Dissertation

NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY
The use of tyre impressions
for vehicle identification
Can tyre wear be used as an individualising feature?
Emily Norton
N0394606
Fingerprints and footprints are used in court as evidence against the accused. In cases where a
vehicle has been used, tyre prints can also be substantial evidence.

The use of tyre impressions for vehicle identification – Can tyre wear be used as an individualising
feature?
EmilyNorton Page | 1
Contents
1. Introduction...............................................................................................2
1.1. History:................................................................................................2
1.2. Tread Design........................................................................................2
1.3. Types of Tyres......................................................................................3
2. Literature review........................................................................................4
2.1. Court Cases..........................................................................................4
2.2. Road Traffic Accident............................................................................7
2.3. Photogrammetry..................................................................................7
2.4. X-Ray...................................................................................................8
2.5. Back Transfer.......................................................................................9
2.6. Sidewall Markings. .............................................................................10
2.7. Tyre Separation’s. ..............................................................................11
3. Conclusion...............................................................................................12
4. Future Work ............................................................................................13
5. References...............................................................................................14

feature?
1. Introduction
1.1. History:
The Sumerians are famous for inventing the wheel approximately 5000 years ago, since then the
wheel hasgrownto meetsitsneeds. In1846 the firsttyre wasinventedbyRobertWilliam Thomson
(McDonald, 1993), this is known as a pneumatic tyre; the word ‘pneumatic’ means “filled with air
under pressure” (Bodziak, 2008). Thomson’s tyre was made out of other materials and not rubber,
therefore wasnotverysuccessful,seeFig.1.It wasnot till 1888 whenJohn Boyd Dunlop reinvented
the pneumatictyre tobe successfully used on a bicycle, these tyres were not practical for vehicles,
these were inventedsome yearslater (Bodziak, 2008). The first tyres to be made for vehicles were
bald with poor traction designs; Harvey Firestone has been named as the first person to create a
tractiondesignwhichusedthe words‘FirestoneNon-skid’whichalternatedtocreate mirror images,
as seeninFig. 2 (McDonald,1998). Tractionis inwhatway something grips to something else when
moving so it doesn’t fall or slip (Your Dictionary, 2013). As years went on and the roads became
paved a continuous-rib design was made for high speeds, these ribs were circumferential with
continuous tread rubber parted by grooves, and it wasn’t until a few years later when sipes were
introduced. Sipes are thin incisions in the tread surface; see Fig. 3, these help the tyres cope with
slippery surfaces, creating more traction (McDonald, 1998).
1.2. Tread Design
Tread designisavery important when trying to identify a tyre. The tread design affects the overall
performance of the tyre itself, depending on the type of construction used; the tread pattern can
showthe type of vehicle itisattachedto. The tread designisshapedintoachainof groovesandribs.
The ribs provide the driver to be able to stop and steer (McDonald, 1998). They also help describe
the tread pattern by the number of ribs that are present on a tyre; manufacturers will use the rib
count to describe acategoryof tyre (Bodziak,2008). The groovesenable an easy and fast escape for
waterand alsoprovide the tread edges to have a positive grip to the surface that is being travelled
(McDonald,1998). Theyrun betweenribsandtreadblocksof the tyre,there are two different types
of groovesona tyre;the groovesthatrun aroundthe tyre are knownas circumferentialgrooves and
the groovesthat rundiagonallyorsidewaysacrossthe surface of the tread are known as transverse
grooves or slots. The wider grooves on such tyres are found on off-road vehicles so they provide a
bettergripon soft surfaces such as; snow, sand or mud and can also self clean by throwing the soft
Fig 2:Firestone TractionControl
(Bodziak 2008).
Fig 1. The first Pneumatic tyre. (landof
machines, 2011)

