This document summarizes and extends Woodford's analysis of the New Keynesian Phillips curve from a closed economy to an open economy with trade and capital mobility. It finds that capital mobility, which enables consumption smoothing, increases the degree of strategic complementarity among price-setting firms. This makes prices more rigid and amplifies the response of output to nominal GDP shocks. The document presents a model of an open economy with monopolistic competition and some firms that set prices flexibly and others that set prices one period in advance. It log-linearizes the model's equilibrium conditions to derive expectations-augmented Phillips curves for both closed and open economies.
The price density function, a tool for measuring investment risk,volatility a...Tinashe Mangoro
In this paper I derive a density function for describing the distribution of an investment;s price.From that function I then go on to show how we can use it to calculate volatility, interest rate averages and also hedging risk againist interest rate movements.
The price density function, a tool for measuring investment risk,volatility a...Tinashe Mangoro
In this paper I derive a density function for describing the distribution of an investment;s price.From that function I then go on to show how we can use it to calculate volatility, interest rate averages and also hedging risk againist interest rate movements.
Advanced macroeconomics, 4th edition. Romer.
Chapter12.
12.1. The stability of fiscal policy. (Blinder and Solow, 1973.) By definition, the budget deficit equals the rate of change of the amount of debt outstanding: δ(t) ≡ D ̇(t). Define d(t) to be the ratio of debt to output: d(t) = D(t)/Y(t). Assume that Y(t) grows at a constant rate g > 0.
(a) Suppose that the deficit-to-output ratio is constant: δ(t)/Y(t) = a, where a > 0.
̇
(i) Find an expression for d(t) in terms of a, g, and d(t). ̇
(ii) Sketch d(t) as a function of d(t). Is this system stable?
(b) Suppose that the ratio of the primary deficit to output is constant and equal to a > 0. Thus the total deficit at t, δ(t), is given by δ(t) = aY(t) + r(t)D(t), where r(t) is the interest rate at t. Assume that r is an increasing function of the debt-to-output ratio: r(t) = r(d(t)), where r′(•) > 0, r′′(•) > 0, limd→−∞ r(d) < g, limd→∞ r(d) > g.
̇
(i) Find an expression for d(t) in terms of a, g, and d(t). ̇
(ii) Sketch d(t) as a function of d(t). In the case where a is sufficiently small that d ̇ is negative for some values of d, what are the stability properties of the system? What about the case where a is sufficiently large that d ̇ is positive for all values of d ?
12.2. Precautionary saving, non-lump-sum taxation, and Ricardian equivalence.
(Leland, 1968, and Barsky, Mankiw, and Zeldes, 1986.) Consider an individual who lives for two periods. The individual has no initial wealth and earns labor incomes of amounts Y1 and Y2 in the two periods. Y1 is known, but Y2 is random; assume for simplicity that E[Y2] = Y1. The government taxes income at rate τ1 in period 1 and τ2 in period 2. The individual can borrow and lend at a fixed interest rate, which for simplicity is assumed to be zero. Thus second-period consumption is C2 = (1 − τ1)Y1 − C1 + (1 − τ2)Y2. The individualchoosesC1 tomaximizeexpectedlifetimeutility,U(C1)+E[U(C2)].
(a) Find the first-order condition for C1.
(b) Show that E[C2] = C1 if Y2 is not random or if utility is quadratic.
(c) Show that if U ′′′(•) > 0 and Y2 is random, E[C2] > C1.
(d) Suppose that the government marginally lowers τ1 and raises τ2 by the same amount, so that its expected total revenue, τ1Y1 + τ2E[Y2], is un- changed. Implicitly differentiate the first-order condition in part (a) to find an expression for how C1 responds to this change.
(e) Show that C1 is unaffected by this change if Y2 is not random or if utility is quadratic.
(f) Show that C1 increases in response to this change if U ′′′(•) > 0 and Y2 is random.
12.3
Consider the Barro tax-smoothing model. Suppose that output, Y, and the real interest rate, r, are constant, and that the level of government debt out- standing at time 0 is zero. Suppose that there will be a temporary war from time 0 to time τ. Thus G(t) equals GH for 0 ≤ t ≤ τ, and equals GL there- after,whereGH >GL.Whatarethepathsoftaxes,T(t),andgovernmentdebt outstanding, D(t)?
12.4
Consider the Barro tax-smoothing model. Supp.
Homework 51)a) the IS curve ln Yt= ln Y(t+1) – (1Ɵ)rtso th.docxadampcarr67227
Homework 5
1)
a) the IS curve: ln Yt= ln Y(t+1) – (1/Ɵ)rt
so the slope is: drt/dyt (is) = -Ɵ/Yt. That means that an increase in Ɵ will result in a steeper curve.
