Companion Manual for SNAP in Aboriginal Communities

Starting your
community’s
journey with
SNAP®
Funded by
The Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services
Safer and Vital Communities Grant
A Companion Manual for SNAP®
in Aboriginal Communities

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are indebted to our SNAP®
Affiliates that we have had the pleasure of working with
over the past decades for sharing their knowledge, challenges and successes and have
encouraged and motivated us to share our experiences of how SNAP® can be implemented
and work within Aboriginal communities.
We especially would like to thank Patty Chabbert for her vision and commitment to the
development of this important Companion Manual for SNAP®
Aboriginal implementations/
programming, in particular for her focus and attention to grounding the manual in cultural
safety and the experiences of community members. We would also like to thank
Andre O’Bonsawin from Studio Eleven17, for his creative design and clarity of the overall
manual’s format and layout.
Projects like this would not be possible without dedicated partners who share our goal and
journey in striving to develop effective evidence based models for young children struggling
with their behaviour (and their families and communities). Special mention goes to the
Shawanaga First Nations Community with a special thanks to Steve General for assisting us
with this project.
Lastly, we thank the Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services for providing the funding
under their Safer and Vital Communities Grant to make this Companion Manual possible.
PLEASE NOTE: This is a working draft and a living document. We will be piloting this document in
the coming months and be updating it based on feedback from our Aboriginal Partners, Community
Advisors and Facilitators.

A COMPANION MANUAL FOR SNAP®
IN ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES
STARTING YOUR COMMUNITY’S JOURNEY WITH SNAP®
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION ONE: PREPARING FOR OUR JOURNEY.............................................................................................................................................2
1.1 WELCOME......................................................................................................................................................................................................2
1.2 WHY AND HOW THIS MANUAL WAS CREATED.................................................................................................................................4
1.3 USING THIS MANUAL.................................................................................................................................................................................6
SECTION TWO: OUR JOURNEY BEGINS WITH CULTURAL SAFETY...........................................................................................................9
2.1 WHAT IS CULTURAL SAFETY?................................................................................................................................................................10
2.2 SNAP®
’S PATH TO CULTURAL SAFETY.................................................................................................................................................11
2.2.1 HISTORY…AND YOUR COMMUNITY.......................................................................................................................................15
2.2.2 ABORIGINAL PEOPLES, LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL IDENTITY…IN YOUR COMMUNITY....................................19
2.2.3 KNOWLEDGE AND WORLDVIEW…IN YOUR COMMUNITY .............................................................................................27
SECTION THREE: IMPLEMENTING SNAP®
IN YOUR COMMUNITY...........................................................................................................35
3.1 GETTING STARTED....................................................................................................................................................................................36
3.2 SCREENING, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION................................................................................................................................48
3.2.1 HOW DO ASSESSMENTS, STANDARDIZED MEASURES AND RISK/PROTECTIVE FACTORS
RELATE TO ABORIGINAL PEOPLES? .........................................................................................................................................49
3.2.2 ASSESSING RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES - A
CULTURALLY SAFER APPROACH ..............................................................................................................................................51
3.2.3 PROTECTIVE FACTORS RELEVANT TO ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES ............................................................................57
3.3 PROGRAMMING ........................................................................................................................................................................................61
SECTION FOUR: MATERIALS AND RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................................65
SECTION FIVE: REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................................................66
SECTION SIX: APPENDICES..................................................................................................................................................................................72

SECTION ONE: PREPARING FOR OUR JOURNEY
1.1 WELCOME
On behalf of Child Development Institute’s (CDI) SNAP®
Development and Implementation Team and our partners,
welcome to SNAP®
. We look forward to our journey working with you implementing SNAP®
in your community.
To date, there have been several SNAP®
programs operating in Aboriginal communities and we hope
to work with an even greater number of communities in the future. Together, we are learning how to
support you, your work and your community partners in implemeting and delivering SNAP®
services with
this SNAP®
Companion Manual for Aboriginal Communities.
This Companion Manual was created with the knowledge, experience and wisdom of our Aboriginal
Partners and Community Advisors. We wish to acknowledge their contributions and the contributions of
all of the people who have come before us.
As this is the beginning of our journey together, working to ensure effective implementation of
SNAP®
in Aboriginal Communities, it is important to recognize:
• the cultural diversity of Aboriginal peoples in Canada;
• each community’s unique expression of culture, knowledge and worldview;
• the impact and legacy of colonization that continues to affect the lives of
Aboriginal children, parents and communities;
• the vital importance of Aboriginal languages, identity, and ways of knowing and
doing;
• the need for more empirical research to help advance and integrate indigenous
knowledge into interventions;
• the importance of actively engaging communities, building trust and
recognizing that we are on a shared journey of mutual learning; and
• the significance of collaborating effectively with other service
providers in your community to make sure that families feel
supported before, during and after receiving SNAP®
services.
We hope this manual helps you in using SNAP®
to reduce risks
and promote healthy lives for children and families in Aboriginal
communities.
Meegwetch!
Starting your community’s journey with SNAP®
2
We know SNAP®
works, we see
it. But there is still
work to be done to
make it better for
Aboriginal families. I
am excited about this
manual.
Community Advisor
Is there anything else
that would be important
for us to know when it
comes to making SNAP®
more responsive to Aboriginal
families?
Go back in history, to our roots
History of the residential schools and
the loss of parenting skills
Address the trauma
Talk about the role models in
the communities
Community Advisor