feature?
substance frombetweenthe treadblocks,although this does increase noise (Bodziak, 2008). Sipes
are still usedinthe tyres for the extra traction (McDonald, 1998). Sipes are not cut into the tyre but
they are part of the moulded into the tread blocks, therefore becoming part of the tread design
itself.Sipesare built-intotreaddesignstocreate more flexibility and movement along the edges of
the tread blocks (Bodziak, 2008). Tread blocks is an industry term for the circumferentially tread
element on the tyre which create the tread design. The blocks change between vehicles, for
example;trucktyreshave largertreadblocksthana passengertyre (tyres on a car), the larger tread
blocksthat are foundon off road vehiclesare mostcommonlyknown as ‘lugs’. The pitch length of a
tyre is the circumferential length of each of the tread blocks; these are measured by allocating a
position of the tread block then finding the equivalent position in the next tread block. Pitch
sequence is also a manufacturer’s term; it describes the order of arrangement of the several pitch
lengths around the circumference of tyre. Noise treatment is referred to the use of varied pitch
lengths arranged on the circumference of the tyre that avoids noise by having a specific pitch
sequence (Bodziak, 2008). See Fig. 3 for locations of these features.
1.3. Types of Tyres
There are three waystyres are constructed, Bias construction, Belted-Bias construction and Radial-
Ply construction. Bias construction can be two, four, or more plies onto of each other in
interchangingdirectionsbias.Intyre construction‘Bias’ means on an angle, see Fig.4. This is a basic
and simple construction, which provides suitable traction and mileage performance
(McDonald,1998). Biasconstructionisalsoknown as Bias-Ply construction. The name Bias-Ply came
from the fabric cords rooted in the rubber plies, which are ran at a bias, for example; transversely
from bead to bead. This construction was later improved and strengthened with belts that were
placedbelowthe treadsurface (Bodziak,2008).Belted-biasconstructionsare made the same as bias
construction,buttwoor more beltsare addedontop of the bodyplies.Addingthese low-elongation
and highstrengthbeltsreducesthe stressesonthe cordbody vastlyandalsosteadiesthe tread area
of the tyre. Adding the belt has resulted in improved mileage; traction and more impact and
puncture resistance (McDonald, 1998). Radial-ply or Radial construction uses one or more body
plies. Instead of having the cords running at an angle, these are run in a straight line from bead to
bead. The body plies have two or more belt plies on top; these are known as stabiliser belts. The
belts prevent the ‘squirm’ of the tread area and give the tyre more stability. Compared to the Bias
and Belted-Biasconstructions,the Radial construction provides the best mileage, swiftest steering
response, the best impact confrontation, traction and cornering control, therefore saving in fuel
increases because of the lower rolling resistance and the smoothest ride at motorway speeds
Fig 3:Diagram oftyre features. (Abbsry:New and Used
Tires, 2009).

feature?
(McDonald, 1998). Today, nearly all tyres are on trucks and cars made by Radial construction
(Bodziak, 2008). See Fig. 5 for more understanding of Belted-Bias and Radial-Ply construction.
All tyres go through different environments and surfaces once the vehicle they are attached to is
purchased.Thismakesunique markingsonthe tyresfeatures orsomethingmaybecome embedded
creating another individualising mark. These markings will be left in the impression the vehicle
leaves behind, therefore if the vehicle is involved in a crime, the impressions can be lifted and
comparedto the vehicle’styres.Ibelieve these markingscannarrow downthe possibilities,directing
the examiner to which vehicle had left the prints; these prints could then be used as leading
evidence in a court case, as would fingerprints or footprints be used in other types of crime.
2. Literature review
2.1. Court Cases.
Park et al (2006) conducted analysis on a five year old boy who was hit by a van; he had tyre marks
on his left pelvic area, right shoulder and his head. There were no clear tyre marks on the child’s
shirtbut clearmarkingswere foundatthe lowerrightto upperleftpartof the child’strouserswhere
a tear was also found along the sewing line. The tyres of the vehicle were all manufactured by
‘Kumho Tire Company’ with a width of 16cm. the tyre markings found on the child’s trousers had a
blockwidthof 2 to 3cm, the longstripe wasmeasuredtobe 0.5cm andthe gap between the narrow
lines measured at 1mm, these features are reflected to be the same characteristics found on the
van’styres.Whencomparingthe tyre treadson the child’sheadthe tyre patternswere printed onto
paperfor comparison, these patterns where then reversed to create an easier comparison. Within
the marks on the child’sheadandthe comparisonprintsthere was 9, the next adjacent symmetrical
treadwas 2cm away,these featureswherebothpresentonthe headandonthe printedcomparison
marks,see Fig.6. Althoughthe tyre marks on the child’s clothing and body matched the vans tyres,
Fig. 4. Bias Construction. (McDonald, 1998) Fig. 5. Belted-Biasand Radial-PlyConstruction. (Bodziak, 2008)