LM curve: Mt/Pt = Yt^(Ɵ/v) (1+rt / rt)^(1/v)
Ln(Mt/Pt) = (Ɵ/v) ln Yt +(1/v)ln(1+rt) – (1/v)ln rt.
0 = (Ɵ/v)(1/Yt)dYt + (1/v)(1/(1+rt)) drt – (1/v)(1/rt)drt.
The slope is: drt/dyt (LM) = (Ɵrt(1+rt))/Yt. That means that an increase in Ɵ will result in a steeper curve.
b) the curve IS is not affected by the value of V. while curve LM shifts upwards, since a decrease in v will result in an increase for the demand for real money.
c) IS is not affected byΓ(.)
optimal money holdings: BΓ’(Mt/Pt) = (it/(1+it)) U’(Ct)
B(Mt/Pt)^(-v) = (it/1+it) Yt^-Ɵ
Mt/Pt= B^(1/v) Yt^(Ɵ/v) (1+rt/rt)^(1/v)
So this means that the LM curve will shift downwards.
2)
a) AC= (PC/)+(αYP/2)i
AC/ = -(PC/^2) + (αYP/2)I = 0
C/^2 = αYi/2
So *=(2C/αYi)^(1/2)
b) average real money holdings:M/P= αY/2
M/P = (αY/2) (2C/αYi)^(1/2)
M/P= (αCY/2i)^(1/2)
Ln(m/p) = (1/2)(lnα+lnY+lnC-ln2-lni)
(1/(M/P))((M/P)/i) = -(1/2)(1/i)
Elasticity of real money with respect to i: ((M/P)/)(i/(M/P)) = -1/2
The elasticity with respect to Y : ((M/P)/Y)(Y/(M/P)) = ½
Average real money holdings increase in Y, and decrease in i.
4)
a)when p is at a level that generates maximum output, LS meets LD.
b) when p is above the level that generates maximum output, will cause unemployment.
7)
a)
b)i)
ii)
iii)
13)
a) the asset has an expected rate of return r. capital gain/loss plus dividends per unit time = rvp. There is no dividends per unit time while searching for the palm tree, and there is b probability per unit time of capital gain of (vc-vp)-c. the difference in the price of the asset is(vc-vp) and –c is what the asset pays, so at the end we have rvp=b(vc-vp-c)
b) there is probability aL that a person will find another person with a coconut and trade with that person and gain u̅. the difference in the price of the asset is (vp-vc). So we end up with
rvp=al(vp-vc+u̅).
c) vp=(rvc/aL)+vc-u̅.
r((rvc/aL )+vc-u̅)= b(vc-(rvc/aL)-vc+u̅-c)
vc(r(r+aL+b))/aL = u̅(r+b)-bc
the value of being in state C: vc= (aL(u̅(r+b)-bc)) / r(r+aL+b)
the value of being in state p: vp= ((u̅(r+b)-bc)/(r+aL+b)) + (aL(u̅(r+b)-bc)/r(r+aL+b)) - u̅
so finally
vc-vp = (bc+u̅aL)/(r+aL+b).
e) vc-vp ≥c
vc-vp = (bc+u̅a(b/a))/(r+a(b/a)+b) = (bc+bu̅)/(r+2b)
(bc+bu̅)/(r+2b) ≥ c
That means that
Bc+bu̅≥c and c(r+2b-b) ≤ bu̅
So finally we have
c≤ bu̅ / (r+b).
f) it is a steady-state equilibrium for no one who finds a tree to climb it for any value of c>0.
Yes there are values of c which there is more than one steady-state equilibrium for 0<c< bu̅/(r+b)
Yes, L = b/a has a higher welfare than L=0. When L=0 people don’t gain any utility since they don’t climb a tree and don’t have a chance to trade with other people and gain a coconut.
0 1 2 3 4 5 -3 -2.2000000000000002 -1.8 -1.8 -2.2000000000000002 -3
0 1 2 3 4 5 7 6.5 5.5 3.5 1
0 1 2 3 4 -2 -2.5 -3.5 -5.5 -8
LD.
IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering(IOSR-JECE) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of electronics and communication engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in electronics and communication engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Non-tradable Goods, Factor Markets Frictions, and International Capital FlowsGRAPE
International capital flows - data vs. theory
1 Feldstein-Horioka puzzle
• corr (S, I ) > 0 in the data
2 Lucas puzzle
• K has not flown to poor countries, despite
K
Y
poor
<
K
Y
rich
3 Allocation Puzzle
• corr (ΔTFP, Δexternal debt) < 0
4 Quantity Puzzle (not as famous as the other three)
• Neo-classical 1-sector model over-predicts international
capital flows by a factor of 10
• Gourinchas and Jeanne (REStud, 2013); Rothert (EL, 2016)
Non-tradable Goods, Factor Markets Frictions, and International Capital FlowsGRAPE
International capital flows - data vs. theory
1 Feldstein-Horioka puzzle
• corr (S, I ) > 0 in the data
2 Lucas puzzle
• K has not flown to poor countries, despite
K
Y
poor
<
K
Y
rich
3 Allocation Puzzle
• corr (ΔTFP, Δexternal debt) < 0
4 Quantity Puzzle (not as famous as the other three)
• Neo-classical 1-sector model over-predicts international
capital flows by a factor of 10
• Gourinchas and Jeanne (REStud, 2013); Rothert (EL, 2016)
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Advanced macroeconomics, 4th edition. Romer.
Chapter12.
12.1. The stability of fiscal policy. (Blinder and Solow, 1973.) By definition, the budget deficit equals the rate of change of the amount of debt outstanding: δ(t) ≡ D ̇(t). Define d(t) to be the ratio of debt to output: d(t) = D(t)/Y(t). Assume that Y(t) grows at a constant rate g > 0.
(a) Suppose that the deficit-to-output ratio is constant: δ(t)/Y(t) = a, where a > 0.
̇
(i) Find an expression for d(t) in terms of a, g, and d(t). ̇
(ii) Sketch d(t) as a function of d(t). Is this system stable?
(b) Suppose that the ratio of the primary deficit to output is constant and equal to a > 0. Thus the total deficit at t, δ(t), is given by δ(t) = aY(t) + r(t)D(t), where r(t) is the interest rate at t. Assume that r is an increasing function of the debt-to-output ratio: r(t) = r(d(t)), where r′(•) > 0, r′′(•) > 0, limd→−∞ r(d) < g, limd→∞ r(d) > g.
̇
(i) Find an expression for d(t) in terms of a, g, and d(t). ̇
(ii) Sketch d(t) as a function of d(t). In the case where a is sufficiently small that d ̇ is negative for some values of d, what are the stability properties of the system? What about the case where a is sufficiently large that d ̇ is positive for all values of d ?
12.2. Precautionary saving, non-lump-sum taxation, and Ricardian equivalence.
(Leland, 1968, and Barsky, Mankiw, and Zeldes, 1986.) Consider an individual who lives for two periods. The individual has no initial wealth and earns labor incomes of amounts Y1 and Y2 in the two periods. Y1 is known, but Y2 is random; assume for simplicity that E[Y2] = Y1. The government taxes income at rate τ1 in period 1 and τ2 in period 2. The individual can borrow and lend at a fixed interest rate, which for simplicity is assumed to be zero. Thus second-period consumption is C2 = (1 − τ1)Y1 − C1 + (1 − τ2)Y2. The individualchoosesC1 tomaximizeexpectedlifetimeutility,U(C1)+E[U(C2)].
(a) Find the first-order condition for C1.
(b) Show that E[C2] = C1 if Y2 is not random or if utility is quadratic.
(c) Show that if U ′′′(•) > 0 and Y2 is random, E[C2] > C1.
(d) Suppose that the government marginally lowers τ1 and raises τ2 by the same amount, so that its expected total revenue, τ1Y1 + τ2E[Y2], is un- changed. Implicitly differentiate the first-order condition in part (a) to find an expression for how C1 responds to this change.
(e) Show that C1 is unaffected by this change if Y2 is not random or if utility is quadratic.
(f) Show that C1 increases in response to this change if U ′′′(•) > 0 and Y2 is random.
12.3
Consider the Barro tax-smoothing model. Suppose that output, Y, and the real interest rate, r, are constant, and that the level of government debt out- standing at time 0 is zero. Suppose that there will be a temporary war from time 0 to time τ. Thus G(t) equals GH for 0 ≤ t ≤ τ, and equals GL there- after,whereGH >GL.Whatarethepathsoftaxes,T(t),andgovernmentdebt outstanding, D(t)?
12.4
Consider the Barro tax-smoothing model. Supp.
Homework 51)a) the IS curve ln Yt= ln Y(t+1) – (1Ɵ)rtso th.docxadampcarr67227
Homework 5
1)
a) the IS curve: ln Yt= ln Y(t+1) – (1/Ɵ)rt
so the slope is: drt/dyt (is) = -Ɵ/Yt. That means that an increase in Ɵ will result in a steeper curve.
LM curve: Mt/Pt = Yt^(Ɵ/v) (1+rt / rt)^(1/v)
Ln(Mt/Pt) = (Ɵ/v) ln Yt +(1/v)ln(1+rt) – (1/v)ln rt.
0 = (Ɵ/v)(1/Yt)dYt + (1/v)(1/(1+rt)) drt – (1/v)(1/rt)drt.
