The document discusses the concept of natural law as the basis for ethical thinking in Catholicism. It stems from Aristotle and was given philosophical expression by St. Thomas Aquinas. Natural law holds that morality is based on human nature and that actions are right or wrong depending on whether they fulfill or contradict human nature. For Aquinas, human nature is understood in terms of primary purposes like living, working, reproducing, and worshipping God. Secondary precepts then provide more details on how these purposes are fulfilled. This approach is being debated today as views on human nature have evolved.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BC. He studied at Plato's Academy and later founded his own school called the Lyceum. Aristotle made contributions to many fields including logic, metaphysics, politics, and natural sciences. He was a realist who believed that reality exists independently of the mind. Aristotle saw the universe as being in a balanced, orderly state. He believed education was essential for achieving happiness and that it created good citizens. However, he held that only men of noble birth and citizens should be educated, while women and slaves had lesser roles.
1. Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BC who studied under Plato and taught Alexander the Great. He believed the world was structured in a way that made rational understanding possible through observation and reasoned inquiry.
2. Aristotle viewed nature as consisting of individual species with fixed essences that developed through regular biological processes like birth, growth, and decay rather than creation or revolution. He identified material, formal, efficient, and final causes to explain natural phenomena.
3. Aristotle made influential contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, and other fields. His works were enormously influential in both medieval scholasticism and modern thought. He is considered one of the most important philosophers of all time.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was a Greek philosopher and scientist who studied under Plato and taught Alexander the Great. He believed the world could be understood through rational inquiry and that humans have a natural desire to understand it. Aristotle viewed nature as made up of individual species undergoing regular life processes like birth, growth, and decay. He identified four factors that govern living things' development: material, formal, efficient, and final causes. Aristotle made influential contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, and natural philosophy (physics) that shaped Western thought for centuries. He viewed the universe as having a Prime Mover responsible for its order and purposefulness. Aristotle's works were widely studied and respected until
This document discusses various philosophical concepts and debates around epistemology and metaphysics. It covers Plato's theory of forms, Aristotle's four causes, rationalism vs empiricism, Descartes' foundationalism, skepticism, objective vs subjective truth, and thinkers like Kierkegaard and Dostoevsky. Key debates include the nature and limits of knowledge, whether truth resides in the intelligible or physical world, and whether truth is objective or subjective.
Aristotle was not an environmentalist by the modern definition but his works explored nature extensively and influenced later environmental thought. While he saw humans as superior, Aristotle also attributed souls to plants and animals, recognizing their intrinsic worth. He viewed nature as a system with interconnected parts fulfilling purposes. His discussions of knowledge from experience with particulars and ethics of balance promoted respect for nature. Though not environmentalist, Aristotle's biocentric perspective and emphasis on humans' role and responsibility within nature paved the way for modern environmentalism.
1) Aristotle made many contributions to biology, directly studying hundreds of species and making discoveries like dolphins being mammals, different types of reproduction in animals, and embryonic chicken development.
2) He established guidelines for biological research including beginning with observation, explaining structures in terms of purpose, and recognizing natural classifications.
3) Aristotle developed one of the earliest systems for classifying animal life, grouping animals based on attributes like live birth, egg-laying, blood, and shells.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BC. He studied at Plato's Academy and later founded his own school called the Lyceum. Aristotle made contributions to many fields including logic, metaphysics, politics, and natural sciences. He was a realist who believed that reality exists independently of the mind. Aristotle saw the universe as being in a balanced, orderly state. He believed education was essential for achieving happiness and that it created good citizens. However, he held that only men of noble birth and citizens should be educated, while women and slaves had lesser roles.
1. Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BC who studied under Plato and taught Alexander the Great. He believed the world was structured in a way that made rational understanding possible through observation and reasoned inquiry.
2. Aristotle viewed nature as consisting of individual species with fixed essences that developed through regular biological processes like birth, growth, and decay rather than creation or revolution. He identified material, formal, efficient, and final causes to explain natural phenomena.