feature?
the driver was found not guilty due to a spectator’s statement which supported the driver’s
statement.Usuallywhensomeoneisranover,theirbodycan become hookedontosome part of the
car andtheycan be draggedin some form, but as the height of the van was 25cm and the child was
only five years old it is safe to say this did not occur and the child was only hit with the tyres, the
torn part of the boystrouserssupportthisfrom the tension rip on the left pelvic area. The two tyre
pathwaysfoundonthe leftpelvic area and head show the child was ran over twice as the markings
are separate pathwaysandof the same direction asshowninFig.7. The lower markings which were
made on the pelvicarea were made by the left front tyre, the markings on the head were made by
the rear lefttyre,thishappenedbythe childpullingbackwhen he was first ran over. This concludes
that if the child hadn’t been ran over the second time he would have still been alive.
However, I think the evidence is stronger than the witness statement. The statement said the boy
endedupunderthe van,in betweenthe frontandback tyres. Although, the evidence clearly states
the boy was ran over twice, first the pelvic area, then the head, which would put the child behind
the wheelsnotinthe middle of each.The witnessthatgave the statementcouldhave miscalculated
what he saw or found it difficult to remember exactly what happened as seeing a child being run
over is a traumatic experience to see, he could have also been bribed into someway by the van
driver.
Afterthisevidence wasfoundandreviewed, the truth of the incident was revealed. The van driver
was made to paya penaltyandthe child’sfamilycouldreceive compensation from the government
(Park et al, 2006).
This then follows on to Bodziak’s (2008) work. He was involved in a case in Athens, Wisconsin in
1987, where fourmembersof the Kunzfamilywere shotdead intheirfarmhouse andanotherfamily
memberfound 18 miles away 9 months later. The farmhouse had to be accessed via a dirt road, on
thisdirtroad the fifthvictim’scarwas discovered, abandoned, see Fig.8. Over one hundred photos
were takenof the tyre marksand sevenlongdental castswere taken. Withinthisevidence it is able
to see that the victim’s car went over a set of tracks and another set went over the victim’s tracks
Fig. 6 Tyre marks on the child’s headalongside the
comparisonprint. (Park et al, 2006)
Fig. 7. Tyre marks on the child’s clothing, indicationthe
two areas where he wasranover. (Park et al, 2006)

feature?
whenexitingthe dirtpath,see Fig.9. A suspect’s vehicle was seized where it was noticed the front
tyresdidn’tmatchthe backtyres.There was a small dispute onidentification of which of the seized
tyres matched the photographs and casts. The FBI was then requested to solve the differences in
opinion.Bodziakhimself investigatedthe evidence andtyres, he prepared ink impressions of seven
of the tyres that were seized and took photographs of all casts and had some of the negatives
enlarged to a natural size. With this information he matched a seized tyre with a cast, he matched
these bysuperimposingthe inked impression on one of the casts, within in this cast he was able to
see three individual characteristicsfromeverydaywear.Withthisevidencethe suspectwascharged
with five counts of murder in October 1989.
McDonald (1993) investigated a case of abduction and murder. He was given a casting of what was
believed to be the criminal’s tyre markings (see Fig. 10), and a poorly lit photograph of the crime
scene impression(see Fig.11), the listof possible tyresitcouldbe wassentback to the police. Seven
monthslatera suspectwasarrested. The suspect’s car was seized and test impressions were made
of all fourtyres,there were obviouslyindividual characteristics to the left rear tyre. Tread drawings
were obtained from the manufacturer, starting with the right rear tyre. Comparing the cast to the
suspect’s tyre informationfourteenaccidental, individual characteristics were found, resulting in a
positive match. A matchwas alsomade withthe front mosttyres.This gave a final conclusion of the
imprints made at the scene was by the car the suspect owned. The suspect was found guilty.
Fig. 8. Diagram ofthe Kunz farmhouse andthe victim’s
car. (Bodziak, 2008)
Fig. 9. Crime Scene photoof tyre markings andabandoned
car. (Bodziak, 2008)
Fig. 10. Photographof the casting (McDonald,
1998)
Fig. 11. Photographof the tyre imprint (McDonald, 1998)