3
We recognize
and celebrate
work
the
We recognize and celebrate the work of everyone involved in
SNAP®
Programs in these Aboriginal communities:
Shawanaga and Wasauksing First Nations and Surrounding Area
Native Child and Family Services (Toronto)
Prince Albert Métis Women’s Association, Prince Albert
Cree Regional Authority and the Grand Council of the Crees 9
Waswanipi Community
Mistissini Community
Society for Safe and Caring Schools and Communities
Forest Green School
Alexander First Nations – Kipohtakaw Education Centre
Bigstone Cree Nation - Oski Pasikoniwew Kamik (OPK)
Calling Lake Community
Yukon Territory
Crime Prevention Yukon
Yukon Government - Youth Achievement Centre
“I don’t get into
no more fights
because SNAP®
helped me.”
SNAP Graduate,
Kipohtakaw
Education Centre,
Alexander First
Nations, Alberta

1.2 WHY AND HOW THIS MANUAL WAS CREATED
“The essential challenge is to create pathways that elevate Aboriginal approaches to mental health while
acknowledging the value of collaboration with some aspects of western knowledge and understanding. This is
critical for improved outcomes for Aboriginal children, youth and families.”
Blackstock, 2008, p. 5
SNAP®
(Stop Now and Plan) is an evidence-based, gender sensitive, cognitive behavioural, multi-
component and family-focused model developed at Child Development Institute (CDI), Toronto, Canada
more than 30 years ago. Simply put, we know our programs work because our clients and our research
tell us so. We also know that recognizing and responding to differences in gender (boys, girls) as well as
roles in the family (parents, children) has helped with this success.
SNAP®
programs serve children, ages 6–11, who display aggressive and
disruptive behaviours and/or conduct problems. The SNAP®
model
provides a framework for effectively teaching emotion regulation, self-
control and problem-solving skills to children and their parents.
Children learn how to stop, think and find a solution that makes
their problems smaller, not bigger. The overarching goal of
SNAP®
is to keep kids in school and out of trouble.
With growing interest from a number of Aboriginal
communities using SNAP®
, we began identifying
a number of common challenges influencig the
success of SNAP®
in Aboriginal communities. These
challenges included: having a hard time getting
parents to attend the program and keeping them
engaged, limited staff and community buy-in, and
problems with appropriate facilities to deliver
SNAP®
.
It was clear SNAP®
programs need to ensure
they are culturally safe and relevant, aligned
with the values and beliefs of local communities,
and introduced and presented in ways that are
welcoming.
In order to achieve these aims, CDI collaborated with
partners, Anishinabek Police Service, Shawanaga First
Nations Education Department and Native Child and
Family Services of Toronto, and received a Safer & Vital
Communities Grant through the Ministry of Community Safety
and Correctional Services. The main goal of the grant was to create
a SNAP®
Facilitators Guide for those working in Aboriginal Communities.
However, it was recognized that there are many considerations and steps
that need to be taken before a facilitator begins facilitating: training, partner
building, site selection and program implementation, to name just a few.
4
Thank You to
...Our Partners
Anishinabek Police Service
Native Child and Family Services
of Toronto
Shawanaga First Nations Education
Department
…And Our
Community Advisors
Lisa Arcand
Donna Blundell
Lynda Bosum
Tracy Cardinal
Patty Chabbert
Sheena Costain
Pauline Etapp
Michael Grant
Karen Hobbs
Celina Jimikin
Derick Meskino
Josh McBride
Noreen McBride
Dorothy Nicholls
Sarah Ottereyes
Mary Pelletier

5
In short, we realized we needed a tool that would facilitate a culturally safe roll-out of SNAP®
Programs
from the first point of contact with an Aboriginal community. Cultural safety is the foundation for our work
and is discussed further in Section Two.
Hence, the Companion Manual was developed. A tool to support community facilitators, their teams
and CDI staff, to address potential challenges and solutions based on the unique history, language and
way of life of each community. Rather than“adapting”SNAP®
for Aboriginal communities or making it
“Aboriginal-friendly,”we undertook a lengthier and more inclusive process to gather information from
multiple sources in order to ground the manual in Aboriginal experiences and worldviews.
We worked with our Community Advisors to:
a) Gather knowledge from the literature and community members involved in delivering and
participating in SNAP®
Programs;
b) Ground this tool in Aboriginal histories, worldviews and cultural safety;
c) Bridge how SNAP®
is commonly delivered with the realities and preferences of Aboriginal
communities, and;
d) Organize the content following the SNAP®
model while actively incorporating the advice,
experiences, practices and examples provided by SNAP®
facilitators and community members.
As this is the beginning of our journey together, we recognize that this manual is a dynamic and living
tool that will continually be enhanced as we learn along this journey of delivering SNAP®
within Aboriginal
communities and will become more and more helpful as SNAP®
staff and facilitators continue to adapt it
for use within their own communities.

