This document provides an overview of insecticides and their application. It discusses the nomenclature, classification, and properties of insecticides. Insecticides can be classified based on their target pest, target stage, mode of entry, chemical nature, and mode of action. Common classifications include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides. In terms of chemical nature, insecticides include inorganic compounds like arsenicals and fluorides, natural organic compounds, and synthetic organic compounds like organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids. The document also lists several books recommended for further reading on topics like insecticide technology, principles of insect toxicology, and pesticide application methods.

1. INSECTICIDES AND THEIR APPLICATION
BY:
DR. M. DILDAR GOGI
Assistant Professor, Entomology, UAF

2. THEORY:
• Introduction;
• nomenclature,
•classification on the basis of mode of entry, chemical nature mode of action, toxicity and
formulations,
• compatibility, physico-chemical properties, mode of action, residues, hazards and safety
measures of insecticides;
• structure and working of various types of hand and power operated equipment for insecticide
application.
PRACTICAL:
• Computation, preparation and field application of different formulations of insecticides;
• Identification, classification, handling and maintenance of application equipment.
• BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
1. Nastic. 2005. Technology of application of pesticides. 98633.
2. Saleem, M.A. 2004. Principles of Insect Toxicology. Vol.-I. Izharsons Printers. Lahore.
3. Mathews G.A., 2000. Pesticide application methods 3rd ed. Intercept. UK.
4. Ishaaya, I. and D. Degheele, 1998. Insecticides with novel modes of action: Mechanism and
application. Norosa Publishing House, New Delhi.
5. Otto, D., B. Weber, 1991. Insecticides Mechanism ofAction and Resistance. Intercept Ltd.,
U.K.
• Brown,A.W.A. 1977. Ecology of Pesticides. John Wiley & Sons.

3. NOMENCLATURE
There are several different ways
of identifying a specific pesticide.
BY CHEMICAL FORMULA
C14H9Cl5
CHEMICAL NAMES
Subsequently it became known as 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-
bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane.
However, the same structure can be designated as:
 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethane;
 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di (4-chlorophenyl) ethane;
 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di(p-chlorophenyl) ethane;
 1,1-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichlorethane;
 2,2,2-trichloro-1,1-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane;
 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane.
PIN:
1,1′-(2,2,2-trichloroethane-
1,1-diyl)bis(4-
chlorobenzene)
IUPAC:
1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-
chlorophenyl)ethane
CAS:
1,1′-(2,2,2-
trichloroethylidene)bis[4-
chlorobenzene]
CAS Reg. No.: 50-29-3
Formula: C14H9Cl5

4. NOMENCLATURE
BY COMMON, OR GENERIC NAME
DDT
 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists, IUPAC,
 Collaborative International Pesticides Analytical Council (CIPAC)
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
 Chemical Abstracts (CAS)
BY BRAND/TRADE/MARKET/COMMERCIAL NAME
For example, the organophosphate insecticide ethyl parathion has been known by all of the following brand names:
Alkron, Alleron, Corothion, Folidol, Folidol E-65, Genthion, Geofos, Lethalaire, Niran, Orthophos,
Paradusto, Paraspra, Penncap-E, Thiophos (USSR), Vapophos,Aphemite, Bladan, Bladan F, Corthione,
Danthion, DNTP, DPP, E 605, Ecatox, Ekatox, Etilon, Fosferno, Fosfex, Fosfive, Fosova, Fostern, Genthion,
Kolphos, Kypthion, Lirothion, Murfos, Niran, Nitrostigmine, Nourithion, Oleofos 20, Oleoparathion,
parathene, Parawet, Pestox plus, Phoskil, Phosphemol, Phosphenol, Phosphostigmine, Rhodiatox, SNP,
Soprathion, Stathion, Strathion, Sulphos, Tiofos, Thiophos, Tox 47, Vapophos ... Names for parathion in
mixtures include: Bladen extra (with methyl parathion), Malatox (with malathion); Sopragram (with
lindane); Tamaron (with acephate-methyl).

5. PIN:
S,S′-[2-(dimethylamino)propane-1,3-diyl]
dicarbamothioa te
IUPAC:
S,S′-(2-dimethylaminotrimethylene)
bis(thiocarbamate)
CAS:
S,S′-[2-(dimethylamino)-1,3-propanediyl]
dicarbamothioate
CAS Reg. No.: 15263-53-3
Formula: C7H15N3O2S2
CARTAP
BY CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS (CAS) NUMBER

6. NOMENCLATURE
There are several different ways of identifying a specific pesticide.
CHEMICAL FORMULA
Subsequently it became known as 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane. However, the
same structure can be designated as:
1,1'-(2,2,2-trichloroethylidene) bis (4-chlorobenzene);
1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethane;
1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di (4-chlorophenyl) ethane;
1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di(p-chlorophenyl) ethane;
1,1-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichlorethane;
1,1-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-2,2,2-trichlorethane;
2,2,2-trichloro-1,1-bis (4-chlorophenyl) ethane;
2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane.
according to: http://www.nsc.org/library/chemical/ddt.htm

7. WHAT IS PESTICIDES?
Cide
Pest
Any organism that
competes with man for
food space and shelter and
cause economical losses,
diseases and annoyance
To Kill

8. CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES
On the basis of target pest
INSECTICIDES NEMATICIDE AVICIDE
HERBICIDE/WEEDICIDE RODENTICIDE PISCICIDE
FUNGICIDE MOLLUSCICIDE SILVICIDE
BACTERICIDE ALGAECIDE VIRICIDE
ACARICIDE/MITICIDE Wood Preservative

9. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES
On the basis of target stage
OVICIDE LARVICIDE
NYMPHICIDE ADULTICIDE
PUPICIDES

10. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES
On the basis of mode of entry
Stomach Poisons Fumigants
Contact Poison

11. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES
On the basis of mode of entry
Systemic insecticides
 Stable systemic
(e.g. Sodium fluorosilicate, sodium selenate)
 Endolytic systemic
(e.g. Sharadan)
 Endometatoxic systemic
(e.g. Phorate, demeton-s-methyle, disuloton,
dimethoate)
Translaminar insecticides
Locosystemic/translaminar systemic
(e.g. Malathian, Diazenon)

12. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES
On the basis of mode of action
Nerve Poisons
Narcotic poisons
Synaptic poisons
Axonic Poison
Resting Potential Depolarization (AP) Repolarization Resting Potential
N
ET

13. On the basis of mode of action
Muscle poison
Disrupt muscular membrane and enhance oxygen requirement 10 fold
(eg. Botanicals)
Physical poison
Kill the insect physically
 Blocking the spiracle (e.g. oils)
 Disrupting the cuticle (wax layer) (e.g. Dusts)
 Desiccants/Absorbing water from body (Charcoal, Ash)
Metabolic poison
 Respiratory poisons (e.g. HCN, Rotenone, dinitrophenoles)
 Inhibitors of MFO (wax layer) (e.g. Pyrethrin)
 Inhibitor of CH metabolism (Sodium fluoroacetate)
 Inhibitor of amine metabolism (chloredemefon)

14. Mode of Action
• BROAD SPECTRUM -- Kills broad range of pests, usually refers to insecticides, fungicides, and bactericides
• DISINFECTANT (ERADICANT) -- Effective against pathogen that has already infected the crop
• GERMINATION INHIBITOR -- Inhibits germination of weed seeds, fungus spores, bacterial spores.
• PROTECTANTS -- Protects crop if applied before pathogens infect the crop
• REPELLENTS -- Repels pest from crop or interferes with pest’s ability to locate crop
• CHEMOSTERILANT
• PHEROMONE
• IGR
• ATTRACTANT :
• DEFOLIATOR
• DESICCANT
• ANTICOAGULANTS

15. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL NATURE
Insecticides are classified into two groups
1) Elements (S, P
, Hg, Th)
2) Compounds
Compounds are classified into two groups
1) Inorganic compounds
2) Organic compounds
Inorganic compounds are classified into three groups
1) Arsenicals
I. Arsenates (Led arsenate, Calcium arsenate)
II. Arsenites (Sodium arsenite, Potassium arsenite, Paris green)
2) Fluorides (Na-fluoride, Na-fluorosilicate, Ba-fluorosilicate, Na-fluoaluminate)
3) Seliniums (Na-selinate)

16. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL NATURE
Organic compounds are classified into Three groups
1) Organo-metal compounds
2) Natural Organic Compounds
3) Synthetic Organic compounds
Organo-metal compounds are classified into three groups
1) Organic Fluorines (Na-fluoroacetate, Fluoroacetic acid, Fluorocitrate)
2) Organosulphur (Tetradifon, Propergate, Ovex)
3) Organothiacyanate (Lethane, Lauryl, Thiocyanates, Themit)
Natural organic compounds are classified into three groups
1) Hydrocarbon oils (Summer oil, Dorment oils, Supreme oils)
2) Natural organic compounds of animal origin (Nereistoxic)
3) Natural organic compounds of plant origin (Botanicals eg. Nicitinoids, Rotenoids,
Sabadella, Ryana, Pyrethrum, Limonoids, azadirachtin etc.)

17. Synthetic organic compounds
Synthetic organic compounds are classified into four major groups
1) Organochlorine compounds
2) Organophosphate Compounds
3) Pyrethroids
4) Carbamates
5) Formamidines
6) Dinitrophenol 7) Organotins
Organochlorine compounds are classified into four families
1) DDT Family (DDT, DDD, Dicofol, Kelthene, Methoxychlore)
2) HCH Family (BHC [Benzene hexachloride], HCH [Hexachlorocyclohexane],
Lindane)
3) Chlorocyclodienes Family (Heptachlore, Aldrin, Dieldrin, etc.)

18. Organophosphate Compounds
Synthetic Organophosphate Compounds are classified into six major groups
1) Pyrophosphates (Schradan, TEEP, Sulphotepp etc.)
2) Phosphates (Dichlorvos, Monocrotophos, Dicrotophos, Mavinphos, Phosphamidon,
Chlorfenvinphos etc.)
3) Phosphorothionates/thiophosphates (Phosphorothioic/thiophosphoric acids)
I. Phosphorothionates (parathion, fenitrothion, diazinon, Chlorpyriphos, triazophos)
II. Phosphorothiolates (Profenofos, demeton etc.)
4) Dithiophosphates/Phosphorodithionates (Phorate, Malathion, dimethoate etc.)
5) Phosphonates/Phophonothionates/Phosphonodithioates (Phosphonic acid e.g.,
Trichlorfon, Fonofos)
6) Phosphoroamidates/Phosphorothioamidates (Phosphoroamidic acid eg. Acephate,
Methamidophos)

