or physical situation” for example.. We can even go into further detail to
explain Different descriptions in each of the categories, however it isn’t completely necessary.
In “Chimps Can Get Inside Others' Heads Just Like Humans”, Choi describes an
experiment where its purpose is to see “how the apes can understand the goals of the other

32. Saleh32
chimps” (1). Therefore, the “Researchers presented five chimpanzees with seven tools on a tray:
a stick, a straw, a hose, a chain, a rope, a brush and a belt.” (1). The chimpanzees were placed in
a setting where they “witnessed other chimps struggling with tasks where they could receive a
reward of juice, and could potentially help them by handing them a tool” (1). To ensure that the
chimpanzees would want to help each other they paired a mother chimp and her child. They
swapped positions as each chimp took a turn to reap the reward of juice while the other helped.
The results were incredible as the “The potential helpers offered either a stick or a straw for the
juice tasks about 80 percent to 100 percent of the time. This suggests they understood the needs
of the potential recipients” (1). This data identifies that chimpanzees can potentially have “theory
of mind” although it is not enough to make such a conclusion based on this one experiment.
When trying to understand empathy in non-human primates, I used a holistic approach
that guided my research into the science behind all the empathetic actions that are taken. In “The
‘Shared Manifold’ Hypothesis” by Gallese, there was a “particular set of neurons, activated
during the execution of purposeful, goal-related hand actions, such as grasping, holding or
manipulating objects, discharge also when the monkey observes similar hand actions performed
by another individual” (35). These neurons have been named “mirror neurons” (35, etpassim).
There have been further studies to understand “mirror neurons”. One of the studies was that
“Mirror neurons require, in order to be activated by visual stimuli, an interaction between the
action’s agent (human being or a monkey) and its objects” (35). This introduces the question as
to what would happen if the non-human primate for example were blind? This is interesting
because apparently to stimulate the “mirror neurons” there must be some sort of visual
component. However, if there is none then there is no stimulation. In addition, a “Control
experiments showed that neither the sight of the agent alone nor of the object alone were

33. Saleh33
effective in evoking the neuron’s response” (35). This experiment concludes that there are
conditions for the “mirror neurons” to activate and not meeting those conditions will not set them
off.
There are many means of expression for empathy in non-human primates. In the
Expression of the Emotions of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Darwin dedicates an entire
chapter to explaining how non-human primates convey the emotions they are experiencing. You
may ask “Why would this be important?”, well knowing the definition of empathy – “identifying
emotional signals” – will require a specie to be capable of identifying the different emotional
signals. Hence an example of an emotional signal a non-human primate might express is anger or
sadness. However the method or behavior they act out may be different. In some non-human
primates, they express their emotional signal through the “emission of sounds” (83). In chapter 4,
Darwin states that the “vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of expression.”
(83). In this case, it seems that Darwin is describing the physical aspects of the non-human
primates that allow them to convey such emotions as terror and excitement. An interesting note
to consider is that the “involuntary and purposeful contractions of the muscles of the chest and
glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to the emission of vocal sounds.”
(84). Interestingly enough, when a non-human primate expresses their emotion, it is involuntary
and their body reacts autonomously. This leaves us to wonder, does this also mean that
empathetic actions from non-human primates are also involuntary? Is there some sort of
connection here with the background knowledge of “mirror neurons” or not? I would assume that
there is some relationship although this is inconclusive.
There are many observations of non-human primates portraying some form of empathy
through behaviors of various kinds. These behaviors have been observed for many years but