The slope is: drt/dyt (LM) = (Ɵrt(1+rt))/Yt. That means that an increase in Ɵ will result in a steeper curve.
b) the curve IS is not affected by the value of V. while curve LM shifts upwards, since a decrease in v will result in an increase for the demand for real money.
c) IS is not affected byΓ(.)
optimal money holdings: BΓ’(Mt/Pt) = (it/(1+it)) U’(Ct)
B(Mt/Pt)^(-v) = (it/1+it) Yt^-Ɵ
Mt/Pt= B^(1/v) Yt^(Ɵ/v) (1+rt/rt)^(1/v)
So this means that the LM curve will shift downwards.
2)
a) AC= (PC/)+(αYP/2)i
AC/ = -(PC/^2) + (αYP/2)I = 0
C/^2 = αYi/2
So *=(2C/αYi)^(1/2)
b) average real money holdings:M/P= αY/2
M/P = (αY/2) (2C/αYi)^(1/2)
M/P= (αCY/2i)^(1/2)
Ln(m/p) = (1/2)(lnα+lnY+lnC-ln2-lni)
(1/(M/P))((M/P)/i) = -(1/2)(1/i)
Elasticity of real money with respect to i: ((M/P)/)(i/(M/P)) = -1/2
The elasticity with respect to Y : ((M/P)/Y)(Y/(M/P)) = ½
Average real money holdings increase in Y, and decrease in i.
4)
a)when p is at a level that generates maximum output, LS meets LD.
b) when p is above the level that generates maximum output, will cause unemployment.
7)
a)
b)i)
ii)
iii)
13)
a) the asset has an expected rate of return r. capital gain/loss plus dividends per unit time = rvp. There is no dividends per unit time while searching for the palm tree, and there is b probability per unit time of capital gain of (vc-vp)-c. the difference in the price of the asset is(vc-vp) and –c is what the asset pays, so at the end we have rvp=b(vc-vp-c)
b) there is probability aL that a person will find another person with a coconut and trade with that person and gain u̅. the difference in the price of the asset is (vp-vc). So we end up with
rvp=al(vp-vc+u̅).
c) vp=(rvc/aL)+vc-u̅.
r((rvc/aL )+vc-u̅)= b(vc-(rvc/aL)-vc+u̅-c)
vc(r(r+aL+b))/aL = u̅(r+b)-bc
the value of being in state C: vc= (aL(u̅(r+b)-bc)) / r(r+aL+b)
the value of being in state p: vp= ((u̅(r+b)-bc)/(r+aL+b)) + (aL(u̅(r+b)-bc)/r(r+aL+b)) - u̅
so finally
vc-vp = (bc+u̅aL)/(r+aL+b).
e) vc-vp ≥c
vc-vp = (bc+u̅a(b/a))/(r+a(b/a)+b) = (bc+bu̅)/(r+2b)
(bc+bu̅)/(r+2b) ≥ c
That means that
Bc+bu̅≥c and c(r+2b-b) ≤ bu̅
So finally we have
c≤ bu̅ / (r+b).
f) it is a steady-state equilibrium for no one who finds a tree to climb it for any value of c>0.
Yes there are values of c which there is more than one steady-state equilibrium for 0<c< bu̅/(r+b)
Yes, L = b/a has a higher welfare than L=0. When L=0 people don’t gain any utility since they don’t climb a tree and don’t have a chance to trade with other people and gain a coconut.
0 1 2 3 4 5 -3 -2.2000000000000002 -1.8 -1.8 -2.2000000000000002 -3
0 1 2 3 4 5 7 6.5 5.5 3.5 1
0 1 2 3 4 -2 -2.5 -3.5 -5.5 -8
LD.
IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering(IOSR-JECE) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of electronics and communication engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in electronics and communication engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Non-tradable Goods, Factor Markets Frictions, and International Capital FlowsGRAPE
International capital flows - data vs. theory
1 Feldstein-Horioka puzzle
• corr (S, I ) > 0 in the data
2 Lucas puzzle
• K has not flown to poor countries, despite
K
Y
poor
<
K
Y
rich
3 Allocation Puzzle
• corr (ΔTFP, Δexternal debt) < 0
4 Quantity Puzzle (not as famous as the other three)
• Neo-classical 1-sector model over-predicts international
capital flows by a factor of 10
• Gourinchas and Jeanne (REStud, 2013); Rothert (EL, 2016)
Non-tradable Goods, Factor Markets Frictions, and International Capital FlowsGRAPE
International capital flows - data vs. theory
1 Feldstein-Horioka puzzle
• corr (S, I ) > 0 in the data
2 Lucas puzzle
• K has not flown to poor countries, despite
K
Y
poor
<
K
Y
rich
3 Allocation Puzzle
• corr (ΔTFP, Δexternal debt) < 0
4 Quantity Puzzle (not as famous as the other three)
• Neo-classical 1-sector model over-predicts international
capital flows by a factor of 10
• Gourinchas and Jeanne (REStud, 2013); Rothert (EL, 2016)
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2. 2 A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9
the degree of price stickiness is related to the organization of markets — for instance, whether the
labor market is common or segmented. Similarly, the degree of price stickiness can be affected by the
openness of the economy in both commodity trade and capital flows.