19. CARBAMATES
Synthetic carbamates are classified into three major groups
1) Hetrocyclic Carbamates (Two sub-groups)
I. Hetrocyclic dimethyl carbamates (Pirimicarb etc.)
II. Hetrocyclic monomethyl carbamates (Carbofuron, bendiocarb etc.)
2) Phenyl/Aryl Carbamates (Carbaryl, Propoxur, Methiocarb, Carbosulfan, Aminocarb etc.)
3) Oxime Carbamates (Aldicarb, Aldoxycarb, Methomyl, Oxamyl)

20. PYRETHROIDS
Synthetic carbamates are classified into two major groups
1) Photolabile Synthetic Pyrethroids (Two sub-groups)
I. First Generation (Allethrin, Bioallethrin etc.)
II. Second Generation (Resmethrin, Bioresmethrinetc.)
2) Photostable Synthetic Pyrethroids (Two sub-groups)
I. Third Generation (Aldicarb, Aldoxycarb, Methomyl, Oxamyl)
a. Dimethyl Cyclopropane Carboxylates (e.g. Permethrin)
b. Mthyl Butyrates (e.g. Fenvalerate)
II.Fourth Generation (Aldicarb, Aldoxycarb, Methomyl, Oxamyl)
a. Dimethyl Cyclopropane Carboxylates (e.g. Cypermethrin, α-cypermethrin, β–
cypermethrin, γ –cypermethrin, theta- -cypermethrin, Zeta- -cypermethrin,
Deltamethrin, Bifenthrin, Cyfluthrin, β–Cyfluthrin, Cyhalothrin, Lamda-Cyhalothrin etc.)
b. Mthyl Butyrates (e.g. Esfenvalerate, Flusythrinate, Taufluvalinate)

21. 5) Formamidines (Chlordimeform, Formetanate, Amitraz etc.)
6) Dinitrophenols (Binapacryl, Dinocap)
7) Organotin (Cyhexatin, Fenbutatin, Fenbutatin-Oxide)

22. INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS (IGRs)
1) Juvenile Hormone Mimics or Juvenoids (Two sub-groups)
I. Photolabile Compounds (Methoprene, Hydroprene, Kinoprene, Farnesole, Precocene-I,
Precocene-II, etc.)
II. Photostable Compounds (Phenoxycarb, Pyriproxyfen)
1) Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors (Three sub-groups)
I. Benzoylphenyl Urea (Diflubenzuron, Chlorfluozuron, Teflubenzuron, Hexflumuron
Novaluron, Lufenuron. Novaflumuron, Flufenoxuron)
II.Buprofezin
III.Cyromazin
1) Ecdysone Regulator/Agonists (e.g. Tebufenozide, Methoxyfenozide etc.)

23. 1) Neonicotinoids (Imidacloprid, Acetameprid, Nitenpyram, Thiamethoxam)
2) Thiourea Insecticides (Diafenthiuron)
3) Pyrroles (Chlorfenapyr)
4) Pyrazoles (Fipronil, Tebufenpyrad, Fenpyroximate)
5) Pyridines (Pymetrozine)
6) Pyridazines (Pyridaben)
7) Quinazolines (Fenazaquin)
8) Spinosyns (Spinosad)
9) Oxadiazines (Indoxacarb)

24. 10) MICROBIAL TOXINS/INSECTICIDES
1) Bacterial toxins (Bt.)
2) Avermectins (Streptomyces avermitilis) (e.g., Abamectin, Doramectin, Ivermectin, Emmamectin)
3) Milbemycins (Streptomyces hygroscopicus) (e.g. Milbemectine, Milbemycin, Oxime, Nemadectin,
Moxidectin)
4) Polynectins (Streptomyces aureus) (e.g. Tetranectin)
5) Fungi (BB, MA, Trichoderma, etc.)
6) Viruses (Baculovirus, Iridovirus, Parovirus, Enterovirus, Rhbdovirus, Paxvirus etc. )

25. 11) MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDES
1) Chemosterilants
I. Alkylating agents (Apholate, Thiotepa, Metepa)
II. Antimetabolites (Fluorouracil)
III. Antibiotics (Mitomycin, Cyclohexamide)
2) Attractants [e.g., Baits, Traps (Methyl euginol), ovipositional-type (Methyl butyrate, ethyle acetate),
3) Repellents (e.g. Citrinella oil, Benzyl benzoate, Dimethl carbate etc.)
4) Synergists (e.g. Piperonyl butoxide, Sesamex, MGK-264)
5) Fumigants (HCN, Methyl bromide, CS2, CCl4, Aliminium phosphide tc.)

26. 11) CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF TOXICITY
TOXICITY: Ability of a chemical to bring abnormal changes in biological system of target organism
EXPRESSION OF TOXICITY: LC50 and LD50
LC50: Lethal concentration (%age of a.i in TQSM) of insecticides which kill 50% population of targeted pest
organism
LD50: Lethal dose (quanitity of a.i in term of mg of insecticides per kg of pest’s body weight or µg/mg of bw) of
insecticides which kill 50% population of targeted pest organism
CATEGORIES OF TOXICITY
ORAL TOXICITY: Fed to or placed directly in the stomach of target pest
DERMAL TOXICITY: Applied directly to the skin of target pest
RESPIRATORY TOXICITY: Enterance directly through respiratory system of target pest
ORAL TOXICITY: Fed to or placed directly in the stomach of target pest