34. Saleh34
were never assumed to be forms of empathy. However, researchers from “LJMU's School of
Biological Sciences in the UK and colleagues analyzed how chimpanzees behave after a fight.”
(“Empathy in Chimpanzees”, 1). The observations revealed that the “third-party chimpanzee will
try to console the ‘victim’ of a fight by grooming, hugging, and kissing” (“Empathy in
Chimpanzees”, 1). This behavior sounds awfully similar to the behavior that human primates
would have conveyed. Prior to the discovery, it was thought that the chimpanzees were not
displaying empathy when this was first observed. It was actually believed that the “motivation
behind it was purely selfish - with the consoling chimp wanting to pre-empt further violence”
(“Empathy in Chimpanzees”, 1). However, after constant observation, the results of the
chimpanzee’s consolation actually seemed to benefit the ‘victim’ of the fight and calmed them
down. Hence the consolation was mostly concluded to be for the benefits of the victimized
chimpanzee than the third party chimp. But the researchers also came to find more interesting
results from studies; “the study also found that apes with mutually beneficial relationships will
try to calm each other down” (“Empathy in Chimpanzees”, 1). This is becoming very logical, the
closer the chimpanzees are to each other or the more positive the relationship, then the more
willing they are to help. This will also lead to a follow up question to whether or not empathy
helps influence the formation of positive relationships.
The relationships that non-human primates have with others are also known to dictate the
amount of empathy they have or in other cases are willing to express. For example, there was a
research study in “The Evolution of Empathy” – Frans de Waal, where “Carolyn Zahn-Waxler, a
research psychologist at the National Institute of Mental Health, visited people’s homes to find
out how young children respond to family members’ emotions” (2). However, something
interesting occurred in the process after the researcher told the family member to act as if they

35. Saleh35
are in emotional and physical pain, they “found that some household pets seemed as worried as
the children were by the feigned distress of the family members. The pets hovered nearby and
put their heads in their owners’ laps” (2). This observation has motivated further research in the
following experiments conducted. It was known that this behavior is found in many different
non-human primates. “Nadia Ladygina-Kohts, a primatological pioneer, noticed similar empathic
tendencies in her young chimpanzee, Joni, whom she raised at the beginning of the last century,
in Moscow” (3). In our previous study empathy was expressed from the pet dog, however now it
is found in chimpanzees, which have been a very popular non-human primate to study. Kohts has
a rather intriguing method that she uses to bring Joni down from the roof of the house after he
has escaped, she believes that this method is “much more effective than any reward or threat of
punishment—was by arousing sympathy” (3). This made me curious about how would you
arouse empathy in a non-human primate. I first asked the question, how you arouse empathy in
human primates, because I assumed that it could be related to stimulating empathy in non-human
primates. I remembered that when I watch a sad film such as Titanic, I experience some
sympathy for the characters in the film. I knew that the situations and actions in the films were
not real but acted out by actors. Having this understanding, I believe that to stimulate empathy in
non-human primates, you only need to express fake emotions of distress just like in the previous
studies. As a result, this is basically what Kohts did in order to bring Joni off her roof. She said
“If I pretend to be crying, close my eyes and weep, Joni immediately stops his plays or any other
activities, quickly runs over to me, all excited and shagged, from the most remote places in the
house, such as the roof or the ceiling of his cage” (2). I am quite surprised when I read this
section, because this shows that non-human primates are capable of showing a “degree of

36. Saleh36
perspective taking” (3). The basic definition of “perspective taking” (3, etpassim) is to simply
placing yourself in the shoes of others, which also requires some level of “theory of mind”.
Having the ability to express empathy (as we discovered earlier) requires having the
“theory of mind”, hence this allows us to make further analysis of empathy in non-human
primates. As Waal describes in “The evolution of Empathy”, he said “Empathy also plays a role
in cooperation. One needs to pay close attention to the activities and goals of others to cooperate
effectively.” (5). Waal introduces one of the different applications of empathy for non-human
primates in the various situations. Waal emphasizes empathy as adaptation for non-human
primates to work cooperatively as he provides an example of how a “A male chimpanzee needs
to pay attention to his buddy’s rivalries and skirmishes with others so that he can help out
whenever needed, thus ensuring the political success of their partnership” (4). Aiding each other
to reach their goals, non-human primates become much more effective in their efforts for
survival. This emphasizes the evolutionary aspects of empathy from one sense, as well as the
“theory of mind” in another. The “theory of mind” comes into play when the non-human
primates need to theorize what their partner goals may be according to the observations of their
actions. Therefore, empathizing or understanding other non-human primates will lead to
effective cooperation since it “requires being exquisitely in tune with the emotional states and
goals of others.” (4). Waals research studies have allowed us to understand empathy in non-
human primates from multiple perspectives.
In My Family Album – Frans de Waal, creates a compilation of thirty years of research
and photography of non-human primates; more specifically chimpanzees and other apes. In this
book, it provides insights on the specific behaviors of non-human primates that allow us to
officially conclude that chimpanzees and other apes do have some theory of mind. Although