1.3 USING THIS MANUAL
The Companion Manual is intended to help you, the community facilitators, your teams, and CDI staff,
come to a common understanding about working with Aboriginal communities and the unique realities
of each community, in order to successfully implement SNAP®
.
The Companion Manual is a tool intended to help you and your team explore and determine what SNAP®
will look like in your community. It will help you ask questions about SNAP®
language, forms and program
goals, foresee common challenges and talk about possible solutions—as a team!
6
A wise youth from
Dokis First Nation shares
a story about the feather:
“The feather is a symbol of our
journey through life—each strand
and opening along the feather
represent the different challenges
that we face as individuals.
The feather lying on the sand
represents the rocky road that
is given to every one of us,
to remind us that life is not
going to be easy & we must
continue down our path.”
Think of this Companion Manual as our SNAP®
feather, where our team—together—assesses challenges,
identifies strengths and solutions, and overcomes the rocky road through common understanding and
shared language and purpose. This will be the foundation for creating a Community of Practice where we
can share successes, problem-solve mutual challenges and reduce isolation.
We want you to become part of a knowledgeable, skilled network of individuals, working in a variety of functions and
levels, identifying and discussing issues, and sharing and building collective expertise regarding implementing SNAP®
in Aboriginal communities.
Based on a 2006 survey of Ontario SNAP®
sites, the vast majority of respondents indicated
that communicating with other SNAP®
service providers was an important means of support.
Respondents indicated they would be more likely to participate if meetings were held locally
with discussion topics addressing their current service delivery challenges such as providing
SNAP®
to First Nations’clients. This sub-group would then focus on Aboriginal or First Nations’
service implementation and cultural adaptations of the SNAP®
model. We are listening!

7
Specifically, this Companion Manual is intended to help you:
1. Increase the cultural relevance and responsiveness of SNAP®
programs for Aboriginal children,
families and communities;
2. Increase access to culturally responsive services for Aboriginal children and families;
3. Increase Aboriginal cultural content and methods (including history, worldview, traditions, concepts
and on-the-ground community experiences) to support and enhance the work of all SNAP®
staff and
facilitators working in Aboriginal communities;
4. Increase knowledge of factors unique to child and family service participation in Aboriginal
communities;
5. “Translate”SNAP®
for use with Aboriginal children, families and communities; and
6. Assist you every step along the way, from introducing SNAP®
programs in Aboriginal communities to
implementing, facilitating and evaluating them.
As you prepare for your journey with SNAP®
, remember:
This manual is a starting place.
Make this manual your own.
Share your challenges and successes with others.
We are here to support you.
We are all learning together.
We are all on a journey to build better lives for the children and families in your community.
SNAP®
Program facilitators, team members and support staff have varying levels of
familiarity with Aboriginal knowledge, cultures and traditions.
Everyone is encouraged to use this Manual as a common source of information to support
discussion and personal reflection on knowledge, skills and values.
Examples provided by our Partners and SNAP®
Advisors are offered throughout the
Manual to guide you along the way. However, the practices may not reflect the norms for
other Aboriginal communities; they may even be discouraged or looked down upon. Most
importantly, think about what might work best in your community.

MANY HANDS, ONE DREAM PRINCIPLESMANY HANDS, ONE DREAM PRINCIPLES
Much work has been done by researchers and practitioners to help guide practices and interventions intended to
promote the health of Aboriginal children, families and communities. In December of 2005, the Many Hands, One
Dream Principles were developed by over 160 Métis, Inuit, First Nations and non-Aboriginal experts on Aboriginal
child and youth health. SNAP®
has formally adopted these principles and this manual is part of our effort to help
SNAP®
facilitators and staff put these principles into action.
Self-determination: Aboriginal peoples are in the best position to make decisions that affect the
health of their children, youth, families and communities.
Intergenerational: Children learn healthy behaviours through role models, including family
members and other adults in their communities, Elders, and even other
children. All community members have a responsibility to help children
learn to live in ways that promote their health.
Non-discrimination: Aboriginal children and young people need to be actively engaged in
conversations about child and youth health.
Holism: The health of Aboriginal children is a balance between the physical, spiritual,
emotional and cognitive senses of self and how these interrelate with family,
community, world and the environment, both past, present and future.
Respect for culture There is a need to recognize and acknowledge the legitimate health care
and language: that has been practiced by Aboriginal peoples for centuries.
Shared responsibility Aboriginal people take a lead role in addressing health issues and
for health: establishing relationships with non-Aboriginal healthcare providers and
organizations. These new relationships would be characterized by
reciprocity, respect and a balance of power (Blackstock, Bruyere & Moreau,
1996).
8
Many of the principles such as Self-Determination, Non-Discrimination and Shared
Responsibility for Health are respected and honoured throughout SNAP®
. In order to address
the social determinants of child and family mental health, SNAP®
programs respond to and
adapt to the diverse cultural and socioeconomic factors that characterize communities. For a
complete list and description of the nine SNAP®
Principles, see Section 3.3 Programming.
How will you and your team work together to ensure these principles guide your work?