feature?
Within these articles, all share similar techniques to come to their conclusions. This gives the
methodstrongreliability.Asstatedin Park et al (2006), the markings were reversed for comparison
compatibility,the problemof eye toeye comparisonis how peopleperceive the imagestheyhave as
one personmaythinkit somethingdifferent, the applies to McDonald and Bodziak also, as they are
bothexpertsinthe same fieldbutperceivethingsdifferentlyfromwhatotherexperts may. This was
shown more within Bodziak’s work as there was a small dispute between findings.
The results of all articles are accurate and this was shown clearly from the conclusions that were
made.The tyre markingsonthe child in Park et al (2006), could have only matched the van as it was
the known suspect vehicle, therefore making the investigation bias towards the van. This is also a
similaroccurrence within McDonald’s work, although he did pick out the type of tyre it was before
having the suspect vehicles tyre details. Whereas in Bodziak’s case there were several tyres that
were in question,the case tookaroundtwoyearsto solve and a lot of time and effort went into the
investigation. This could be disputed as not reliable due to the time it took as wrong assumptions
could be made, although it could be seen as accuracy in the investigation so no detail is missed.
2.2. Road Traffic Accident.
“A motor vehicle is used in 75% of all the major crimes reported today. Damage to the vehicle at the
crime scene may leave vehicle-related evidence, such as headlight fragments, paint chips, or oil
drippings, which the criminal investigator can recover and examine to identify the vehicle. But often
the only evidence remaining at the scene of a crime is a tire imprint.”
(Given,Nehrich,andShields,1977)
The quotationabove fuelsinvestigation of road traffic accidents. McDonald (1993) mentions a case
study of which a small girl was ran over in a parking lot where she played, her mother suspected
three vehicles, later that day the mother attempted to take her own test prints of the vehicles she
had inmind.Three yearslaterMcDonaldwas askedto determinewhichvehicle,if anyatall,ran over
the girl. He was given all three test prints and a photograph of the girls face when she was in
hospital,it was apparent to him straight away that two of the three marks does not match the girls
bruising.The photographwasveryclearas ithad shownthe grooves of the tyre and even the sipes.
The left over print was from a newspaper truck, after careful comparison using the tyre’s original
drawings from the manufacturer, the test prints, the photo of the child forehead and a full
circumference printof the same designof tyre,McDonaldfounditwastwo ribwidthsthat made the
imprintonthe child’sforehead,the sipesthatwere also on her forehead helped eliminate three of
the four tyres of the truck, determining it was the right front tyre that ran the child over.
The traditional ways of recovering and examining evidence seems to be the most efficient and
reliable.The methodusedissupportedbyanumberof authors such as Hueske (1991), Geller (1990)
and Jackson et al (2008). The results are reliable as they make sense from the evidence given,
althoughtheycould have explained in a simpler way by using other examples to help explain how
the evidence wasfound and what exact tools were used. However, I do agree with the results that
were made and I would use this technique if I was to do my own impression work.
2.3. Photogrammetry.
Another article that researches tyre tracks on a human head is Thali et al (2000). Within their
researchtheyhave usedphotogrammetrytomatchthe two tracks.Here theyregardlayinga ruleror
yardstick next to the object as being inadequate and that they must be photogrammetrically

