ETHICS-CHAPTER-7-8.pptxvahshshhshwhwhwhwh

Lesson 15: Aristotle’s
Principle

Aristotle was an ancient Greek
philosopher and polymath, born
in 384 BCE in Stagira, a small
town on the northern coast of
Greece. He was a student of
Plato and later became the tutor
of Alexander the Great. Aristotle
founded his own school, the
Lyceum, in Athens, where he
spent much of his life teaching
and writing.

Aristotle made significant contributions across
various fields of knowledge, including logic,
metaphysics, ethics, politics, biology, and
physics. His works laid the groundwork for
many modern scientific and philosophical
disciplines. Unlike his teacher Plato, who
emphasized ideal forms, Aristotle focused on
empirical observation and systematic
classification, making him a key figure in the
development of the scientific method.

Some of his most influential works include
"Nicomachean Ethics," "Politics,"
"Metaphysics," "Poetics," and "Organon."
Aristotle's ideas have had a profound and
lasting impact on Western thought,
influencing both Islamic and Christian
medieval scholarship and continuing to be a
central reference point in contemporary
philosophy and science.

It is a philosophical work by Aristotle that
explores the nature of ethical living and the
path to achieve the highest human good.
The work is named after his son,
Nicomachus (who died in a battle), and
consists of ten books that explore the
nature of ethical virtues and the path to
good life.
NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

It is a central concept in Nicomachean Ethics
and refers to the highest human good or the
ultimate goal of life. Often translated as
"happiness" or "flourishing," eudaimonia is
not merely a state of feeling good but
represents a full and complete life lived in
accordance with virtue.
EUDAIMONIA

For Aristotle, achieving eudaimonia means
fulfilling one's potential and living a life of
rational activity, as reason is the distinctive
function of humans. Unlike transient
pleasures or material wealth, eudaimonia is
a lasting and self-sufficient state that
constitutes true well-being.
EUDAIMONIA

The concept of “telos” is fundamental to
Aristotle's philosophy. In Greek, "telos"
means "end," "goal," or "purpose."
According to Aristotle, everything in nature
has a telos, a purpose that it aims to fulfill.
In the context of Nicomachean Ethics, the
telos of human life is eudaimonia.
TELOS

Understanding one's telos is essential for
understanding how to live a good life. For
humans, this involves realizing their
potential through rational and virtuous
activities. The concept of telos is also used
to explain the nature and function of other
things, such as plants, animals, and objects,
all of which have specific purposes.
TELOS

These are qualities that enable
individuals to achieve eudaimonia.
Aristotle distinguishes between two
types of virtues: moral virtues and
intellectual virtues.
VIRTUES (ARETE)

These are qualities of character that guide a
person’s behavior towards ethical and good
actions. They represent the moral qualities
that an individual can develop through
habit, training, and practice. According to
Aristotle, moral virtues lie between two
extremes or vices: one of excess and one of
deficiency.
MORAL VIRTUES

Achieving moral virtue involves
finding the “GOLDEN MEAN”
between these extremes, where
one’s actions and emotions are
balanced and appropriate to the
situation.
MORAL VIRTUES

It is a concept introduced by Aristotle
in his Nicomachean Ethics that
describes the desirable middle ground
between two extremes, one of excess
and the other of deficiency.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
1. Courage
-Deficiency (Cowardice): A lack of
courage , where a person is excessively
fearful and avoids challenges or
dangers even when facing them is
necessary.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
1. Courage
-Excess (Rashness): An excess of courage,
where a person is overly confident and
takes unnecessary risks without regard
for danger.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
1. Courage
-Golden Mean (Courage): The virtue of
courage involves facing challenges and
dangers appropriately with right amount of
fear and confidence. A courageous person
assesses risks and acts bravely when
necessary without being reckless.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
2. Temperance
- Deficiency (Insensibility): A lack of
desire for pleasures, where a person
may reject all forms of enjoyment or
pleasure, even those that are natural and
healthy.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
2. Temperance
-Excess (Intemperance)*: An
overindulgence in pleasures, such as
excessive eating, drinking, or other
forms of hedonism.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
2. Temperance
-Golden Mean (Temperance)*: Temperance is
the virtue of self-control and moderation in
the pursuit of pleasures. A temperate person
enjoys pleasures in a balanced and
appropriate manner, without being overly
indulgent or overly abstinent.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
3. Generosity
-Deficiency (Stinginess): An unwillingness
to give, where a person hoards their
resources and is reluctant to share or
help others.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
3. Generosity
-Excess (Prodigality)*: An excessive
willingness to give, where a person gives
away resources recklessly, often to their
own detriment or without considering
the needs of others.
GOLDEN MEAN

EXAMPLES:
3. Generosity
-Golden Mean (Generosity)*: Generosity involves
giving appropriately, with consideration for
one's own resources and the needs of others. A
generous person gives in a way that is neither
stingy nor wasteful, ensuring that their
contributions are meaningful and sustainable.
-
GOLDEN MEAN

These are qualities related to the
intellect that help individuals think
clearly, reason effectively, and
understand the world around them.
Unlike moral virtues, which pertain to
character and behavior, intellectual
virtues are concerned with the cognitive
aspects of a person's life.
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES

They are cultivated through education,
study, and practice, and are essential for
acquiring knowledge and truth. Aristotle
distinguished between two main types of
intellectual virtues: theoretical wisdom
(sophia) and practical wisdom
(phronesis).