3. Aristotle made influential contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, and other fields. His works were enormously influential in both medieval scholasticism and modern thought. He is considered one of the most important philosophers of all time.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was a Greek philosopher and scientist who studied under Plato and taught Alexander the Great. He believed the world could be understood through rational inquiry and that humans have a natural desire to understand it. Aristotle viewed nature as made up of individual species undergoing regular life processes like birth, growth, and decay. He identified four factors that govern living things' development: material, formal, efficient, and final causes. Aristotle made influential contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, and natural philosophy (physics) that shaped Western thought for centuries. He viewed the universe as having a Prime Mover responsible for its order and purposefulness. Aristotle's works were widely studied and respected until
This document discusses various philosophical concepts and debates around epistemology and metaphysics. It covers Plato's theory of forms, Aristotle's four causes, rationalism vs empiricism, Descartes' foundationalism, skepticism, objective vs subjective truth, and thinkers like Kierkegaard and Dostoevsky. Key debates include the nature and limits of knowledge, whether truth resides in the intelligible or physical world, and whether truth is objective or subjective.
Aristotle was not an environmentalist by the modern definition but his works explored nature extensively and influenced later environmental thought. While he saw humans as superior, Aristotle also attributed souls to plants and animals, recognizing their intrinsic worth. He viewed nature as a system with interconnected parts fulfilling purposes. His discussions of knowledge from experience with particulars and ethics of balance promoted respect for nature. Though not environmentalist, Aristotle's biocentric perspective and emphasis on humans' role and responsibility within nature paved the way for modern environmentalism.
1) Aristotle made many contributions to biology, directly studying hundreds of species and making discoveries like dolphins being mammals, different types of reproduction in animals, and embryonic chicken development.
2) He established guidelines for biological research including beginning with observation, explaining structures in terms of purpose, and recognizing natural classifications.
3) Aristotle developed one of the earliest systems for classifying animal life, grouping animals based on attributes like live birth, egg-laying, blood, and shells.
Why Evolution Is True Summary
Evidence Of Evolution
Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
The Theory of Evolution Essay
Essay about Evidence for Evolution
The Process Of Evolution And Evolution
Essay about Evolution
Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
Evolutionary Biology Essay
The Theory of Evolution Essay
Evidence For Evolution Essay
Essay on Evolution
The Future Of Human Evolution Essay
Essay on human evolution
Creationism vs. Evolution Essay
Thoeries Of Evolution Essay example
Evolution Essay
Why Do You Believe In The Theory Of Evolution
The Theory of Evolution Essay
Evolution Argumentative Essay
Philosophical foundation of guidance and counselingEmmanuel Gamana
This document discusses the origins and development of ancient Greek philosophy. It begins by explaining that philosophy developed as a form of rational inquiry in the ancient Greek city-states. The Greeks formulated ideas that have guided Western civilization, and viewed philosophy as a practical tool for making wise decisions. Greece's geopolitical position exposed it to diverse civilizations, facilitating an exchange of ideas that made Greek society sophisticated. Greek philosophy then spread through the Alexandrian Empire and influenced Judaism and Christianity. Key ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are discussed, along with their influential ideas and contributions to philosophy. The document concludes by comparing the philosophical approaches of idealism and realism.
Realism holds that reality exists independently of human minds and perceptions. It asserts that objects have intrinsic natures that are not dependent on beliefs, perceptions, or interpretations. According to realism, reality behaves in predictable and repeatable patterns regardless of human sensory experiences. The key principle of realism is independence - that reality exists on its own and is not contingent on the human mind. Realism favors an education system focused on teaching objective facts and truth through a standardized curriculum emphasizing sciences and the liberal arts.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist from the 4th century BC who founded the Lyceum and wrote extensively on many topics. He is considered the father of many fields of philosophy and science. Aristotle observed and classified many types of plants and animals. He divided all living things into two groups - those with blood and those without blood - and further classified them into genera based on similar characteristics, laying the foundations for modern taxonomy. His written works still exert influence today and include descriptions of embryology, anatomy and biological classification that were remarkably accurate for his time.