SECTION TWO: OUR JOURNEY BEGINS WITH CULTURAL SAFETY
There has been a long history of westerners doing what they think is the“right thing”for
Aboriginal peoples and these“right things”were almost always based on a western
worldview. This perspective has driven the course of the colonization and oppression
which has actively undermined the culture, identity, wellbeing and advancement of
Aboriginal peoples in Canada.
As noted, a great deal of work has been done by researchers and
practitioners to help guide practices and interventions. There is a
consensus among researchers and practitioners, in the literature, and
echoed recently by our Community Advisors: you cannot understand and
address the current realities of Aboriginal communities and families without
acknowledging the long reaching and pervasive effects of colonization.
It is not possible to understand any of the contemporary social issues affecting
Aboriginal peoples without an examination of the history of colonization from
Aboriginal perspectives. According to Morrissette, McKenzie and Morrissette (1993)
colonization encompasses:
…cultural dimensions which involve efforts to achieve normative control over a minority
group or culture. These efforts included: displacement of traditional forms of governance
with representative democracy and an authoritarian model of leadership; the devaluation
of traditional spirituality, knowledge, and practices through the actions of missionaries, the
residential school system, the health system, and the child welfare system; and the imposition of
artificial legal distinctions among Aboriginal peoples. (p. 94)
The structured relationships of colonization must be seen through peoples’experiences. So many of us have lost
our identities and place in the world which is often expressed through substance abuse, violence, involvement
with the child welfare system and criminalization of behaviours associated with internalized oppression and
poverty. Social work practitioners and educators need to have knowledge about the incredible amount of
loss that Aboriginal peoples have experienced and continue to experience on all levels as a direct result of
colonization.
Cyndy Baskin, 2006
9
How can SNAP®
acknowledge and address the effects of colonization?
Fortunately, Aboriginal and mainstream researchers, organizations and groups have been
developing principles (like Many Hands, One Dream) and approaches that can facilitate this
undertaking. Cultural safety is a concept that can be used to guide conversations about the
history and impact of colonization in Aboriginal communities. It can also help to guide our
practice.
As well, SNAP®
incorporates a holistic view through an ecosystemic assessment of each client
based on the individual, family, home, school and community in which he or she lives to help
identify child and family strengths, needs, risk and protective factors.
“SNAP®
should
not only be rooted
in history, it NEEDS
to be, in order to
achieve its goal of
being a culturally
safe program for
Aboriginal families
and communities.”
Community
Advisors

2.1 WHAT IS CULTURAL SAFETY?
Cultural safety is respectful engagement that supports and protects many paths to well-being.
Jessica Ball, 2008
Distinct from cultural sensitivity and cultural competence, the concept of cultural safety was first
introduced in 1990 and has been adopted in education, justice and health sectors most notably in
Australia and Canada, among other places (National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2006, National
Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation, May 2011). 1
In a Cultural Safety Poster from 2008, Jessica Ball defines cultural safety in the context of more familiar
terms:
Culture:Culture: forms and goals of interactions among members of a group, and how they
understand and communicate with one another.
Cultural sensitivity:Cultural sensitivity: appreciating that there are differences among cultures.
Cultural competence:Cultural competence: being skilled in understanding interactions among members of a culture on
their own terms.
Cultural safety:Cultural safety: the outcome of interactions where individuals experience their cultural identity
and way of being as having been respected or, at least, not challenged or
harmed.
Cultural safety is not about how mainstream organizations and practices accommodate“other”groups
and cultures; but rather, it is about organizations and practitioners listening to and acting on how
individuals and communities understand, define and support themselves.
A central tenet of cultural safety is that it is the patient who defines what“safe service”means to them. This
avenue opens up opportunities to learn about the unique histories, current challenges and successes of First
Nations, Inuit and Métis communities in achieving an equitable level of health and wellness enjoyed by many
non-aboriginal citizens.
Indigenous Physicians Association of Canada and
the Association of Faculties of Medicine of Canada, 2009, p. 10
10
1
For more information, see National Aboriginal Health Organization. (Jauary 2006). Cultural safety/competence in aboriginal
health: an annotated bibliography. Retrieved from: http://www.naho.ca/documents/naho/english/
Culturalsafetyannotatedbibliography.pdf
For SNAP®
facilitators, teams and support people, this means reflecting on how we
can work together to evolve SNAP®
in ways that are culturally safe for Aboriginal
communities. By ensuring we have an introductory understanding of key aspects of
Aboriginal history and life in Canada, we can then take the next step: learning about the
unique experience and expression of that history and life in your community. In other words,
what does culturally safe service mean in your community? This Companion Manual can
support you in facilitating this conversation, opening up opportunities to learn about your
community’s unique history, current challenges and successes.