feature?
handledtohave any chance of comparison oninjuries.A child was playing near a busy street where
she was hit by a car and instantly killed. On the left side of her face was distinctive bruising with a
clearpattern,the purpose of the investigationwastosee if the markingsonthe child’sface matched
one of the vehiclesinthe accidentandto determine which direction the child was hit from. To find
this out CAD-supported photogrammetry was chosen. Two series of photographs are taken of the
injury, all from different angles, series one involves a dot matrix which creates a data model, also
known as a dot cloud. The second doesn’t have the dot matrix this creates a data model of the
injury,combiningthese twoseriescreatesa foundation for the ‘dot-and-line’ reconstruction of the
damageson the face inscale. The dot-and-line data for both the injury and the tyre tread itself was
processed in a ‘RolleiMetric’ system which then was fed into a 3D CAD computer database and it
displayedrealisticallyportrayedmodelsinlife sizeand shape, see Fig. 12. The models produced can
then be used to compare them in virtual space to define if there were any matches in size and
shape.A 2D image wasalso used whichwaslaidunderthe 3D modelsforthe injurytobe clearerand
properly viewedagainstthe tyrestread,see Fig.13.Inresultsitwasconcludedthat the marks on the
face of the childmatched the vehicle inquestion as all models align when superimposed over each
other. Whenperformingthis method, evidence is never lost due to the comparison taking place in
virtual space, and also once the photographs have been taken the evaluation can take place at its
newesttime as the injury may no longer be present. Presenting this sort of evidence can easily be
understood to the lay person without unclear matters. In conclusion this method is an important
step forward within the analysis of tyre tread markings on the body.
Thismethodis relativelynewand has no other research around the surrounding subject in relation
to tyre marks. This method seems to be a major advancement compared to Hamm (1986) and Park
et al (2006) whichcan provide more accurate resultsdue to a person not doing the comparison on a
large contributing factor. However, this publication does not agree with methods that have been
previous used by Hamm and Park et al (2006), labelling them as ‘inadequate’.
Also, this technique could be very time consuming and expensive, another more efficient way of
doingthiswouldbe with small lasers and photographs. In conclusion this is a very accurate way for
determining tyre marks on a human body.
2.4. X-Ray.
Clarke (1972) examinedeverytyre case ina2 and a half year periodbetween January 1969 and June
1971. Each tyre was examined in the method of Morgan and Hall (1965) and Grogan (1969), a total
number of 280 tyres were submitted during these dates, he found 263 were deflated after an
accidentthat hadoccurred,the purpose of the investigationwastosee if these deflationshappened
Fig. 12. 3D CAD image graphic oftyre and plastic
presentation ofthe face. (Thaliet al, 2000)
Fig. 13. 3D model withthe 2D photograph of
injurybeneath. (Thali et al, 2000)

feature?
before the accidentoras a resultof the accident.Whenexamining the tyres it was found out of the
twentytyres,thirteenof the punctureswereonthe reartyresdue to the objects sent back from the
front tyres, in nearly all of these case small nails were found to be the course of the punctures.
Seven of eight tyres that had ‘blown-out’ were tubed tyres. An explanation was given but wasn’t
satisfactoryasthe factswere difficulttounderstandcomparedtothe evidence. An X-ray of the tyre
wouldhave beenveryefficientinthiscase.AnX-rayfora tyre blow-outwasperformed on an Italian
sports car which was involved in a fatal accident. The X-ray showed that some of the width and
around the entire circumference of the steel bracer was fractured due to over inflation which put
pressure onthe steel brace cords andin resultstretchingthem.These effectsleavebehind different
types of tyre marks.
That the inflation and deflation of tyres make different tracks is supported by McDonald (1993)
where he clearly states:
“Investigators should note that this fact alone is a major reason that each tire develops distinctive
‘general accidental characteristics’.”
The X-ray methodworkedwellinthiscase toanswerthe questionof whythe tyre had reactedin the
way it did. The results have shown the critical insides of the tyre for an accurate determination,
explainwhythe tyre wasblown-outinsucha way.AlthoughX-rays are widely used in other aspects
they are not commonly used in tyre examination as I cannot find any supporting evidence for this
method, at the moment X-raying tyres isn’t as reliable as other methods, this could be due to the
time and cost expense of having a X-ray machine in laboratories or because the technique has no
supportfromother research. As only one tyre was used in this method the sample size is not large
enough. To prove X-ray works there would need to be a considerable amount of tyres that would
need to be X-rayed.
2.5. Back Transfer.
To carry on with tyre marks on the human body, Ernest D. Hamm (2006) has done a considerable
amountof workon tyres. He has done an identificationjournal onbacktransfer of tyre tread designs
on a victimsclothing.In acase inFloridaa drugs deal disagreementdevelopedwhichendedinaman
being shot and upper leg being ran over. During this the bullets being fired were believed to have
damagedthe leftreartyre,thisbecame a major part of the investigation.Whenthe victim’strousers
where delivered to the laboratory to be examined there was a clear tyre track on the upper front
thigh, on the inside of the trousers there was a less visible track found directly opposite the outer
tyre mark. Thiswas a positive image of the tyre tread;thisisknownasa back transferwhich is made
by the skinsquamespressedagainstthe victim’strouserswhen the weight of the car went over the
victim’s leg. Skin squames are dead skin cells which stay on your skin surface until washed off or
friction has occurred, this contributes to 90% of dust. A gathering of skin squames on the skin
surface can act as a transfer agent between the skin and another surface. Within the method an
experimental trial was preferred to represent how much multiple transfer can occur in layers of
clothing. This was done by using a cardboard surface with a powder substance in to represent the
skinsurface with skinsquames,a section of cloth was placed over the top and dusted with another
powder to create a transferring medium, finally, another piece of cloth was placed on top, this
representedthe clothing. These layerswere thenrunoverwithtyres coated in ink. The ink showed
a negative treaddesignonthe outerlayeranda positive backtransferof the design on second layer