This document provides an overview of Aristotle's branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics. It discusses Aristotle's views on each topic and how he contributed to their development. The key points are:
1. Aristotle identified four main branches of philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics.
2. In metaphysics, Aristotle explored substance and causation. He defined four causes and discussed actuality and potentiality.
3. In epistemology, Aristotle defined the soul and how sensation and perception work.
4. In logic, Aristotle developed formal logic and categorized propositions and syllogisms.
5. In
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BC who studied under Plato and established his own school called the Lyceum. He made contributions across many fields including logic, metaphysics, physics, biology, ethics and political theory. He was the first to develop a formal system of logic and classify living things. Some of his most important works include the Metaphysics, Politics, Physics, De Anima, and Nicomachean Ethics.
According to Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory, the concepts of generativity versus stagnation stage occurs by the time when we reach our mid-30s to mid-50s. From here, we start to really examine our lives and see if it is going the way we planned it or did it take a drastic turn. This is where some people take drastic steps and change their lives. It is when we start to question, "How can I contribute to the world?" Finding ways to advance or enhance future generations can help you work toward generativity instead of having a sense of stagnation. The basic virtue of generativity vs. stagnation is "care." This involves caring for others who are close to the person (family, co-workers, friends, etc.) as well as caring for the community or the future generation as a whole. If generativity is not developed, rejectivity, or a lack of meaning in one's life and in one's actions, can occur.
- Aristotle lived from 384 BC to 322 BC in Macedonia and was a student of Plato, though he disagreed with some of Plato's teachings.
- Aristotle developed his own theory of universals, believing that universals exist only instantiated in individual objects, rather than as abstract forms.
- In contrast to Plato, who was a rationalist believing knowledge comes from reason, Aristotle was an empiricist who believed all knowledge comes from experience sensed through the world.
Aristotle developed a philosophical system called realism that rejected Plato's idealism. While influenced by Plato, Aristotle believed that ideas could only be understood by studying real, existing things in the material world using observation and the senses. He outlined seven principles of his realism, including that universal ideas exist in matter but not vice versa, that the soul aims to balance rational thought with emotions and desires, and that matter is always changing towards some purpose or final form determined by its definition.
The document discusses cell theory and how it relates to ideas of heredity, genetics, and evolution through natural selection. It explains that cell theory is the idea that cells can only come from other cells, and that cells duplicate and sometimes experience random mutations. This basic idea led scientists to theorize that all life on Earth came from one or a few simple original cells, and that the diversity of life today shows how these related cell groups evolved and changed over time. The document also briefly discusses heredity, genetics, and how traits are passed down and can mutate during reproduction.
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Why Evolution Is True Summary
Evidence Of Evolution
Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
The Theory of Evolution Essay
Essay about Evidence for Evolution
The Process Of Evolution And Evolution
Essay about Evolution
Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
Evolutionary Biology Essay
The Theory of Evolution Essay
Evidence For Evolution Essay
Essay on Evolution
The Future Of Human Evolution Essay
Essay on human evolution
Creationism vs. Evolution Essay
Thoeries Of Evolution Essay example
Evolution Essay
Why Do You Believe In The Theory Of Evolution
The Theory of Evolution Essay
Evolution Argumentative Essay
Philosophical foundation of guidance and counselingEmmanuel Gamana
This document discusses the origins and development of ancient Greek philosophy. It begins by explaining that philosophy developed as a form of rational inquiry in the ancient Greek city-states. The Greeks formulated ideas that have guided Western civilization, and viewed philosophy as a practical tool for making wise decisions. Greece's geopolitical position exposed it to diverse civilizations, facilitating an exchange of ideas that made Greek society sophisticated. Greek philosophy then spread through the Alexandrian Empire and influenced Judaism and Christianity. Key ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are discussed, along with their influential ideas and contributions to philosophy. The document concludes by comparing the philosophical approaches of idealism and realism.