Theoretical Wisdom (Sophia)
It involves a deep understanding of
fundamental truths and principles that
govern the universe. It is a combination
of scientific knowledge (episteme) and
philosophical understanding (nous).

This virtue is concerned with the pursuit
of knowledge for its own sake. It involves
contemplating abstract and universal
truths, such as those found in
mathematics, physics, and metaphysics.

Example: It is exemplified by
philosophers and scientists who seek to
understand the nature of reality, the laws
of nature, and the underlying principles
of existence.

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)
It is the ability to make good decisions
about how to live well and achieve a
good life. It involves understanding what
is good for humans in particular
situations and how to achieve it.

It is concerned with ethical and practical
matters. It requires not only knowledge
of general ethical principles but also the
ability to apply them appropriately in
specific contexts.

Example: A person with practical wisdom can
navigate complex moral situations, discern the
right course of action, and choose means that
are in line with ethical ends. This virtue is
exemplified by individuals who are wise in
matters of everyday life, such as a judge who
makes fair decisions or a leader who guides
others with insight.

It is considered the highest form of activity
and the most divine aspect of human life
according to Aristotle. In the final book of
Nicomachean Ethics, he argued that the life
of the intellect, focused on contemplation
and the pursuit of knowledge, is superior to
all other forms of life.
CONTEMPLATION OR THEORIA

Theoria involves engaging in pure, disinterested
thought and understanding the fundamental
truths about the universe. Aristotle believes that
this form of life brings the greatest happiness, as
it fulfills the highest part of human nature—our
rational capacity. Contemplative activity is self-
sufficient, continuous, and pleasurable, making it
the ultimate expression of eudaimonia.
CONTEMPLATION OR THEORIA

In summary, Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics
explores the nature of the good life through the
concepts of eudaimonia, telos, virtues, the
Golden Mean, wisdom, and theoria. It
emphasizes the importance of living a life of
virtue and rational activity, guided by practical
wisdom, to achieve true happiness. The work
remains influential in discussions of ethics,
virtue, and the purpose of human life.

“Happiness is the meaning and
the purpose of life, the whole
aim and end of human
existence.”
– Aristotle

z
CHAPTER 8: PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVE OF ETHICS

z
LESSON 17. Aristotle
The Human Good and the Function Argument
He insists that ethics is not a theoretical discipline:
we are asking what the good for human beings is
not simply because we want to have knowledge, but
because we will be better able to achieve our good if
we develop a fuller understanding of what it is to
flourish. In raising this question— what is the good?

z
As he himself points out, one traditional
conception of happiness identifies it with virtue.
Aristotle's theory should be construed as a
refinement of this position. He says, not that
happiness is virtue, but that it is
virtuous activity.
Living well consists in doing something, not just
being in a certain state or condition. It consists in
those lifelong activities that actualize the virtues
of the rational part of the soul.

z
LESSON 18. St. Thomas Aquinas
“We call this man a dumb
ox, but his bellowing in
doctrine will one day
resound throughout the
world.”
– Albertus Magnus in
defense of Aquinas

z
He was from a noble family in Naples
and early in his life he decided to join
the Dominican order. Under the
Dominican Order, he was mentored by
Albertus Magnus, who defended him
from those who made fun of him as a
dumb ox because of his size and his
slow voice.

z
The moral philosophy of St. Thomas
Aquinas involves a merge of at least two
apparently disparate traditions:
Aristotelian Eudemonism and Christian
Theology. On the other hand, Aquinas
follows Aristotle in thinking that an act is
good or bad depending on whether it
contributes to or deters us from our proper
human end (the telos or final goal) at which
all human actions aim.

z
NATURAL LAW: Aristotle had a strong
influence in Aquinas’ philosophy
though Aristotle may be considered as
Pagan. Aquinas respected Aristotle’s
empirical teaching and connected it
with Christian teaching. For him,
reality is composed of the “natural”
and the “revealed”.

z
Natural – the natural would be within the
sphere of philosophy where one has to
observe first then make a conclusion.
However, another part of the reality cannot be
known to man unless it is revealed.
Revealed – means that out knowledge will
come from God’s revelation and that would be
within the sphere of faith – where it mandates
believing first.

z
Aquinas believes that we can never achieve
complete or final happiness in this life. For
him, final happiness consists in beatitude or
supernatural union with God. For this
reason, we not only need the virtues but we
also need God to transform our nature – to
perfect or “deify” it – so that we might be
suited to participate in divine beatitude.