2.2 SNAP®
’S PATH TO CULTURAL SAFETY
“Regardless of how culturally sensitive, attuned or informed we think we have been as a service provider, the
concept of cultural safety asks: How safe did the service recipient experience a service encounter in terms of
being respected and assisted in having their cultural location, values, and preferences taken into account in the
service encounter?”
Ball, 2008, Cultural Safety Poster
The Aboriginal Cultural Safety Initiative, a pilot project and partnership between Anishnawbe Health
Toronto, a Canadian Aboriginal organization with over 30 years of providing health
services to Toronto’s diverse Aboriginal community, and the Indigenous Physicians
Association of Canada offers a path for us to follow. The project partners
learned that although there is support in principle, all front line health care
and social service providers should be trained in cultural safety in working
with Aboriginal populations. Apart from medical schools
and some nursing programs, all other programs have
“little to no”Aboriginal content in their curricula. In
response, the Aboriginal Cultural Safety Initiative
developed cultural safety training videos that
can be used by professional programs and
organizations to address this gap (see
the Materials and Resources section for information on the videos).
SNAP®
encountered similar challenges and issues at the beginning of
this process. After speaking with our partners and community advisors,
we determined there was: little to no specific Aboriginal content related to
the theories on which we base our programs; limited shared knowledge
among CDI staff, facilitators and community members regarding how
to appropriately and effectively address the needs and preferences of
Aboriginal communities; and, a diversity of people, professions and organizations
involved in referring to and delivering SNAP®
services—including Police, Child
Welfare, School staff, Physicians, CDI support staff, and facilitators. It made sense
to start by following a path that has been carefully charted by the Aboriginal Cultural
Safety Initiative. As we gain knowledge through this process, we can continue to evolve our own practice
standards.
11
All front line
health care and
social service
providers should be
trained in cultural
safety in working with
Aboriginal
populations…
Aboriginal Cultural
Safety Initiative

As a starting place, we present the core competencies of cultural safety developed by the Aboriginal
Cultural Safety Initiative and apply them to SNAP®
working with Aboriginal communities:
12
2
Report of the Task Force, First Nations, Inuit, Métis Health Core Competencies, February 2008.
Core competencies in cultural safety for
working with First Nations, Inuit and Métis
A) Knowledge of:
1. Historical perspectives on impact of
colonization, reserve system, residential
school, treaty, federal and provincial policies
towards aboriginal people, including their
obligations and responsibilities etc.; and
2. Different aboriginal groups, their concepts of
health, their traditional healing practices and
existing western and traditional health care
system in their communities.
B) Skills in:
1. Communication with aboriginal client and
community;
2. Development of therapeutic relationship
with aboriginal client, their family and
community etc.; and
3. Developing collaborative and ethical
relationships with patients and community
towards health and wellness promotion.
C) Attitudes towards:
1. Self-reflection around perception and
attitudes towards aboriginal people.
How this relates to SNAP®
working with
Aboriginal Communities
SNAP®
facilitators, teams and support staff
need to be aware of these historical events and
policies and their continuing effects on Aboriginal
communities and families today. As well,
historical child welfare and justice issues are also
directly relevant to our work.
These topics are introduced in the Companion
Manual, discussion starting points are offered
and additional resources are provided.
This knowledge is essential to SNAP®
facilitators,
teams and support staff. The Companion Manual
provides information about Aboriginal Peoples
in Canada today and provides opportunities
for you to share your community’s story. Who
lives in your community? What languages are
spoken? How are children raised? Who helps care
for them? This will help you create a common
understanding across team members and
organizations.
All SNAP®
staff are trained to promote ethical,
positive and respectful relationships with clients,
families and communities. SNAP®
is working with
our Aboriginal partners to effectively incorporate
Cultural Safety into its training modules.
The Companion Manual helps to identify
general approaches and we encourage you to
have conversations with community members
to help determine the unique communication
approaches in your community.
SNAP®
staff have told us that some typical
listening skills are not always culturally
appropriate such as leaning forward,
paraphrasing and making eye contact.
This is a critical aspect and specific training and
support is needed; guidelines for good practice in
Cultural Safety training practices and standards are
available in Materials and Resources section.