2. The analytical framework
Consider a small open economy with a representative household that is endowed with a continuum
of goods-specific skills — uniformly distributed on the unit interval [0, n] — to be supplied to a
differentiated product industry. As a consumer, the representative household has access to consump-
tion of both domestic goods (distributed on [0, n]) and foreign goods (distributed on (n, 1]). The
household seeks to maximize a discounted sum of expected utilities:
n
O b [u(C , M /P ; j ) 2E v(h ( j); j ) dj]
`
t
E0 t t t t t t
t 50
0
where b is the subjective discount factor, C is the Dixit and Stiglitz (1977) index of household
consumption, P the Dixit–Stiglitz price index, M /P the demand for real balances, j a preference
shock, and h( j) the supply of type-j labor to the production of good of variety j. Like Obstfeld and
Rogoff (1996), we define the consumption index and its corresponding price index, respectively, as
n 1 u / (u 21 )
Ct 5
3E0
(
t E
c t ( j) u 21 ) / u dj 1 c * ( j)(u 21 ) / u dj
n
4
and
n 1 1 / (12u )
Pt 5
5E0
pt ( j)
12u
tE
dj 1 [´t p * ( j)]
n
12u
dj
6 (1)
where c( j) represents domestic consumption of the jth domestically produced good, c*( j) domestic
consumption of the jth foreign-produced good, p( j) the domestic-currency price of c( j), p*( j) the
foreign-currency price of c*( j), ´ the nominal exchange rate (domestic-currency price of foreign
currency), u . 1 the elasticity of substitution among the different goods, and n the fraction of goods
that are produced domestically.
In nominal terms, the budget constraint facing the household is given by:
n 1
E p ( j)c ( j) dj 1 ´ E p*( j)c*( j) dj 1S]]DM 1 B 1 ´ B *
t t t
n
i
11i t t
t
t
t t t t
0
n n
* *
5 Mt21 1 (1 1 i t 21 )Bt 21 1 ft21,t (1 1 i t21 )B t21 1 w t ( j)h t ( j) dj 1 Pt ( j) dj E E
0 0
where B is the domestic-currency value of domestic borrowing, B* the foreign-currency value of
3. A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9 3
foreign borrowing, ft21,t the forward exchange rate for foreign currencies purchased / sold at time t 2 1
for delivery at time t, i and i* the domestic and foreign interest rates, w( j) the wage rate per unit labor
of type j, and P ( j) profit income from firms of type j. With perfect capital mobility, covered interest
parity prevails:
1 1 i t 5 (1 1 i t* ) ]] S D
ft,t11
´t
[cf. first-order conditions of the household with respect to B and B*.]
From this point on, we shall focus on the relation between aggregate supply of goods and
consumption smoothing made possible by international capital mobility. For this purpose, we would
not be concerned about the details of aggregate demand (including the demand for money),
international commodity trade, and the determination of the exchange rate. For simplicity, consumer
utility is assumed to be separable between consumption and real money balances.
For our purpose, the relevant utility-maximizing conditions include an intratemporal condition for
the choice of labor supply of type j:
vh (h t ( j); j t ) w t ( j)
]]]] 5 ]] (2)
u c (Ct ; j t ) Pt
and an intertemporal condition for the consumption-saving choice:
u c (Ct ; j t )
]]]]] 5 b (1 1 r*) (3)
u c (Ct11 ; j t11 )
where r* is the world real rate of interest, assumed for simplicity to be time-invariant. This latter
equality is a consequence of the covered interest parity and the Fisher equation. As in the Dixit and
Stiglitz (1977) model, demand for good j satisfies
S D
pt ( j)
c t ( j) 5 Ct ]]
Pt
2u
(4)
The production function assumes the form
y t ( j) 5 A t f(h t ( j))
21
where A is a random productivity shock. The variable cost of supplying y t ( j) is w t ( j)f ( y t ( j) /A t ),
which implies a (real) marginal cost of
w t ( j)
s t ( j) 5 ]]]]]]]
Pt A t f 9( f 21 ( y t ( j) /A t ))
Using Eq. (2), we can replace the real wage above by the marginal rate of substitution. Imposing
symmetry across firms (so that we can drop the index j), the above equation can be rewritten as
vh ( f 21 ( y /A); j )
s( y, C; j , A) 5 ]]]]]]] (5)
u c (C; j )Af 9( f 21 ( y /A))
4. 4 A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9
Trade-wise, price-making firms face world demand for their products so that Eq. (4) implies
S D
pt ( j)
y t ( j) 5 Y W ]]
t Pt
2u
(49)
where y t ( j) is the quantity of good j supplied by the firm to meet the world demand and
W H F H n
Y t 5 Y t 1 Y t the index for all goods produced around the world, with Y t 5 e0 (( pt ( j)y t ( j)) /Pt ) dj
F n
and Y t 5 e0 ((´t p * ( j)y t ( j)) /Pt ) dj as corresponding production indices for home goods and foreign
t
goods.