Realism holds that reality exists independently of human minds and perceptions. It asserts that objects have intrinsic natures that are not dependent on beliefs, perceptions, or interpretations. According to realism, reality behaves in predictable and repeatable patterns regardless of human sensory experiences. The key principle of realism is independence - that reality exists on its own and is not contingent on the human mind. Realism favors an education system focused on teaching objective facts and truth through a standardized curriculum emphasizing sciences and the liberal arts.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist from the 4th century BC who founded the Lyceum and wrote extensively on many topics. He is considered the father of many fields of philosophy and science. Aristotle observed and classified many types of plants and animals. He divided all living things into two groups - those with blood and those without blood - and further classified them into genera based on similar characteristics, laying the foundations for modern taxonomy. His written works still exert influence today and include descriptions of embryology, anatomy and biological classification that were remarkably accurate for his time.
This document provides an overview of Aristotle's branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics. It discusses Aristotle's views on each topic and how he contributed to their development. The key points are:
1. Aristotle identified four main branches of philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics.
2. In metaphysics, Aristotle explored substance and causation. He defined four causes and discussed actuality and potentiality.
3. In epistemology, Aristotle defined the soul and how sensation and perception work.
4. In logic, Aristotle developed formal logic and categorized propositions and syllogisms.
5. In
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BC who studied under Plato and established his own school called the Lyceum. He made contributions across many fields including logic, metaphysics, physics, biology, ethics and political theory. He was the first to develop a formal system of logic and classify living things. Some of his most important works include the Metaphysics, Politics, Physics, De Anima, and Nicomachean Ethics.
According to Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory, the concepts of generativity versus stagnation stage occurs by the time when we reach our mid-30s to mid-50s. From here, we start to really examine our lives and see if it is going the way we planned it or did it take a drastic turn. This is where some people take drastic steps and change their lives. It is when we start to question, "How can I contribute to the world?" Finding ways to advance or enhance future generations can help you work toward generativity instead of having a sense of stagnation. The basic virtue of generativity vs. stagnation is "care." This involves caring for others who are close to the person (family, co-workers, friends, etc.) as well as caring for the community or the future generation as a whole. If generativity is not developed, rejectivity, or a lack of meaning in one's life and in one's actions, can occur.
- Aristotle lived from 384 BC to 322 BC in Macedonia and was a student of Plato, though he disagreed with some of Plato's teachings.
- Aristotle developed his own theory of universals, believing that universals exist only instantiated in individual objects, rather than as abstract forms.
- In contrast to Plato, who was a rationalist believing knowledge comes from reason, Aristotle was an empiricist who believed all knowledge comes from experience sensed through the world.
Aristotle developed a philosophical system called realism that rejected Plato's idealism. While influenced by Plato, Aristotle believed that ideas could only be understood by studying real, existing things in the material world using observation and the senses. He outlined seven principles of his realism, including that universal ideas exist in matter but not vice versa, that the soul aims to balance rational thought with emotions and desires, and that matter is always changing towards some purpose or final form determined by its definition.
The document discusses cell theory and how it relates to ideas of heredity, genetics, and evolution through natural selection. It explains that cell theory is the idea that cells can only come from other cells, and that cells duplicate and sometimes experience random mutations. This basic idea led scientists to theorize that all life on Earth came from one or a few simple original cells, and that the diversity of life today shows how these related cell groups evolved and changed over time. The document also briefly discusses heredity, genetics, and how traits are passed down and can mutate during reproduction.
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ethics-natural-law-aristotle-aquinas-today.ppt
1. NATURAL LAW
The basis of ethical thinking in the Catholic Christian tradition –
stemming from Aristotle and given philosophic expression by St.
Thomas Aquinas
These charts prepared by Dr. Peter Vardy
Vice-Principal, Heythrop College, University of London
2. “There is no good or evil, there is only power and those with
the will to use it.” (Lord Voldermort in ‘Harry Potter’ –
based on Nietzsche!)
IS THIS RIGHT??