z
Moreover, Aquinas believes that we
inherited a propensity to sin from our
first parent, Adam. While our nature is
not wholly corrupted by sin, it is
nevertheless diminished by sin’s stain, as
evidenced by the fact that our will are
enmity with God.

z
THE CARDINAL NATURE VIRTUES:
1. PRUDENCE – Intellectual virtue since it
bears upon the goal of truth in the good
ordering of action.
2. COURAGE – Cardinal virtue that pertains
to the resolve to act virtuously, especially
when it is most difficult. It is acting for
the good, when it would be much easier not
to this time.

z
3. JUSTICE – Virtue of the rational appetite or will.
4. TEMPERANCE- Moderation or voluntary self-
restraint. This includes restraint from revenge by
practicing non-violence and forgiveness, restraint
from arrogance by practicing humility and
modesty, restraint from excesses such as
extravagant luxury or splurging by practicing
prudence, and restraint from rage or craving by
practicing calmness and self-control.

z
THE CARDINAL THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES:
1. FAITH - Strong belief in God or in the
doctrines of a religion, based on spiritual
apprehension rather than proof.
2. HOPE - A feeling of expectation and desire
for a certain thing to happen.
3. LOVE - An intense feeling of deep
affection.

z
●Happiness is about becoming virtuous.
●Aristotle- Human activity is seen as an
action (means) towards something
which is the end.
●Aquinas- The end goal is happiness, but
the right action, depend on the
knowledge of God rather than
philosophical knowledge.

z
Summary
A good person is somebody who is grounded on wisdom
and virtue.
For Aristotle, he speaks of Golden Mean which is pleasure in
moderation. Virtuous people will enjoy themselves in the
right way. At the right time, and just the right amount.
Virtuous as shown that a person can be said to be morally
good person.
For Aquinas, using Aristotle’s philosophy, said that
happiness is also the end. This kind of happiness will be
achieved if we seek knowledge of God and have a personal
relationship.

z
Towards the end of his most influential
work, Critique of Pure Reason
(1781/1787), Kant argues that all
philosophy ultimately aims at answering
these three questions:
1. “What can I know?
2. “What should I do?
3. “What may I hope?”

z
At the foundation of Kant’s system is the doctrine
of “transcendental idealism,” which emphasizes a
distinction between what we can experience (the
natural, observable world) and what we cannot
(“supersensible” objects such as God and the soul).
Kant argued that we can only have knowledge of
things we can experience. Accordingly, in answer
to the question, “What can I know?” Kant replies
that we can know the natural, observable world,
but we cannot, however, have answers to many of
the deepest questions of metaphysics.

z
Kant’s ethics are organized around the notion of a
“categorical imperative”, which is a universal
ethical principle stating that one should always
respect the humanity in others, and that one
should only act in accordance with rules that could
hold for everyone. Kant argued that the moral law
is a truth of reason, and hence that all rational
creatures are bound by the same moral law. Thus,
in answer to the question, “What should I do?”
Kant replies that we should act rationally, in
accordance with a universal moral law.

z
Kant also argued that his ethical theory requires
belief in free will, God, and the immortality of the
soul. Although we cannot have knowledge of
these things, reflection on the moral law leads to
a justified belief in them, which amounts to a
kind rational faith. Thus, in answer to the
question, “What may I hope?” Kant replies that
we may hope that our souls are immortal and
that there really is a God who designed the world
in accordance with principle of justice.

z
To act out of “good will” for Kant means to
act out of a sense of moral obligation or
“duty”. In other words, the moral agent does
a particular action not because of what it
produces (its consequences) in terms of
human experience, but because he or she
recognizes by reasoning that it is morally the
right thing to do and thus regards him or
herself as having a moral duty or obligation
to do that action.

z
Immanuel Kant examined the idea of human
rights in such a way that “it is only a
legitimate government that guarantees our
natural right to freedom and from this
freedom, we derive other rights”. From this
basis, it can be assumed that Kant looks at
the development, creation and
implementation of rights as primarily
dependent on the state and how government
within the state functions.

z
As Kant teaches, these “righteous laws” are
founded upon three rational principles:
1. The liberty of every member of the
society as a man.
2. The equality of every member of the
society with every other as a subject.
3. The independence of every member of
the commonwealth as a citizen

z
Kant believes that these principles are
necessary above all, not only for the founding
of “righteous laws” but for “the state to
function” in the first place. This is so because
without the acceptance of the people a
state would not exist therefore, rights are
necessary within states to keep support of the
people of the state.

“BE THE CHANGE THAT YOU
WISH TO SEE IN THE WORLD.”
—Mahatma Ghandhi

ETHICS-CHAPTER-7-8.pptxvahshshhshwhwhwhwh

More Related Content

Similar to ETHICS-CHAPTER-7-8.pptxvahshshhshwhwhwhwh

Recently uploaded

ETHICS-CHAPTER-7-8.pptxvahshshhshwhwhwhwh