The goods markets are monopolistically competitive. A fraction g of the firms sets their prices
flexibly at p1t , supplying y 1t ; whereas the remaining 1 2 g of firms sets their prices one period in
advance (in period t 2 1) at p2t , supplying y 2t . In the former case, the price is marked up above the
marginal cost by a factor of m ( 5 u /(u 2 1) . 1) so that
p1t
] 2 m s( y 1t , Ct ; j t , A t ) 5 0 (6a)
Pt
In the latter case, p2t will be chosen to maximize expected discounted profit
Et21FS]]]D( p y 2 w h )G
1
11i t 21
2t 2t t t
5 E HS]]]DfY P p 2 w f J
1 u 12u
(Y tW P tu p 2u /A t )g
W 21
11i
t21
t21
t t 2t t 2t
where we have used the inverse demand function from Eq. (4) for y 2t and the inverse production
function for h t . One can show that p2t satisfies
Et21 HS]]]DY
1
11i t 21
W
t t F
p2t
P u 21 ] 2 m s( y 2t , Ct ; j t , A t )
Pt GJ 5 0 (6b)
Given p1t and p2t , the aggregate price index (1) can be rewritten as:
Pt 5hn[g p 1t u 1 (1 2 g )p 2t u ] 1 (1 2 n)(´t p t* )12uj 1 / (12u )
12 12
(19)
In the extreme case where all prices are fully flexible (i.e. g 5 1), output will attain its natural
level, Y n , implicitly defined by
t
pt
]]]]]]]]]] 5 m s(Y n , C n ; j t , A t )
fnp t 1 (1 2 n)´t p t*12ug 1 / (12u )
12u t t
n n
Among other things, Y t depends on the level of home consumption under flexible prices (C t ),
domestic and foreign prices ( pt and p t* ), as well as the exchange rate (´t ). For later purpose, we can
denote s(Y n , C n ; j t , A t ) as s n .
t t t
In the absence of capital flows, C n 5 Y n so that the natural output level is defined by
t t
pt
]]]]]]]]]] 5 m s(Y n , Y n ; j t , A t )
fnp t 1 (1 2 n)´t p t*12ug 1 / (12u )
12u t t
5. A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9 5
When the economy is completely closed in terms of both commodity trade and capital flows (n 5 1
and C n 5 Y n ), the equation above further simplifies to
t t
1 5 m s(Y tn , Y tn ; j t , A t )
In this last case, equilibrium output is completely independent of monetary policy.
3. The Phillips curve
This section derives the expectations-augmented Phillips curve of the kind hypothesized by
Friedman (1968) and Phelps (1970) for both closed and economies [cf. Ball et al. (1988) and Roberts
(1995)].
In order to obtain a tractable solution, we log-linearize the equilibrium conditions around the steady
state. We assume that b (1 1 r*) 5 1, which is necessary for the existence of a steady state. In
]
particular, we consider a deterministic steady state where j t 5 0 and A t 5A with ´t 5], p t* 5p*, and
´ ]
] ] . (x 2x) /x as the proportional deviation of any variable x from its
] ]
ˆ
Ct 5C. Define x t 5 log(x t /x) t t
deterministic steady state value ] We can then log-linearize Eq. (5) around the deterministic steady
x.
state equilibrium to get
ˆ ˆn ˆn 21 ˆ ˆn
s t 2 s t 5 v (yt 2 Y t ) 1 s (Ct 2 C t )
ˆ (59)
where
v 5 vw 1 vp
] ]
vhh (y /A)
vw 5 ]]]
vh f 9
] ]
f 0( f 21 (.))(y /A)
vp 5 2 ]]]]]
f 9( f 21 (.))f 9(.)