ETHICS IS, PARTLY AT LEAST,
ABOUT WHETHER THIS IS TRUE AND
THE NATURAL LAW TRADITION
WOULD REJECT VOLDERMORT’s
VIEW…
3. FOUNDATIONS FOR
CHRISTIAN ETHICS
The main alternative sources
for ethical principles are:
THE BIBLE
NATURAL LAW
PROPORTIONALISM
SITUATION ETHICS
4. The Bible as a basis for Christian Ethics
Christians vary as to the status they give to the
Bible – between ‘fundamentalists’ and ‘liberals’
(to use very loose terms)
So much depends on how a text is read and the
context in which it was written.
Some things are clearly forbidden by the Bible
which are clearly contextual – e.g. not wearing
garments made of mixed fabrics.
Other things are more debatable such as
prohibitions against homo-sexuality. Some
Christians maintain that the Bible clearly says
that this is wrong, others (such as Rowan
Williams the Archbishop of Canterbury) argue
that the Biblical text needs to be read in context.
These slides deal with the NATURAL LAW
TRADITION which is the basis for ethics in
Catholicism.
5. Claudio and Isabella
by Holman Hunt
Claudio can only be released if
Isabella is willing to lose her virginity
to the local Lord.
He says that death is a terrible thing,
but her reply is that so is a life of
shame.
It illustrates the basic difference
between a Natural Law, deontological
approach and a situationist approach.
Are certain actions wrong in
themselves or does the situation have
to be taken into account when
determining whether or not an action
is right?
6. ORIGINS OF THE DEBATE
The origins of much ethical thinking
today lie in the philosophy of the great
Greek thinkers: Plato and Aristotle.
Whereas Plato’s philosophy saw this
world as imperfect, a shadow of the true
reality represented by the unchanging
and perfect ideas of ‘Forms’, Aristotle
was concerned largely with this world.
St. Thomas Aquinas was to use
Aristotle’s thinking and this became the
intellectual basis for Catholic ethics.
7. PLATO – in motion
(walking) indicating the
changing state of the
Universe with the
‘TIMEAUS’ and his
finger pointing upwards
to the Forms.
ARISTOTLE – feet firmly
planted on the ground,
the ‘ETHICS’ flat and
hand extended to
emphasise science and
observation of this
world.
8. Plato’s Forms
Plato considered that MATTER is
everlasting – it is inherently chaotic and
disordered.
THE FORMS are the perfect exemplars of,
for instance, truth, beauty, justice and,
above all, THE GOOD. They exist beyond
time and space and can never change and
never cease to exist.
If we see different examples of beauty,
these are all called beautiful because they
all resemble or participate in the perfect
Form of Beauty which exists beyond time
and space as the perfect idea of beauty.
At times, Plato seems to consider there is a
Form for everything in the world.
9. Aristotle rejected Plato’s Forms
Aristotle totally rejected Plato’s idea of the
Forms – particularly the Form of the
Good.
He considered that no-one would be
helped by knowing what this was. A
doctor needs to know in what health
consists or a general what victory
represents.
So, for Aristotle, philosophy begins with a
study of the world – with a study of ends
or purposes.
10. THIS WOMBAT IS
GOOD NOT BECAUSE
IT IS MORALLY
GOOD – IT IS GOOD
BECAUSE IT
FULFILLS THE
NATURE OF A
WOMBAT.
FOR ARISTOTLE,
EVERY SPECIES HAS
A DISTINCT
NATURE – AND THE
SAME APPLIES TO
HUMAN BEINGS.
11. WHAT IT IS TO BE GOOD
Central to Aristotle’s approach is that a
tree, plant, animal or human is good if it
fulfils its nature – if it becomes what it is
intended to be.
A good dandelion, kiwi fruit, kangaroo or
box jellyfish are good because they fulfil
their nature.
To a human, a box jellyfish may appear
bad, but this is not Aristotle’s position. It is
good if it does what a box jellyfish should
do.
12. Study and Empiricism
By studying something, one can
eventually come to understand what
its ‘form’ is – and its form is related
to its ‘end’ or function. So Aristotle is
an empiricist. He was the first
scientist studying things to
understand their nature.