feature?
of cloth, there was also a positive back transfer on the cloth lying top of the powder representing
skin squames. This concluded that examining both surfaces of clothing is important when a victim
has come into impact with tyres. It also implies even though there are no visible marks on the
outside of the clothing, it does not mean there isn’t some type of marking on the inside from the
skin squames cells. To find the tyre tracks on the clothing forensic light sources can be used this
leaves them to be subject to enhancement methods. There is also a mention of latent tyre prints
present on the clothing. Which are made visible when light of different sources are projected on
them, they are then photographed and used as evidence.
Bodziak (2008) agrees with the latent prints being present. Although, they are greatly over looked
withintyre evidence,thisisdue tothe popularity of the recovery techniques being used to recover
other evidence such as fingerprints and footwear marks.
Whenexaminingthe tyre marks made on the victims clothing it is possible to find areas of the tyre
whichcan be comparedto the tyresin question,asthe vehicle in question had been caught in cross
whenrunningoverthe victimsleg,the markingsonthe clothesmay indicate tyre damage unique to
the car in question. Using this type of method is positive feedback on how there can be more tyre
marks on clothing that may not be visible straight away or to the naked eye. By examining the
clothing in more detail there is possible skin transfer to the inside of the clothing, by creating a
demonstrationof this it is able to see that this does occur with force. This work is original as I have
found no other author with similar techniques to find a tyre pattern in relation to skin squames
transfer,althoughasthe method was only a demonstration and not used with actual skin, this may
portray some anomalous results which wouldn’t happen in real life situations. However, back
transfer has been used in cases in such cases as the Florida case above.
2.6. Sidewall Markings.
In one article by Ernest D. Hamm (1986), he investigated the sidewall markings of the tyre. In one
particular case a cast of a tyre was submitted to the laboratory for a comparison against a vehicle.
The cast didn’t contain much detail for comparison. However, even though the nature of the track
had prohibitedanyinformationbeingused,the cast didshow an edge.The edge wasthenexamined
to determine if the edge was the outer or inner part of the tyre edge.
Afterexaminingthe vehicle itwasconcludedall four tyres were the same make and brand with the
inside andoutside edgesbeing the same on all four tyres. When measuring the tyres for staggered
tread blocks 32 areas of the tyre were isolated for comparison with the cast. By overlaying a
transparent sheet over the features and either tracing them on the overlay or rolling ink over, you
Fig. 14. Skin squames close-upon normalskin. (Hamm, 2006) Fig. 15. Inside ofthe victim’s trousers, showskinsquames transfer.
(Hamm, 2006)