27. 11) CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF TOXICITY
CATEGORIES OF TOXICITY
ACUTE TOXICITY: Toxicity induced by administration of single lethal dose for short period of time (12. 24, 48 hours)
ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY
ACUTE DERMAL TOXICITY:
ACUTE RESPIRATORY TOXICITY:
CHRONIC TOXICITY: Toxicity induced by accumulating effects of repeated sublethal doses of insecticides after a long
period of time or even for life
True chronic toxicity : Effects on cells, tisues, organ or system (morphological, physiological and biochemical
changes)
Secondary Chronic toxicity: secondary effects (3-18- months) like carcinogenecity, mutagenicity and
mutagenicity in test organism
No-effect Chronic toxicity: Fed to or placed directly in the stomach of target pest
CHRONIC ORAL TOXICITY
CHRONIC DERMAL TOXICITY:
CHRONIC RESPIRATORY TOXICITY:

28. 11) CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF TOXICITY
Toxicity categories LD50 on the basis of single
oral dose to rate
LD50 on the basis of single
dermal dose to
rate/rabbits
Super toxic <5 <20
Extremely toxic 5-50 20-200
Very toxic 50-500 200-1000
Moderately toxic 500-5000 1000-2000
Slightly toxic 5000-15000 2000-20000
Practically non-toxic >15000 >20000

29. World Health Organization (WHO) Toxicity Classification of 1975
Toxicit
y
Class
Toxicity
Category
Oral LD50 to rate
(mg/kg b.w.)
Dermal LD50 to rate
(mg/kg b.w.)
Colour of
ring to
indicate
toxicity
Single
word to
show
toxicity
Solid Liquid Solid Liquid
Ia Extremely
toxic
≤5 ≤20 ≤10 ≤40 Red Poison
Ib Highly toxic 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400 Yellow Poison
II Moderately
toxic
50-500 200-2000 100-1000 400-4000 Blue Danger
III Slightly
toxic
≥501 ≥2001 ≥1001 ≥4001 Green Caution

30. THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) USA
TIOXICITY CLASSIFICATION
Acute toxicity to Rats
Class Oral LD50
(mg/kg)
Dermal
LD50
(mg/kg)
Inhalation LC50
(mg/1)
Eye effects Skin effects
I ≤50 ≤200 ≤0.2 Corrosive; corneal opacity
not reversible within 7 days
Corrosive
II 50-500 200-2000 0.2-2.0 Corneal opacity not
reversible within 7 days;
Irritation persisting for 7 days
Severe irritation at 72
hours
III 500-5000 2000-
20000
2.0-20 No corneal opacity; irritation
reversible within 7 days
Moderate irritation at
72 hours
IV ≥5000 ≥20000 ≥20 No irritation Mild or slight
irritation at 72 hours

31. THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL (IOBC) CODES FOR BENEFICIAL SPECIES
Toxicity class Present mortality
I. Laboratory Studies:
- Harmless
- Slight harmful
- Moderately harmful
- Harmful
<30%
30-79%
80-99%
>99%
II. Semi-field and field studies
- Harmless
- Slight harmful
- Moderately harmful
- Harmful
<25%
25-50%
51-75%
>75%

32. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF FORMULATION
• WHAT FORMULATIONS?
• A.I. are required in small quantity
• Convenience to use and apply
• Even mixing and spreading
• Uniform distribution
• Enhance its adhesiveness
• Enhance penetration
• Make it easily soluble
• Enhance its surfactancy (surface tension of solution)
• Enhance it performance in small quantity
• Improve smell
• Easy handling (carriage, storage, distribution, packing etc.)
• WHAY IS FORMULATION?
• Preparation of active ingredient in a form suitable for use
• Mixture of AI and inert ingredient for killing insects
• WHY ADJUVENTS/AUXILIARIES?
• Adjuvant/Auxiliary – Any secondary chemical that aids/assist/supplement/support
• EXAMPLES:
• Solvent, Diluents, Surfactants, Sticker/adhesives, Deodrents, Emulsifiers, Spreaders, Wetting-Agents, Dyes
synergists

33. • Active Ingredient (Ai) - the actual chemical in the product mixture that
controls the pest
• Inert Ingredient - other materials added with the AI when the product is
formulated
• DOSE- Amount of a.i. recommended for unit area against certain pest
• TQP- Quantity offormulated material (formulation) recommended for
unit area against certain pest
• FORMULATION- Percentage of a.i in formulated material
• CONCENTRATION- Percentage of a.i in total sprayable material
• TQSM- Total quantity of sprayable mixture of TQP and water prepared for
application on unit area against certain pest
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF FORMULATION
Important Definitions

34. Insecticide Formulation
active ingredient (Ai)
each Ai will be listed
+
inert ingredients
water, emulsifiers
solvents, dry carrier material
stabilizers, dye
surfactants: spreaders, stickers
wetting agents

35. TALSTAR 10 EC
Bifenthrin* 10% (w/v)
90% (w/v)
100% (w/v)
• Active Ingredient: Bifenthrin
•
• Inert Ingredients
• TOTAL
• * contains 10 lbs bifenthrin per L
PRODUCT FORMULATIONS

36. 80SP
80% active ingredient
by weight
Soluble Powder
40DF
40 % active ingred.
Dry Flowable
1EC
1 lb Ai/L
emulsifiable concentrate

37. Why Add Inert Ingredients?
1. For ease of pesticide product handling
2. Inerts make measuring and mixing
pesticides easier
3. To provide for safety
4. Makes the Ai work better
• Better penetration
• More selectivity
• Increased effectiveness