As mentioned, a central tenet of cultural safety is that it is the client who defines what“safe service”
means to them. However, before we can open up that conversation with our communities, SNAP®
facilitators, team members and CDI Staff, need to engage in their own conversation.
We need to be able to ask questions of our Community Advisors, SNAP®
facilitators and team members
working in First Nations Communities: What does safe service mean to you?
Fortunately, we took some initial steps towards finding this out when we worked with Aboriginal
Communities to identify some of the barriers they were experiencing in engaging families and children
in SNAP®
. Following that, we identified the need for this Manual and consulted with our Partners and
Community Advisors to develop and shape its content.
13

Cultural Safety…starting the conversation with your team
1. What are some of the ways you can open up discussions about cultural safety with your team and
CDI support staff?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What does“safe service”mean to you?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How can your knowledge and values help you work together as a team in culturally safe ways?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What else would be important for you and your team to discuss concerning cultural safety and
your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
14

2.2.1 HISTORY…AND YOUR COMMUNITY
“This is a story of loss. Residential schools disrupted families and communities. They prevented elders from
teaching children long-valued cultural and spiritual traditions and practices. They helped kill languages. These
were not side effects of a well-intentioned system: the purpose of the residential school system was to separate
children from the inﬂuences of their parents and their community, so as to destroy their culture. The impact
was devastating. Countless students emerged from the schools as lost souls, their lives soon to be cut short by
drugs, alcohol, and violence. The last of the federally supported schools and residences, of which there were at
least 150, closed in the 1990s”(Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2011, p. 1).
At its core, SNAP®
is based on risk factors, protective factors, parenting practices,
and modeling—all issues and practices fundamentally woven into the fabric of
colonization. The key message we need to communicate about the colonization
of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada is twofold:
1. Some of the earliest policies like the Indian Act, 1885, though amended over
the years, are still in place today.
2. The effects of colonization (also referred to as intergenerational trauma,
historical trauma, cultural genocide, loss of cultural cohesion) have been
transmitted over generations and continue to affect the daily lives of Aboriginal
families and communities.
”Intergenerational trauma requires the counsellor to review the person symptomatically from
a historical perspective. We need to consider the individual as a member of both an extended
family and a community, with a distinct social and political history.”
Dr. Peter Menzies (2006, p. 12) Manager Aboriginal Services, CAMH, cited in Crooks et al., 2009
Trauma history is prominent both in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children and families
admitted to SNAP®
services. Identification and management of trauma is integral to ensuring
positive experiences and impact of services. SNAP®
Girls at CDI Lab Site has specialized
trauma focused training and assessment in an effort to more effectively work with these high
risk children and families. Teams working with Aboriginal families may also be interested in
pursuing specialized training, similar to the SNAP®
Lab Site teams (you may contact the SNAP®
Implementation Team for further information).
15
In the following chart we briefly highlight key events, policies and practices in the history of
Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in order to foster a shared understanding and to support SNAP®
facilitators and teams in their discussions and planning. More extensive information is available –
check out the Reports highlighted in this section.
SNAP®
groups
foster a sense
of belonging to
something special.
We learned this
most clearly from
one of our young
participants who
often missed school,
but was sure to
attend on the day
SNAP®
was
taking place.

Colonization “The colonization of indigenous peoples has been identified as a
fundamental health determinant by the World Health Organization…
From the Aboriginal perspective, it refers to the loss of lands, resources, and
self-direction and to the severe disturbance of cultural ways and values”
(LaRocque, 1993). To learn more, read the Report of the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples.
Indian Act, 1885 This is the oldest piece of legislation giving the Federal Government“…
responsibility for the definition and maintenance of Indians and lands reserved
for Indians”(Sinclair, Bala, Lilles, & Blackstock, 2004, cited in Blackstock, 2010,
p. 2) including control over“Indian identity, political structures, landholding
patterns, and resource and economic development on reserves”(Bennett,
Blackstock, De La Ronde, 2005, p. 14).
“The Indian Act continued to disrupt traditional forms of government. It added
new regulations about who qualified as members of a band, which determined
who could vote in band elections. The Indian Act had a negative impact on the
roles of women and Elders in traditional First Nations. Many traditional
government practices held women and men as equal participants, and Elders
as respected advisors and leaders. After the Indian Act, women and Elders
were effectively removed from all official processes of government”(Alberta
Education, 2005, p. 3).
Residential schools The forced removal of First Nations children from their families began in
the 1870s as part of the Federal government’s plan to assimilate First Nations
children.
“These government-funded, church-run schools were set up to eliminate
parental involvement in the intellectual, cultural, and spiritual development of
Aboriginal children”(see Truth and Reconciliation Commission web site,
www.trc.ca).
Over time, over 150,000 First Nations, Métis, and Inuit children were placed in
Residential schools.“Five to six generations of First Nations and Inuit peoples
were subjected to the residential school system.”More children attended as
“Day students”but did not live at the schools (Truth and Reconciliation, 2012, p. 1).
“In the eyes of the system, First Nations and Inuit people were fit only for
menial work. It was considered a waste to prepare them for anything more.
Many children left the schools at age eighteen with the equivalent of only a
Grade 5 education”(Alberta Education, 2005, p. 5).
The effects on the children, their parents and on communities left behind have
been documented extensively (Bryce, 1922; Royal Commission on Aboriginal
Peoples, 1996; Milloy, 1999; Blackstock, 2003; Alberta Education, 2005):
• High rates of death due to preventable disease
• Excessive physical punishment
• High rates of physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse
• Exposure to abuse of other students; abuse of peers
• Negligence
• “prolific cultural and linguistic erosion”
16