feature?
are thenable tomove the overlay to find a similar part of the tyre. When comparing the cast it was
foundthe narrow lines running around the circumference of the tyre which was slightly below the
shoulderribof the tyre on the tyre itself matchedthe casttakenat the scene. One of the cross lines
on thiscouldbe seenas one of the sipe marks used for locating the staggered tread track. With the
new feature found, a re-examination was performed on the 32 areas where it was found that only
four areas on three tyres had a comparable connection. Another closer examination revealed a
stone had been imbedded between the grooves near one for the four possible areas. When
consulting back to the cast, a comparable feature was found in the same related position. This
resulted in a positive identification of the tyre responsible to the crime.
Thismethodof examinationwasusedtodetermine if the suspectedvehicle committed the crime in
question. Using castings is a common technique for lifting tyre marks and footprints at an outdoor
crime scene for further examination and comparisons, due to this frequently used technique by
othersand itsuccessrates the results are reliable and supported by Hammer et al (2003). Using the
overlaying technique is very beneficial as you are able to make a sight comparison, although,
identifyingbyeye maycause problems.Itisdependentonthe personmakingthe comparisonasone
personmaysee a match while anotherpersondoesn’t. Ithasalsofound that individual marks, such
as a stone being stuck in a groove, can identify the suspecting tyre which is supported by Bodziak
(2008).
2.7. Tyre Separation’s.
Daws (2007) has mentioned three main types of marks when a tyre under goes Forensic analysis
withinitstyre separations,theseare Beachmarks,stop-start marks and yaw scratches. Beach marks
occur when tread separation happens; tread separation is a type fatigue process. Beach marks are
small cracks in the tyre which are found at the ends of outer belt wires as the tyre roles under a
weight. Here a flat track test machine was used to simulate beach marks this was to see if marks
remainsmall enoughforthe tyre to keepitsveracity andperformance,thisperformance only lasted
thirty seconds. Results had shown that the higher the load the more stress is put on the tyre,
enablingthe cracksto grow faster. Stop-start marks are small surface ridges or grooves, depending
on the surface that is being inspected, which form a piece of rubber that is perpendicular to the
direction of a fast moving crack that changes direction. These marks are measured in precise
laboratoryconditions. Yaw scratches occur when the tyre’s rubber surface is slid across the ground
insuch way where the centreline of the tyre is almost perpendicular to the ground. All these marks
are foundwithintyre separation,astheyare not all built into the mould of the tyre, they will all be
unique to different tyres.
Fig. 16. Beachmarks created inthe lab. (Daws, 2007)
Fig. 17. Stop-Start marks on the underside of a separatedtread.
There are two Stop-Start marks here. (Daws, 2007)

feature?
The methodsusedfordeterminingtwo outof three tyre wear done by Daws (2007) is his own work.
No otherinformationisavailable to support these findings; this may be because of the equipment
cost to test these things. Also on the last mark, yaw scratches, old tyres were used and therefore
didn’tgounderan experiment;thiscould be because of the extent it would take to reconstruct this
feature. Within the methods it is not stated how large or small the sample size is, not making the
work organised or efficient. If more work was done on these findings with a controlled structure
some useful information may be found.
3. Conclusion
The aim of this paper was to establish if tyre marks are as important within an investigation just as
footwear marks or fingerprints maybe in another case and also to see if a tyre’s individualising
factors can determine the vehicle at a crime and can convict someone with that information given.
Although there is little publication on tyre marks in a crime of what I can find, I have found the
existing publications to be accurate in supporting my hypothesis.
The majority of publications found were accurate and reliable, highly supporting my hypothesis.
They had many other works supporting their way of finding and were accepted in court as
substantial evidence against the accused, leading to a guilty conviction.
Althoughthe informationIhave obtained is reliable and supports my hypothesis greatly, it isn’t all
from the same culture. There is mixed culture within the papers such as; America, Japan and
England.I wantedtokeepthe findingsto England as that is my home country, although this proved
to be too difficult, therefore resulting in not all research found is relevant to England and some of
the techniquesfoundmaynotexistinEnglandorsomething similar may have be used compared to
the Americanor Japanese way.There isalsoanissue of reliabilityof tyre relevance being insufficient
as there isno informationtosupportthisinthe British society. The paper that does support English
work is about the tyre deflation. Whereas the tracks will be different on an inflated and deflating
tyre, it leads to no criminal conviction, this fact is supported by McDonald (1993) but as stated
previously, this isn’t an English reference. I also found English work very hard to get hold of; this
could be due to information not being released for legal reasons, it may not be a strong enough
issue toassessin Englandor it may notbe a topicof interesttopeople inthiscountry. However, the
recovery of tracks at a crime scene is the same in each country; therefore, all evidence found is
accurate if done inthe procedure is followed correctly. The examination procedures after this may
Fig. 18. Yaw scratchesare occurringon the skim rubber surface.
(Daws, 2007)