Take an axe – its function would be
the power to chop. If it should lose
this ability and if this could not be
restored, then it would no longer be
an axe.
Take an eye – its function is to see.
But if the eye loses its function (for
instance it is in a bottle), then it is no
longer an eye.
13. Potential
Aristotle defined what things were in
two ways:
1) What they were physically, and
2) What they had potential to do.
Everything in the universe has
potential and part of working out
what a thing is depends on knowing
its potential.
The same applies to human beings.
We share with animals the potential
to move, communicate and
reproduce, but there is more to being
human than this.
14. The drive to perpetuate
Everything seeks to perpetuate itself
– Aristotle says there is a force in all
things for the preservation of their
form. Reproduction is an example of
this (this is a very modern view and
fits in well with evolution – e.g.
Richard Dawkins).
Each animal or plant has a natural
drive to perpetuate their form and
they do this by producing offspring.
Their form is transmitted through
reproduction – this can fit well into
modern ideas of genetics.
15. All humans desire by their
nature desire to know.
This is vital for Aristotle: all human
beings seek understanding. It is an
essential part of what makes them
human – for Aristotle, this
understanding is itself Divine.
When humans study the natural
world they are also coming to
understand their place in nature.
They are thus also coming to
understand themselves.
The Gaia hypothesis echoes this
today – we are part of the whole of
nature, not set apart from it.
16. Potentiality and Actuality
Aristotle makes an important
distinction between potentiality and
actuality.
An axe has a potential to cut, but
this potentiality has to be
actualised.
Similarly a human being has the
potential to run, to love or to know –
but this does not mean that these
are actualised. A person can go
through life and not actualise any of
these potentialities.
17. Potentiality to actuality
A person has the potential to learn.
When learning, one is actualising
this potential – ignorance is
replaced by knowledge
When using this knowledge we
reinforce what we have learned.
Humans have the potential to hear
passed on by their parents. When
they do hear, they are actualising
this potential. So the hearer is active
when she hears.
18. Jonathan Lear and Kermit
Jonathan Lear in ‘Aristotle: The desire
to understand’ (p. 118) gives the
following example:
1. Kermit as an embryo (bare
potential – to develop into a tadpole,
then into a frog, then into an active
adult)
2. Kermit the tadpole (higher level
potential to become a frog and then a
mature, adult frog)
3. Kermit the mature frog – asleep
(now fully actual at the first level as
there is a fully actual, living body)
4. Kermit actively living his mature
life (now fully actualised not just as a
body but using its capacities)
19. Human potential
An embryo has the potential to become a
foetus
The foetus has the potential to become a
baby
The baby has the potential to become a
child
The child has the potential to become an
adult
The child and adult have the potential to
learn and to know (this will be the life of a
student)
The adult has the potential to apply this
knowledge (this will be the life of a busy,
active adult, making money, being a
doctor, lawyer, worker, family
man/woman, etc.)
The adult has the potential to become a
thinker and to understand…… (not
everyone fulfils this potential!)
20. THE HUMAN ABILITY TO
UNDERSTAND
Aristotle considers that humans are alone
among animals in having the potentiality to
understand the nature of other things –
humans can apprehend something of the
form of another thing, not just its sensible
form (notice that this is totally different
from Plato’s ideas of the Forms)
The universe, Aristotle considers, is capable
of being understood (it is intelligible) and
humans have the potential to understand it.
This led to science and scientific enquiry.
As humans come to understand the world,
they also learn about themselves – that it is
part of their nature to understand. THIS IS
PART OF WHAT IT IS TO BE HUMAN.
21. Aristotle and Kermit
Aristotle, as a human being, has the
capacity to learn about frogs.
When he does learn, he actualises this
potentiality as he acquires knowledge and
learns of the ESSENCE of Kermit the
frog. The essence is not something
material, it is the very nature of frogs.
However he then has an even higher level
capacity – the ability to use this
knowledge.