“Parents lost the chance to raise their own children, and children lost the love
and security of their homes, families and communities. Not only was
traditional education of First Nations and Inuit children interfered with, the
traditional family structure was broken”(Alberta Education, 2005, p. 4).
The last federally operated residential school in Canada closed in
Saskatchewan in 1996.
Child welfare and The Sixties Scoop refers to the“mass removal”of Aboriginal children from
the“Sixties Scoop” their homes and families. The children were apprehended by child welfare,
starting in the mid-1950s, when the provinces and territories were given
responsibility for child welfare and education.
“In 1959, only one percent of children in care of Social Services were of
Aboriginal ancestry. By the end of the 1960s, 30 to 40 percent of children in
care were Aboriginal, even though they only constituted four percent of
Canada’s population”(Alberta Education, 2005, p. 7).
“Many times, culturally valued ways of raising children were misinterpreted by
social workers and this resulted in apprehension of the children. Often
moved from home to home, children in foster care suffered great losses,
including loss of birth names and tribal identity, cultural identity and, for First
Nations children, loss of Indian status”(Fournier and Crey, 1997 cited in
Alberta Education, 2005, p. 7).
Workers apprehended children and placed them in residential schools or with
non-Aboriginal families (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1996).
Chiefs of Ontario estimate that about 16,000 children had been“adopted out”
of Aboriginal communities by the 1980s when the practice was formally
ended (Chiefs of Ontario web site).
To learn more about Aboriginal child welfare, please read A Literature Review
and Annotated Bibliography on Aspects of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada and
Touchstones of Hope for Indigenous Children, Youth and Families by Bennett,
Blackstock, and De La Ronde (2005).
Justice and policing Aboriginal peoples are over-represented in the justice system as
offenders and over-represented as victims of crime (Rudin, undated, p. 1).
Aboriginal youth are over-represented as offenders at a“much higher”rate
than adults (Rudin, undated, p. 1). Aboriginal peoples are described as being
“over-policed”where they are“targeted”by police (Rudin, p. 1). The police
were historically involved in forcing children to attend residential school and
participated in child welfare apprehensions as well. For all of these reasons,
Aboriginal peoples tend to be wary of police and their power (Rudin,
undated).
17

History…and your community
Please use additional paper or back of sheet for additional space.
1. How did your community come to live on its land?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Did members of your community go to residential school?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What stories are told about your community’s history?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How does your community’s story relate to working with SNAP®
?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Do you see challenges with working closely with the Police? Child Welfare? Mental Health
Organizations? Schools?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. How can you address some of these issues and experiences in order to increase cultural safety?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What else would be important for you and your team to discuss concerning your community’s
history and experiences?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
18

2.2.2 ABORIGINAL PEOPLES, LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL IDENTITY…IN YOUR COMMUNITY
As important as it is to learn about Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, our Community
Advisors and the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples assert that the focus
must move beyond the sweeping nature of the term“Aboriginal.”
“The term AboriginalThe term Aboriginal obscures the distinctiveness of the First Peoples of Canada
— Inuit, Métis and First Nations. With linguistic differences, for example, there
are more than 50 distinct groupings among First Nations alone. Among Inuit,
there are several dialects within Inuktitut, and the Métis people speak a variety
of First Nations languages such as Cree, Ojibwa or Chipewyan, as well as Michif,
which evolved out of their mixed ancestry.”
The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Volume 2, p. 20
People of Aboriginal descent refer to themselves using a variety of terms and
may or may not recognize themselves as“Aboriginal.”They may call themselves:
Aboriginal, Indian, Native, First Nations, Inuit, Métis, or they may identify themselves as
members of a particular nation, community or band (e.g. Mi’kmaq, Cree, Algonquin, Ojibway, etc.). Because
of the impact of colonization including residential schooling, and the high movement of Aboriginal
peoples between reserves and urban centres, Aboriginal peoples have varying degrees of knowledge
and experience with Aboriginal culture, languages and traditions (see Appendix A for visual of Ontario
Aboriginal Communities).
Language is how knowledge is transferred, how celebrations are shared, how one generation connects
with the next. Through colonization and assimilationist policies and practices, Aboriginal peoples have
lost many of their languages.
The Canadian Constitution“recognizes three groups of Aboriginal people: Indians (now known as First
Nations people), Métis and Inuit. These are three distinct peoples with unique heritages, languages,
cultural practices, and spiritual beliefs”(Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada).
19
We have to
make sure the
Manual respects the
differences between
communities, histories,
languages.
Community Advisors