feature?
be alteredwithindifferentcountries,althoughthisisnotsolidinformationandthe procedurescould
be the same or similar.
Tyre markingsare difficulttoevaluate in multiples, it therefore takes up time to analyse evidence,
thiscouldbe time and cost deficient,there isalsoariskof the tyre of being vandalised in some way
if it is not found quick enough and losing all evidence needed for the case in question
4. Future Work
In the future I would like to collect as much evidence from cases involving tyre marks as evidence
from the United Kingdom and create a paper from that information. This would give a better and
more accurate perspective of the convictions made within England rather than having a mixed
version of cases.
I would like this paper to be accurate and up to date to give people the opportunity to see the
importance of tyre marks within a crime in the United Kingdom; it would also be one of the first to
talk about the United Kingdom’s procedures and convictions.

feature?
5. References
AbbsryNewandUsed Tires,2009. Diagramof Radial Tire Partsand Wear Signs [online].Available at:
http://www.abbsrytire.com/diagramtire.htm. [Accessed 18th
March 2013]
Bodziak, W.J., 2008. Tire Tread and Tire Track Evidence: Recovery and Forensic Examination. 1st ed.
United States: CRC Press: A Taylor and Francis Group.
Clarke,P.D. B., 1972. ForensicTire Examinations - Analysis. Journal- Forensic Science Society. 12 (4),
559-566
Daws, J.W., 2007. Forensic analysis in tire tread separations. [online] Phoenix: Daws Engineering
L.L.C. Available at: http://www.rubbernews.com. [Accessed 02 December 12].
Geller, J., 1990, Casting on Road Surface. Journal of Forensic Identification. 40, 279-282.
Given, B. W., R. B. Nehrich, and J. C. Shields. 1977. Tire Tracks and Tread Marks. Houston: Gulf
Publishing co.
Grogan, R. J., 1969. Journal – Forensic Science Society. 9, 13.
Hamm, E. D., (erniehamm@yahoo.com) 2013. RE: Tire Impression work (Dr Karen Stows Student),
28th
February. Email to: Emily Norton (Emily.norton2011@my.ntu.ac.uk)
Hammer,L., Wolfe,J.2003. Shoe and Tire ImpressionsinSnow:Photographyand Casting. Journal of
Forensic Identification, 53 (6), 647-655.
Hueske,E.E., 1991. PhotographingandCastingFootwear/Tire TrackImpressionsin Snow. Journal of
Forensic Identification. 41 (2), 92-95.
Jackson, A. R. W., Jackson. J., 2008. Forensic Science. 2nd
Edition. Essex: Pearson Education Limitied
Land of Machines, 2011. Thompson Aerial Wheel (1846) [online]. Available at:
http://landofmachines.com/category/uncategorized/. [Accessed 18th
March 2013].
McDonald, P., 1993. Tire Imprint Evidence. 1st ed. United States: CRC Press: A Taylor and Francis
Group.
Morgan, W. H. C., Hall., R. A. 1965 Journal – Forensic Science Society. 5, 192.
Park, S., Kim, T., Choi, Y., Chae, S., 2006. Analysis of Two Tire Marks on the Head and
Clothing. Japanese journal of forensic science and technology. 11 (1), 125-129.
Thali,M. J., Braun,M., Brüschweiler,W., Dirnhofer, R., 2000. Matching tire tracks on the head using
forensic photogrammetry. Forensic Science International. 113 (1-3), 281-287.
Your Dictionary, 2013. Traction. [online]. Available at: http://www.yourdictionary.com/traction.
[Accsessed 19th
March 2013].

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