22. DELIBERATION
Most of us today think that, as human
beings, we deliberate on what we are
going to do with our lives and what their
purpose is. ARISTOTLE REJECTS THIS.
Aristotle holds that the telos or purpose of
our lives comes from our human nature.
Deliberation is confined to how this given
purpose is to be fulfilled. The purpose itself
is a ‘given’.
So, for Aristotle, we do not choose our
purpose. We can just make good or bad
choices about how this purpose to be be
fulfilled.
The good life, Aristotle considered, is the
life of happiness, and happiness is greatest
when we are philosophers.
23. St. Thomas Aquinas
Aquinas was probably the
greatest philosopher and
theologian of the last 2000
years. Writing in the University
of Paris in the C13th, he used
the philosophy of Aristotle -
which had been kept alive in the
great Islamic centres of learning
- to make sense of Christian
morality and theology.
In particular, morality was, he
claimed, based on Aristotle’s
argument that all human beings
share a common human nature.
24. All human beings seek the good…
Aquinas considered that all human beings
seek the Good. In other words they all
seek what they think is good for them.
However they can be mistaken. They may
seek an APPARENT GOOD rather than the
REAL GOOD. Thus a thief what she thinks
is good but she makes a mistake – she
pursues what appears to be good and not
what is really good.
The task of moral philosophy is to work
out what is REALLY GOOD for human
beings, rather than what APPEARS TO BE
GOOD.
25. WHAT IS REALLY GOOD?
For Aquinas, what is ‘really good’ is
fulfilling the potential of our common
human nature.
Those actions which help us to become
MORE FULLY HUMAN – more what we are
capable of being – are good. VIRTUE
ETHICS COMES IN HERE.
Those actions which lead us to be LESS
THAN FULLY HUMAN – which lead us away
from what we are capable of being – are
morally wrong.
26. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
PRECEPTS
Aquinas defined what is to be human
in terms of purpose. The general
purpose of being human is to ‘LIVE,
WORK, REPRODUCE, EDUCATE
CHILDREN, HAVE AN ORDERED
SOCIETY AND WORSHIP GOD’.
All these came from Aristotle except
for the worship of God which was
added by Aquinas.
However it is at the next level – of
secondary precepts -that the detail is
worked out
27. ‘Reproduction’ is held by Aquinas to be one
of the primary purposes of human life…
At the level of secondary precepts the
detail is worked out…
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF GENITALIA????
Aquinas answered ‘reproduction’
Once this answer is given, then any use of
genitalia for any other purpose is
‘intrinsically evil’ – it is evil in and of
itself.
So masturbation, sex using contraception,
sex with an animal, homosexuality, etc.
will all be INTRINSICALLY EVIL ACTS….
i.e. these are acts which are morally
wrong (or evil) in themselves.
28. So, for instance, there are two reasons why the Catholic
Church (basing its teaching on Natural Law) would reject
I.V.F.
Two ‘intrinsically evil acts’ are involved in
I.V.F. – WHAT ARE THEY??
1) The husband has to masturbate to
produce the sperm necessary to fertilise
his wife’s eggs… NOTE he cannot say that
he is doing this for a good purpose as THE
ACT ITSELF IS INTRINSICALLY EVIL.
2) I.V.F. involves taking 15 –20 eggs out
of the woman, fertilising them and re-
implanting 2 or 3. This means killing the
unused, fertilised eggs. In the Catholic
tradition, since life may begin at
conception this means killing people…..
(note the reference to ‘may begin at conception’. The Church’s
Magisterium says that there can be no certainty when life begins but,
because of the danger of being in error, it is right to treat life as beginning
at conception).
29. Challenges to Natural Law
Perhaps all human beings do NOT share a
common human nature – genetics may
indicate this.
Perhaps Aquinas’ understanding of human
nature is mistaken
Perhaps actions are not right or wrong in
themselves but depend on context
Perhaps the Natural Law approach lacks
flexibility
The Natural Law approach leaves no room
for love as a factor in ethics.
30. AMENDING NATURAL LAW
It is possible to remain faithful to the Natural
Law methodology but to challenge Aquinas’
understanding of human nature.