38. Brand Name Abbreviations
SP – soluble powder
S – solution
WP – wettable powder
EC
DF
F - Flowable
P Pellet
SC Sprayable Concentrate
• Often brand names include abbreviations that describe
something about the formulation
D – dust WSP – water soluble packet
G/GR– granular ULV – ultra low volume
RTU – ready to use
– emulsifiable concentrate L
– dry flowable LO
WDG – water dispersible granule SG
GL – gel
LO – low odor
Liquid
Live Organism
Soluble Granule
SN Active Solution
WG Wettable Granule
WSC Water Soluble Concentrate

39. • The type of formulation depends on several factors:
• Chemistry of the active ingredient
• Toxicology of the active ingredient
• How effective the product is against the pest
• The effect of the product on the plant, animal or surface
• The effect of the product on the environment
• How the product will be applied and the equipment needed
• The application rate.
Selecting a Formulation
• Evaluate advantages and disadvantages
• Do you have the right application equipment?
• Can the formulation be applied when and where it is needed?
• Will the formulation reach the target pest and be there long enough?

40. Name Description Advantages Disadvantages Typical Use
Solids
Dry Flowable
Pesticides
A wettable powder which is
formulated into small pellets or
granules.
Much less dusty than
WP formulations and
easier to handle
Requires agitation in
spray tank
General Use
Dust or
Powder
A finely ground dry material of a
low concentration (a.i.) plus
inert ingredients such as talc. No
dilution needed before use.
Ready to use Dusty. Drifts Can easily
be seen on surface
Spot treatment
Animal powder
Ear Tag/
Vapour Strips
Slow-release generator - solid
base material and a volatile
liquid or solid toxicant(s). Slowly
emits as a vapour, or releases on
contact with skin (ear tag).
Ready to use Animal ear tags
Fly control
Granular A mix of dry, large free-flowing
particles usually with a low
concentration of a.i.
No mixing required.
Ready to use.
Drift minimal
Some dust. Requires
special application
equipment
Soil treatment for insect
or vegetation control
Particulate or
Bait
Mixture of large particles not
recognized as a pellet or
granular formulation. Mixed
with edible material.
Easy to spot treat Pets and children may
eat it
Bait for insects or
rodents
FORMULATION TYPES

41. Name Description Advantages Disadvantages Typical Use
Solids
Pellet Preformed mixture of a.i. and
inerts to form small pieces
As above As above Baits to control rodents,
slugs
Seed
Treatment
A finely ground dry material
containing a coloured dye
Added colour makes it
easy to tell treated seed
from untreated.
Care must be taken
with dye
Seed treatment
Soluble
Powder or
Granules
A dry material similar to dust or
granules above except it is
soluble in water
Containers empty
easily. No liquid spills
Dusty General Use
Tablet A preformed “tablet” composed
of inerts and a.i.
Easy to measure and
use
Accessible to pets and
children
Fumigant
Wettable
Powder (W.P.)
a.i. added to a powder (clay, talc)
contains a wetting and
dispersing agent. Forms a
suspension in water.
Containers empty
easily. No liquid spills
Dusty. Requires
agitation to remain in
suspension
General Use
FORMULATION TYPES

42. Name Description Advantages Disadvantages Typical Use
Liquids
Aerosol A liquid with one or more
solvents. Ready to use in
pressurized containers
No mixing required -
low concentration of a.i.
Pressurized containers
are hazardous if
punctured or heated
Flying insect control
Emulsifiable
Concentrate
(EC)
A clear solution with emulsifiers
to be diluted in water. Final
spray solution has a milky look
A high concentration of
a.i. in each container.
Buy less bulk
Possibly flammable General Use
Gel Highly concentrated semi liquid,
emulsifiable concentrate
Used with Water
Soluble Packaging
Cannot measure
“undividable” amounts
Agriculture Uses
Micro-
encapsulated
Suspension
A suspension with a.i. in micro-
capsules giving a slow release of
a.i.
See comments on EC’s.
Increases the residue of
a.i. Reduces hazard to
operator.
May be expensive Insecticides
Suspension or
Flowable
A cloudy liquid composed of
solid particles of a.i. (finely
ground) in a liquid. Must be
diluted
See comments on EC’s. Active ingredient may
settle out of
formulation.
General use
True Liquid/
Solution
a.i. is in solution, usually water,
and when mixed with water
remains clear.
See comments on EC’s.
Requires little agitation
when added to water in
spray tank
Possibly corrosive General Use

43. Name Description Advantages Disadvantages Typical Use
Ultra-low
Volume (ULV)
Concentrates
Solution of a.i. designed to be
used undiluted only in ULV
equipment. Very high
concentration of a.i.
Use without mixing Concentration of a.i.
during application
makes them hazardous.
Special equipment
required.
Insecticide sprays
normally inside
structures
Gases
Fumigants Volatile liquids or solids
packaged for release as a gas
Toxic to many forms of
the pest at once time.
Penetrates crack and
crevices
Area to be fumigated
must be well sealed.
Highly toxic.
Structures, bulk
containers (eg.ships)
Organism
Live Organisms A life form capable of
reproduction, for example mites
Specific to the pest Must be kept alive,
must be contained
greenhouse
FORMULATION TYPES

44. Liquid Formulations diluted
product
Emulsifiable Concentrate (E or EC) High Ai%
Active ingredient (liquid) dissolved in a
petroleum-based solvent with an
emulsifier added
Turns whit
Smells
e
o
when mixed
f solvents
• Phytotoxic – plant injury
• Easily absorbed by the skin
• Flammable
• Deterioration of rubber and
plastic hoses
ADVANTAGES
• Easy to handle
• Little agitation
• Relatively easy on
equipment
• Leaves little residue
DISADVANTAGES