and
]
u ccc
s 5 2 ]]
uc
Log-linearizing the two price-setting Eqs. (6a) and (6b) using Eq. (59), we obtain
n
ˆ
log( p1t ) 5 log(Pt ) 1 v (y1t 2 Y t ) 1 s
ˆ 21 ˆ ˆn
(Ct 2 C t ) (6a9)
and
ˆn 21 ˆ ˆn
log( p2t ) 5 Et 21flog(Pt ) 1 v (y2t 2 Y t ) 1 s (Ct 2 C t )g
ˆ (6b9)
From the definition of the aggregate price index (19), we can derive the following approximation
log(Pt ) 5 n[g log( p1t ) 1 (1 2 g ) log( p2t )] 1 (1 2 n) log(´t p * )
t (10)
6. 6 A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9
Define the inflation rate pt 5 ln(Pt /Pt21 ) so that pt 2 Et 21 (pt ) 5 log(Pt ) 2 Et 21 log(Pt ), and the real
exchange rate as e t ; ´t P t* /Pt . We show in Appendix A how these price relations can be combined to
obtain the open-economy Phillips curve as follows:
g nv
S
pt 2 Et 21 (pt ) 5 ]]
12g DHS]]]D(Yˆ 2 Yˆ )
1 1 uv
H
t
n
t
1F]]]G(Y 2 Y ) 1S]]]D(C 2 C )J
21
(1 2 n)v ˆ F s n n
ˆ ˆ ˆ
1 1 uv t1 1 uv t t t
1S]]DHS]]D log(e ) 2 E [log(e )]J
12n 1
(7)
n 12g t t21 t
3.1. Perfect capital mobility
When capital is perfectly mobile, consumption smoothing can be achieved and, given the
ˆ ˆn
assumption that b (1 1 r*) 5 1, consumption will be trendless (see Eq. (3)). As a result, Ct 5 0 5 C t .
The Phillips curve therefore simplifies to
g nv
S
pt 2 Et 21 (pt ) 5 ]]
12g DHS]]]D(Yˆ 2 Yˆ )
1 1 uv
H
t
n
t
1F]]]G(Y 2 Y )J
(1 2 n)v ˆ F n
ˆ
1 1 uv t t
1S]]DHS]]D log (e ) 2 E J
12n 1
[log (e t )] (79)
n 12g t t 21
3.2. Closing the capital account
In the absence of capital flows, consumption smoothing can no longer be achieved and consumption
ˆ ˆH ˆn ˆn
will fluctuate with domestic output (i.e. Ct 5 Y t and C t 5 Y t ). As a result, the Phillips curve assumes
the form
S DHS]]]D(Yˆ 2 Yˆ )
21
g nv 1 s H n
pt 2 Et 21 (pt ) 5 ]]
12g 1 1 uv t t
1F]]]]G(Y 2 Y )J
21
(1 2 n)s F n
ˆ ˆ
1 1 uv t t
1S]]DHS]]D log(e ) 2 E [log(e )]J
12n 1
(70)
n 12g t t21 t
3.3. Closed economy
If we further close the trade account, the economy will be self-sufficient and n 5 1. In this case, the
Phillips curve will take an even simpler form
7. A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9 7
S DS]]]D(Yˆ
21
g v 1s H
ˆ n
pt 2 Et 21 (pt ) 5 ]] 2Yt ) (7-)
12g 1 1 uv t
which is exactly identical to Eq. (1.23) in Woodford (2000).
3.4. A comparison
The difference in the output-inflation tradeoff coefficients between (79) and (70) lies in gs 21 /(1 2
g )(1 1 uv ), which captures the sensitivity of inflation to consumption spending. This term will
disappear in the presence of consumption smoothing, as will be achieved under perfect capital
mobility. The difference in the same coefficients between (70) and (7-) is g (n 2 1)v /(1 2 g )(1 1 uv ),
where n represents the fraction of world consumption that is produced domestically in the case of
trade openness whereas 1 stands for the same fraction (i.e. 100%) in the case of a closed economy.
Therefore, successive opening of the economy will flatten the Phillips curve.1
4. Short-run aggregate supply
As a corollary to our analysis of the output-inflation tradeoff, we can also examine how exogenous
shocks to nominal GDP, defined as n[g p1 t y 1t 1 (1 2 g )p2t y 2t ] 5 P tH Y tH ; Q t , would affect the relative
responses of domestic output and producer prices. From the Phillips curve Eq. (7), we can show that
the sensitivity of log(Y H ) 2 log(Y n ) with respect to innovations in the exogenous process, viz.,
t t
log(Q t ) 2 Et21 [log(Q t )], in the case of perfect capital mobility is
1
output-elasticity open 5 ]]]]]]]
g v
S
1 1 ]] ]]]
1 2 g 1 1 uv DS D
while the sensitivity of log(P H ) 2 Et21 log(P tH ) is
t
g v
S]]DS]]]D
1 2 g 1 1 uv
price-elasticity open 5 ]]]]]]]g v
1 1S]]DS]]]D
1 2 g 1 1 uv
Similarly, the sensitivity parameters in the case of a closed economy are given by
1
output-elasticity closed 5 ]]]]]]]]
g
12gS
1 1 ]] ]]] DS
v 1 s 21
1 1 uv
D
and
1
Obviously, our conclusion here is valid only if the parameters involved in the various versions of the Phillips curve are
stable and invariant to changes in trade and capital mobility regimes. The same condition applies to our results in the next
section.