Human understanding of sexuality, physiology,
psychology, etc. has increased enormously.
Perhaps what is needed today is a new
understanding of human nature.
WHAT IS IT TODAY TO LIFE A FULFILLED
HUMAN LIFE? This question is as relevant
today as ever in the past…. (Peter Vardy argues for this approach in
‘The Puzzle of Sex’ [Harper Collins] and ‘Being Human’ [DLT]) and it is crucial to the debate
today.
31. THE MAJOR DEBATE TODAY
AMONGST CATHOLIC
MORAL THEOLOGIANS
32. THE MAJOR DEBATE TODAY
‘Perhaps the most divisive debate in
contemporary Catholic moral theology
concerns the existence and grounding of
universally binding moral norms. The
Scholastic moral theology of the manuals
held that certain acts were intrinsically
evil on the basis of the act itself,
independent of the intention,
circumstances and consequences.
Revisionists maintain that the evil in acts
such as contraception or even direct
killing is not moral evil but... premoral
evil which can be justified for a
proportionate reason.‘John Macquarrie's 'A
new Dictionary of Christian Ethics' (p. 392):
33. The Major Debate in Catholic moral
theology today
To put this another way, the issue is
whether certain acts (for instance
abortion, euthanasia, theft, lying,
etc.) are
1) Always wrong in themselves
(they are ‘intrinsically evil’) or
2) Whether it can sometimes be the
morally right thing to do to perform
an act which, in itself, is wrong but
is justified by a proportionate
reason (this is a reason of sufficient
gravity)
34. PROPORTIONALISM
This is based on the Natural Law approach and
stems from the Catholic tradition. Many Catholic
moral theologians maintain that it is faithful to
this tradition.
It holds that there ARE firm more rules – BUT
circumstances have to be taken into account in
deciding on the nature of an act. Acts cannot be
defined without reference to the circumstances
and intentions behind the acts. This means that
an act which may appear to be lying is recognised
as being more complex to define if there is a
proportionate reason which would justify this.
Proportionalism is held to be faithful to the
mainstream Catholic Christian tradition in a way
in which the strict deontological approach is not.
An action may be objectively WRONG but morally
RIGHT and that another action may be objectively
RIGHT but morally WRONG
35. Proportionalism contd.
A distinction has to be made between acts
which are good and acts which are right -
and this distinction, proportionalists
maintain, is often not made.
A person may have a good intention but
may be able to achieve that intention only
through an act which is considered to be,
in itself, evil.
The proportionalists hold that it is possible
for an action, in itself, to be wrong, whilst
based on the actual situation in which the
action is done the action may be morally
right.
36. Circumstances have to be
taken into account
Proportionalists seek the right thing to do in the
particular circumstances.
Unlike advocates of situation ethics, they affirm
that there are nonmoral goods and evils, but they
maintain that the circumstances need to be taken
into account in deciding whether a nonmoral evil
is also a moral evil. Killing, theft or contraception
(if one is a Catholic) MAY be morally good in
certain circumstances.
Those who advocate Situation Ethics and
supporters of Proportionalism both maintain that
agape is the only criterion for moral goodness or
badness. HOWEVER PROPORTIONALISM REFUSES
TO ACCEPT THE SITUATION ETHICIST'S VIEW
THAT LOVE CAN MADE AN ACTION RIGHT.
37. PROPORTIONALISM CONDEMNED
Proportionalism has been condemned by the
Catholic Magisterium and by Pope John Paul ll.
Some Bishops therefore consider that it is a
position that should not be taught in any Catholic
school.
The logic of this condemnation is compelling as it
opens the door to individuals deciding to go
against the teaching of the Church when they
consider that a proportionate reason justifies
this. Whether this condemnation is faithful to the
mainstream Catholic tradition is a matter of
debate amongst Catholic moral theologians.
This also raises the issue of CONSCIENCE and
INFORMED CONSCIENCE. To what extent can
individual conscience allow someone to act
against Church teaching?