45. Ai dissolves in liquid carrier; once mixed with
water, solutions do not settle out
diluted
product
Solutions (S)
ADVANTAGES
• Easy to handle
• No agitation
• Easy on equipment
• No residue
• Used indoors/outdoors
DISADVANTAGES
• None

46. Liquid Formulations
Ready-to-Use Low Concentrate Solutions (RTU)
Easy and relatively safe to
handle
Less than 1% per unit
volume of active ingredient;
high cost

47. Liquid Formulations
Ultra-Low Volume (ULV)
• Special-purpose formulation
• Almost 100% active ingredient
• Agriculture, forestry, mosquito control
ADVANTAGES
• Easy to handle
• Little or no agitation
• Easy on equipment
• No residue
• Used indoors/outdoors
DISADVANTAGES
• High drift hazard
• Specialized equipment
needed
• Solvent wear on rubber and
plastic
• Calibration critical

48. Liquid Formulations diluted
product
Flowables (F) or Liquids (L)
Flowables are basically a wettable powder pre-
mixed with a liquid carrier
Invert Emulsions
• Oil carrier with water-soluble
pesticide – consistency of
mayonnaise
• Reduce drift and runoff
• Sticker-spreader
• Specialty uses: Rights-of-way and
near sensitive areas

49. Liquid Formulations
Aerosols (A)
 Some require highly specialized
equipment
 Difficult to confine
 Respiratory protection needed
• Some are ready-to-use
• Little active ingredient
• High drift potential
Dry Formulations
Pastes (P), Gels (GL)
A bait formulated as a paste or
gel that is applied with a syringe
or bait gun
 Odorless
 Minimal exposure
 Easy to place
 Melt at high temperatures
 May stain porous surfaces

50. Dry Formulations
Baits (B)
A bait is an example of a dry or liquid product
that is applied without mixing
ADVANTAGES
• Ready to use
• Coverage not critical
• Control pest that move
in and out of area
DISADVANTAGES
• Attractive to children
• May kill domestic animals and wildlife
• Dead pest odors
• Old bait may serve as food source if inactive

51. Dry or Solid Formulations
Dusts (D) and Granules (G)
• Ready-to-use
• Can reach hard to get places
• Very little active ingredient
• Very fine, dry inert carrier
• High drift potential
• Distribution and calibration a problem
• Dusts: Irritating to eyes, nose, throat, skin granule
AI
dust
AI
Granules Beads Pellets
Granules: can be mistaken for food/fee

52. Dry Formulations
Wettable Powders (WP or W) – high Ai %
Wettable powders settle out quickly, therefore
require constant agitation in the spray tank
diluted
product
ADVANTAGES
• Easy to store
• Easy to measure/mix
• Relatively less harmful to
plants, animals and surfaces
than ECs
• Less absorption by human
skin and eyes
DISADVANTAGES
• Inhalation hazard
• Constant agitation
• Difficult to mix in hard water
• Abrasive to pumps and
nozzles
• Visible residues

53. Dry Formulations
Water-dispersible Granules (WDG)
or Dry Flowables (DF)
These materials possess some of the same
characteristics as wettable powders except
they are formulated into granular-sized
particles, so are easier to handle with little
inhalation hazard
diluted
product

54. Dry Formulations
Soluble Powders (SP or WSP) – high Ai %
• Forms true solution, like sugar – no agitation
• Ai is 15-95% by weight
• Few pesticides are soluble powders
ADVANTAGES
• Easy to measure/mix
• Form true solution
• Little phytotoxicity concern
• Less absorption by human
skin and eyes
DISADVANTAGES
• Inhalation hazard

55. Other Formulations
•Microencapsulated
•High toxicity Ai in
encased formulation
•Water-soluble packets
•No human exposure
when mixing
• Attractants/Repellents

56. Other Formulations
Fumigants
• Active as a poisonous gas,
penetrates cracks, crevices, and
stored commodities
• Highly toxic to all living organisms
• Very high risk of inhalation exposure
• Specialized protection equipment;
enclosed space

57. Dry Formulations + Water
• Buy Dry --> Mix with water -> Spray
• Wettable Powders (WP)
• Water Dispersible Granules (WDG)
• Dry Flowables (DF)
Active Ingredient (high %)
Dry Carrier
Emulsifier (slick, soapy)

58. Spray Mix Terminology
• solution
• suspension
• emulsion
How does it really
mix in the spray
tank?

59. Solution
Active Ingredient
Either liquid or dry substance
TRULY dissolves in water
just like sugar or whiskey in water
*usually transparent*

60. Suspension
Solid particles suspended in a liquid
like hot chocolate
Active Ingredient (high %)
impregnated onto Dry Carrier
and mixed with an
Emulsifier (slick, soapy)

61. Emulsion
Ai
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
AI
Oil
and mixed with an emulsifier
Ai/Oil mixture is suspended in
water forming a white emulsion
One liquid dispersed within another liquid
like milk
Ai is dissolved in oil (oil/ai droplet)

62. Adjuvants
purchased additives to add to tank mix or added during formulation
process
Surfactants - group
• Wetting agents
• Spreaders
• Emulsifiers
• Stickers/Extenders
Others
• Buffers
• Compatibility agents
• Defoaming agents
• Colorants/dyes
• Safeners
• Thickeners