8. 8 A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9
g
S
]] ]]]
12g DS
v 1 s 21
1 1 uv
D
price-elasticity closed 5 ]]]]]]]]
11
g
S DS
]] ]]]
12g
v 1 s 21
1 1 uv
D
As discussed in Woodford (2000), these sensitivity parameters are related to the degree of strategic
complementarity among price setters. In turn, the latter depends on the organization of markets. For
instance, strategic substitutability (complementarity) will prevail if all factor prices are (cannot be)
instantaneously equalized across suppliers of different goods, the case of common (segmented) factor
markets. In our case, we show another example where the organization of the world capital market
matters — in particular, the integration or not of the domestic capital market into the world market.
Consumption smoothing, which comes with the opening of the capital market, will increase the degree
of strategic complementarity, thus rendering prices more sticky and magnifying output responses.
Appendix A
Let us start with the two price-setting equations:
ˆn 21 ˆ ˆn
log( p1t ) 5 log(Pt ) 1 v (y1t 2 Y t ) 1 s (Ct 2 C t )
ˆ (A.1a)
and
ˆn 21 ˆ ˆn
log( p2t ) 5 Et 21flog(Pt ) 1 v (y2t 2 Y t ) 1 s (Ct 2 C t )g
ˆ (A.1b)
W
Log-linearizing the demand functions facing the firm (Eq. 4) (where we can replace c t and C t by
y t and Y tW , respectively), we get
ˆ ˆW
y jt 5 Y t 2 u [log( pjt ) 2 log(Pt )], j 5 1,2 (A.2)
Substituting (A.2) into (A.1a) and (A.1b) and rearranging terms, we have
Sv
1 1 uv
ˆW ˆn D 1
1 1 uv
ˆ ˆnS
log( p1t ) 5 log(Pt ) 1 ]]] (Y t 2 Y t ) 1 s 21 ]]] (Ct 2 C t ) D (A.1a9)
and
F v
S
1 1 uv
ˆW ˆnD 1
1 1 uv
ˆ S
ˆn
log( p2t ) 5 Et 21 log(Pt ) 1 ]]] (Y t 2 Y t ) 1 s 21 ]]] (Ct 2 C t ) D G (A.1b9)
Together, (A.1a9) and (A.1b9) imply that
log( p2t ) 5 Et 21 [log( p1t )] (A.3)
From the aggregate price index Eq. (19), we have an approximate relation of the following kind
log(Pt ) 5 n[g log( p1t ) 1 (1 2 g ) log( p2t )] 1 (1 2 n) log(´t p * )
t (A.4)
9. A. Razin, C.-W. Yuen / Economics Letters 75 (2002) 1 – 9 9
From this and (A.3), the unanticipated rate of inflation is given by
log(Pt ) 2 Et 21flog(Pt )g 5 ng [log( p1t ) 2 log( p2t )]
1 (1 2 n)hlog(´t p * ) 2 Et 21flog(´t p t* )gj
t (A.49)
(A.4) also implies that
F 1
G
log( p2t ) 5 ]]] [log(Pt ) 2 ng log( p1t ) 2 (1 2 n) log(´t p * )]
n(1 2 g ) t
Substituting this into (A.49) and defining the real exchange rate as e t ; ´t P * /Pt , we have
t
g
S D
log(Pt ) 2 Et 21 log(Pt ) 5 ]] [log( p1t ) 2 log(Pt )]
12g
12n
1 ]]
n
S 1
DHS D
]] log(e t ) 2 Et21 [log(e t )]
12g J
Replacing log( p1t ) in the above expression by (A.1a9) yields an open-economy Phillips curve of the
form
g
S
log(Pt ) 2 Et 21 log(Pt ) 5 ]]
12g DFS D
v ˆt ˆt s 21
]]] (Y W 2 Y n ) 1 ]]] (Ct 2 C n )
1 1 uv 1 1 uv
ˆ S
ˆt D G
12n
1 ]]
n
S DHS D
1
]] log(e t ) 2 Et21 [log(e t )]
12g J
ˆW ˆH ˆF
Eq. (7) in the text can be obtained by noting that Y t 5 nY t 1 (1 2 n)Y t .
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