37. Saleh37
there are countless behaviors that can support this research topic, the best selected few will be
touched upon. The first chimpanzee to be explored is Krom, “a female chimpanzee assumed to
be totally deaf, nevertheless expressed all the varied calls of her species” (9). This supposedly
deaf chimpanzee is still capable of responding to the different calls of her species leaves me
curious to understand how is this possible. Having a deaf friend has shown me the only way we
can communicate is either by reading my lips or sign language. However, he tells me he usually
relies on observing my behavior or others and trying to make a prediction what they possibly
want to say or do. With the research observations of Krom Waal said, “Outdoors, we began to
notice that she reacted to sudden sounds or alarms only after having seen others in her group
react. For example, if she saw others run away from a charging adult male, she would run, too.
She thus relied on the second hand information” (9). This observation is extremely exciting
because it allows us to synthesize once again exactly how does the chimpanzee, Krom, knows
how to acquire and translate second hand information. So the first thing that occurs here is the
“theory of mind” once again as Krom observes the reality of the situation. Secondly Krom then
uses empathy to place herself in the shoes of the other chimps around herself as she sees them
running away from an adult male. After gathering collecting and translating what all of this
information conveys, Krom uses this to dictate her actions on deciding whether to respond
similarly to other chimps and run away, or not respond at all. This detailed explanation can also
be applied to other non-human primate’s expression of any form of empathy whether or not they
are dearth.
Non-human primates can still express empathy even if they are deaf as we’ve seen in the
previous example. But the reason I chose to analyze and observe Krom, was to identify the
limitations of empathy in the context of a deaf parent. Empathy is believed to evolve for

38. Saleh38
“parental care that characterizes all mammals. Signaling their state through smiling and crying,
human infants urge their caregiver to take action. This also applies to other primates” (“The
Evolution of Empathy”, 4). Hence this places Krom in a special case where the evolution of
empathy does not play in her favor if she plans to be a mother. Krom obviously “gleaned enough
information from facial expressions and gestures to handle herself socially, but her disability
proved lethal for her offspring” (9). This has unfortunately been the cause of the death of several
infants that Krom attempted to care for. Although the infant chimps “produced noises that alert
the mother to their needs. Krom lost several babies because she sat on them and did not notice or
failed to nurse them when they cried for food” (9). This caused Krom’s offspring’s to be taken
away from her and place under care by another chimp. With this study, Waal concluded that
“Krom’s case illustrates that without the proper mechanism for understanding and responding to
a child’s needs, a species will not survive.” (“The evolution of Empathy”, 4). With this
conclusion, it validates how having empathy is necessary for the survival of a species and how
empathy cannot be taken lightly.
Empathy is an extremely valuable attribute in non-human primates according to the
research findings. In “Empathy in Chimpanzees: Evidence for theory of mind” it was found that
empathy came in a cost. O’Connell said “It is assumed that for an act to be counted as empathic,
the agent would have to risk losing time for her act to have been noticed. Across categories
emotional, concordance, and extended empathy, agents were willing to risk losing friendship, but
were less willing to lose copulations, injury, or death” (9). This evidence suggest that there is
some risk to be taken when a non-human primate commits some form of empathetic behavior.
Hence this assumes that non-human primates must have some understanding that they may risk
something they value, however they are less likely to take on these risks if the target is