63. Adjuvants
An adjuvant is any substance added to a pesticide spray tank or formulation to improve the effectiveness
of the active ingredient.
Adjuvants may improve the product by:
Wetting the surface: the spray may stick to the surface better.
Increasing/decreasing evaporation: an adjuvant may prevent the spray from drying too fast or help it dry
more quickly.
Increasing absorption into the plant: this is important if the pesticide must enter the plant to be effective.
Making spray droplets more uniform: this gives more complete coverage of the target surface, placing the
pesticide where it can be more effective.
• When to Use an Adjuvant
• Use adjuvants according to the labels of both the adjuvant and the pesticide product. The
adjuvant label states which products and formulations you can use it with and how to use it. The
pesticide product label states the adjuvants that can or must be used with it.
• If you use an adjuvant that is not on the pesticide product’s label, the adjuvant may:
• have no effect and be an unnecessary expense
• reduce how effective the product is against the pest
• injure non-targets (crop).

64. Adjuvants
How to choose the right one?
• Read the pesticide label for recommendations
• Some may prohibit use of an adjuvant
• Don’t use industrial products or household
detergents
• Test before you spend $$
• Remember, many pesticide
products contain an adjuvant

65. Pesticide Mixtures
• Tank mixing multiple products is legal unless prohibited by the label
• Manufacturer only warranties their product alone or product mixtures listed on the label
• Manufacture notes known incompatibilities on label
• Before mixing pesticides together, be sure they are compatible.
• Do not mix more than two different types of pesticides (herbicide + fungicide).
• Add pesticides to the tank in the order recommended on the label.
• If the label does not give a specific mixing order:
compatible pesticides of different formulation types should be added in the following steps:
• 1. Wettables (soluble powders, wettable powders)
• 2. Agitate (that is, mix, stir)
• 3. Liquids
• 4. Emulsifiable Concentrates
• 5. Solutions and Surfactants
WALES

66. Notes on Sprayer Mixing
• Start with a clean tank. Leftovers may cause unforeseen
problems
• Always use clean water
• Make a slurry of each dry formulation before adding to tank
• Agitate thoroughly before adding each product
• Spray solution and clean tank after each days use
• Certain insecticides and/or fungicides can be tank mixed with
herbicides—check the product label
• If you question the compatibility of a tank mixture, use the JAR
TEST

67. INSECTICIDES COMPATIBILITY
• JAR TEST
• STEP 1. Add a pint of spray water — from the water source you will use to fill the tank — to a clean, one-quart
glass jar.
• STEP 2. Check spray water pH. If needed, adjust the spray water pH to the range required by pesticide label(s).
• STEP 3. Add the materials to the jar you plan to use in the order listed in the chart or Add pesticides to the
diluent using the "D-A-L-E-S" plan:
• Dry flowable and wettable powders formulations: add 1 tablespoon for each pound per 100 gallons of planned final spray
mixture.
• Agitate thoroughly.
• Liquid products such as water soluble concentrates or solutions: add 1 teaspoon for each pint per 100 gallons of planned final
spray mixture.
• Emulsifiable concentrate and flowable formulations: add 1 teaspoon for each pint per 100 gallons of planned final spray mixture.
• Surfactants, compatibility agents, and activators; add 1 teaspoon for each pint per 100 gallons of planned final spray mixture.
• STEP 4. Stir the entire mixture. Feel the sides.
• After adding each ingredient, stir or shake and observe the results. Do not add all materials and then shake. After mixing,
let the solution stand for 15 minutes. Stir well and observe the results.
• COMPATIBILITY - Chemicals can be used together in the spray tank:
• Smooth mixture
• Combines well after stirring
• INCOMPATIBLE - Do not mix this combination in the spray tank:
• Separation Clumps
• Grainy appearance
• Settles out quickly after stirring
• Jar get heated
1 PINT = 473.1 ml and 1gallon = 3785.4 ml
• Heat, clumping, precipitate
• Inactivity of active ingredients
• Increased phytotoxicity

68. RESOLVING INCOMPATIBILITY
• 1. Add 6 drops of compatibility agent and stir well. If mixture appears
compatible, allow it to stand for 1 hour, stir well, and check it again. If the
mixture appears incompatible, repeat one or two more times, using 6
drops of compatibility agent each time.
• 2. If incompatibility still persists, dispose of this mixture, clean the jar, and
repeat the above steps, but add 6 drops of compatibility agent to the water
before anything else is added.
• 3. If the mixture is still incompatible, do not mix the chemicals in the spray
tank. To overcome this problem you might consider the following
alternatives:
• Use a different water supply. Hard water can contribute to incompatibility.
• Change brands or formulations of chemicals
• Change the order of mixing.
• 4. Make only one chant at a time, and perform a complete test, as
described above, before making another change. Do not mix the chemicals
in the spray tank if incompatibility cannot be reso

69. Pesticide Application Equipment
• Granular spreaders
• Small-capacity sprayers
• Hydraulic sprayers

70. Components of Sprayers
1. Pump (Pneumatic/Hydraulic)
2. Power source
3. Tank
4. Agitator
5. Distribution system
(Nozzle, Glance, Hose, Spray Boom)
6. Pressure gauge
7. Pressure regulator
8. Valves
Nozzle
Glance
Control
valve
Piston
seal
Piston
Piston rod
Pressure Chamber
Outlet valve
Pumping lever
Tank
Hose
Inlet valve

71. Pesticide Application Equipment
Types of Sprayers
A. Knapsack Sprayers
i. Hydraulic
ii. Manual pneumatic
iii. Motorized pneumatic
B. Tractor mounted sprayers
C. Aerial sprayers

72. Granular Spreaders
• Drop (gravity) spreaders
• pattern= width of spreader
• uniform coverage or target area
• abrupt edges
• Rotary spreaders
• coverage wider than spreader
• overlap required for uniformity
• drift to nontarget areas

73. Controlled Droplet Applicators
• Commonly called:
• Rotary spray nozzles or spinning disk
• Droplet size is uniform; varies with:
• Cup diameter
• Speed
• Flow rates
• Uses limited water.