39. Saleh39
unfamiliar to them and is not a family member or friend. (O’Connell, 9). Empathy in non-human
primates is substantially similar to the empathy in human primates. Therefore researching such a
topic has allowed me to not only learn about non-human primates, but most importantly it
explored other research studies that helped explain the empathy in non-human primates. This
similarities and differences between human and non-human primates varied obviously but there
is one key difference. The unique difference is that empathetic behavior is voluntary in non-
human primates while it is involuntary in non-human primates and most of the time it is reactive
instincts. This can best be explained with the term “monkey see, monkey do” once again.
Based on the compiled research and observations, it has become obvious that non-human
primates express their empathy through similar behaviors to that of human primates although
only a few behaviors were identified. These behaviors of consolation were the primary example
of expression of empathy. Empathy is limited in non-human primates however if they are deaf
however as we’ve seen in the example of Krom. With this knowledge on empathy in non-human
primates, we can now make comparisons of empathy in human, and other primates or even
species. This will allow us to identify the foundations of empathy across all species. We have
already discovered that empathy evolved with all species where there is nursing and care needed
for an infant. Hence this will allow us to have a much greater perspective on how empathy is not
only found in primate’s, but also species as a whole.

40. Saleh40
Bibliography
Amiot, Catherine E., and Brock Bastian. “Toward a Psychology of Human–animal Relations.”
Psychological Bulletin 141.1 (2015): 6–47. ProQuest. Web.
“Are Apes as Empathetic as Humans? | The Scientist Magazine®.” The Scientist. N.p., n.d. Web. 16
Apr. 2016.
Atkins, Michele Whaley. “The Relationship of Empathy and Developmental Maturity among a Group
of College Students.” ProQuest Information & Learning (, US), 2000. ProQuest. Web. 16 Apr.
2016.
“Castro, R., Gaspar, A., Vicente, L. (2010). The Evolving Empathy: Hardwired Bases of Human and
Non-Human Primate Empathy. Psicologia, XXIV(2): 131-152 | Augusta Gaspar -
Academia.edu.” N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
Choi, Charles Q., Live Science Contributor | February 6, and 2012 03:01pm ET. “Chimps Can Get
Inside Others’ Heads Just Like Humans | Chimp Theory of Mind | Why Humans Cooperate |
Amazing Animal Abilities.” Live Science. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 May 2016.
Darwin, Charles. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1965.
Print.
“Empathy: Of Monkeys and Men.” Mind the Gap. N.p., 25 Oct. 2012. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
Harrison, Marissa A., and A. E. Hall. “Anthropomorphism, Empathy, and Perceived Communicative
Ability Vary with Phylogenetic Relatedness to Humans.” Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and
Cultural Psychology 4.1 (2010): 34–48. ProQuest. Web.
Heyes, C. M. “Theory of Mind in Nonhuman Primates.” The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21.1
(1998): 101–114; discussion 115–148. Print.

41. Saleh41
Hirata, Satoshi. “Chimpanzee Social Intelligence: Selfishness, Altruism, and the Mother-Infant
Bond.” Primates; Journal of Primatology 50.1 (2009): 3–11. PubMed. Web.
Knafo, Ariel et al. “The Developmental Origins of a Disposition toward Empathy: Genetic and
Environmental Contributions.” Emotion 8.6 (2008): 737–752. ProQuest. Web.
Lichtenberg, Joseph D., Melvin Bornstein, and Donald Silver. Empathy I (Psychology Revivals).
Routledge, 2014. Print.
Morris, Craig Eric. “Exploring the Necessity of Others in Human Evolution.” Journal of Social,
Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology 5.4 (2011): 293–295. ProQuest. Web.
O’Connell, Sanjida M. “Empathy in Chimpanzees: Evidence for Theory of Mind?” Primates 36.3
(1995): 397–410. link.springer.com. Web.
Silk, Joan B. “Chapter 18 - Social Preferences in Primates A2 - Glimcher, Paul W.” Neuroeconomics.
Ed. Colin F. Camerer, Ernst Fehr, and Russell A. Poldrack. London: Academic Press, 2009. 269–
284. ScienceDirect. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
“The Evolution of Empathy.” Greater Good. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.
Thomas, Chris Allen. “Emotional Empathy and Cognitive Empathy | Blog – Teleos Leadership
Institute.” N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Apr. 2016.
Waal, F. B. M. De. My Family Album: Thirty Years of Primate Photography. Berkeley: U of
California, 2003. Print.