74. Small-Capacity Sprayers
• Used for small areas and spot treatments:
• Most are hand sprayers
• Most use compressed air
• May have a wand, gun, small boom
• Tank pressure drops as solution is sprayed
• Minimal agitation -- WPs settle

75. Hydraulic Sprayers
• Used for most large scale applications.
• Spray material delivered through:
• Hand held gun
• Boom
• High and low
pressures possible.
• Large capacity
tanks available.

76. Spray Equipment
• Traditional spray guns
• Shower head gun
• Large droplets
• Low pressure
• Spray wand
• Spray booms
Considerations when choosing sprayer equipment
When choosing the equipment ask
will it apply the CPP effectively?
will the application cause effective drift?
Will it do the job at a reasonable cost?
Is it easy to operate and clean?

77. Spray Nozzles
•Nozzles are classified by:
• Spray delivery pattern
• Spray angle
• Discharge rate
• Construction material
• Considerations when choosing a nozzle
When choosing the nozzle think about
• Size of the droplet needed
• Spray pattern wanted
• Rate of application

78. TYPES OF NOZZLES
Eight kinds of spray nozzles are common e.g.
1. Flat fan and Even fan
2. Solid cone
3. Flooding
4. Tripe action
5. Broadcast fan
6. Blast
7. Low volume
8. Centrifugal (Sprinkler rotary)
Hollow cone
Hollow cone Flat fan
Flood jet

79. Nozzle Types
• Flat pattern
Uniform when boom is at
proper height.
• Broadcast pattern
Not uniform.

80. Nozzle Types
• Hollow cone
Best for
direct
spraying
not boom.
• Flooding fan
Not as
uniform
as flat
fan.

81. Spray Angle and Nozzle height
spray angle Single overlap Nozzle height Double overlap Nozzle height
(cm) (cm)
60° 56 112
70° 53 108
80° 46 92
110° 25 50

82. Abrasive materials, like wettable
powders, cause nozzles to wear. Worn
nozzles alter application rates.
Calibrate, check, and replace worn
nozzles.

83. Classification of sprays according to droplet size
Volume medium diameter of droplet (μm)-1
<50
51 - 100
101 - 200
201 - 400
>400
Classification of droplet size
Aerosol
Mist
Fine spray
Medium spray
Coarse spray
The most widely used parameter of droplet size is volume medium
diameter (Vmd) which is measured in micrometers ()) . 1 mic = 1/1000 mm.

84. How you apply a pesticide is equally
as important to pest management as
your choice of the pesticide product
and application equipment.

85. Apply only the amount of
pesticide necessary to obtain the
desired level of pest control.

86. INSECTICIDES APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
• Foliar Application
• Seed dressing (Seed priming)
• Whorl application
Chemigation
Seedling Dip method
Root-zone Placement

88. Maintenance of Sprayers
a. Use of clean water only
b. Use of the screen at the inlet spray
c. Use of metal object for cleaning the nozzles
d. Flush new sprayers before their use
e. Clean each sprayer thoroughly after each period of use.
Cleaning of Sprayers
1. Remove and clean all screens and boom extensions with kerosene and a small brush.
2. Clean the tank with detergent.
3. Flush with two tanks full of clean waters spraying through the boom with the nozzle removed.
Storage of sprayers
1. Store the sprayer away from sunlight and protect from frost
2. Generally keep the sprayer away from children

89. DO’S AND DON’TS
1. Exercise caution at all times
2. Read and understand the CPP label
3. Use CPP only as stated in the label
4. Wear appropriate Personal Protective Clothing (PPE)
5. Spray only during optimum time
6. Before Spraying
7. Clean and Maintain your sprayer well

90. Before Spraying
• Put on protective gear.
• Rinse and clean system.
• After filling, check for leaks.
• Adjust equipment according to recommendations and label.
• Limit drift.
• Check for uniform output.

91. During Spray Applications
• Wear protective gear.… label.
• Operate according to owner’s manual.
• Check for nozzle clogging or pattern changes.
• Clean nozzles with a soft tool, not metal.
• Never unclog a nozzle by blowing through it.

92. After Spraying
• Flush hoses, tanks, nozzles.
• Wipe off residues.
• Clean equipment before:
• Making repairs
• Switching pesticides
• Check operation and repair.
• Re-use rinse water.
• Do not use herbicide-designated equipment for other
applications.

93. Applying Pesticide Sprays
• Point showerhead nozzle away from legs and feet.
• Do not drape hose around neck or waist.
• Concentrate on accuracy:
• Walking speed, pressure, pattern.
• Spray in parallel swaths.
• Use straight edges as a starting guide.
• Maintain straight walking lines.
• Maintain proper overlap.
• “Trim” margins:
• Margins only receive 1/2 rates and need an adjusted application.

94. Pesticide Record Keeping
 Address of applicator
 Name and concentration of pesticide
 Amount of pesticide
 Target pest or purpose
 Method and rate of application