The following provides a helpful summary of information for SNAP®
facilitators and team members
regarding the important practice principle - Know Who You Are Working With.
1 Be clear which First Nation, Inuit or Métis community you are working with and incorporate the
traditions, stories, and teachings of that community.
2 You may often be working with individuals of various cultural backgrounds, particularly in urban
settings. In these cases, the following suggestions can be considered:
a. If you combine traditions and teachings, be clear about where these traditions are coming from
(group or individual perspectives). It is disrespectful to mix and match them into one mythical
pan-Aboriginal cultural tradition.
b. There are some traditions that are more universal and will resonate with a wider range of
people. For example, the Seven Grandfather Teachings are subscribed to in some form by a
range of Aboriginal groups (e.g., Anishinaabe; Seven Virtues among the Cree; also used by the
Mi’kmaq). Furthermore, the universality of these values is such that they can be incorporated
into a program to benefit all youth.
Engaging and Empowering Aboriginal Youth: A Toolkit for Service Providers, Crooks et al., 2010, p. 29
You may be working in a community that functions entirely in its first language. You could
also be working in a community that functions exclusively in English or somewhere in
between the two worlds. It is for all of these reasons that we have chosen to briefly highlight
key information about Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in order to foster a shared understanding
and to support SNAP®
facilitators and teams in their discussions and work together. More
extensive information is available – check out the materials highlighted in this section.
20

ABORIGINAL PEOPLES IN CANADA3
First Nations First Nations has more than one meaning. It often refers to a cultural group or
nation of indigenous peoples, such as the Kainai, Cree, Anishinabé or Mi’kmaq.
First Nations people were once known by the name Indians. However, Indians
is considered offensive to many people today, partly because the name does
not reflect the true position of First Nations as indigenous peoples of Canada.
Canada’s First Nations are diverse historically, culturally and linguistically. The
term First Nation can also refer to the government of a group of First Nations
people. There are over 630 First Nations governments today, each
representing the interests of a distinct group of people.
First Nation is a term that came into common usage in the 1970s to replace the
word‘Indian,’which some people found offensive. Although the term First
Nation is widely used, no legal definition of it exists. The term‘First Nations
peoples’can refer to both Status and non-Status Indian peoples in Canada.
Some Indian peoples have also adopted the term‘First nation’to replace the
word‘band’in the name of their community.
Inuit peoples Inuit peoples are from Arctic areas of North America, as well as other
countries with polar regions. Inuit means“the people”in Inuktitut, the Inuit
language. Inuit peoples also have diverse cultural traits that vary across the
huge Arctic region. Six variants of Inuktitut are spoken in Canada.
Métis people The term Métis comes from a French word that refers to a person of mixed
heritage. It first came into use in the sixteenth century, when the French began
to visit North America regularly. Métis became a name used to describe the
heritage of children born of French fur traders and First Nations women.
As the fur trade developed throughout the next 300 years, the name Métis
gradually became more specific. Métis increasingly referred to a culturally
distinct nation of people with First Nations-French ancestry. Today political
organizations such as the Métis Nation of Alberta define the Métis Nation as a
group of individuals who are associated with a recognized Métis family or
community and who self-identify as Métis people.
Urban Aboriginal The Aboriginal population in Canada is the fastest-growing segment of the
Canadian population. In recent decades, the number of Aboriginal people
living in Canada’s urban centres has grown substantially.
According to the 2006 Census, more than half (623,470) of the 1,172,790
people identifying themselves as members of at least one of Canada’s
Aboriginal groups, that is, North American Indian, Métis or Inuit, resided in
urban areas. Of this urban Aboriginal population, almost 34% (213,945) lived
in five cities: Winnipeg, Edmonton, Vancouver, Calgary and Toronto. Over the
last 25 years, the urban Aboriginal population in Canada has been growing
steadily. In some cases, particularly in the larger cities, the Aboriginal
population has more than doubled. For example, in Winnipeg, Manitoba, the
Aboriginal population reached nearly 68,000 or 10% of the population – more
than four times higher than it was 25 years earlier.
3
This chart directly reproduces material from Our Words, Our Ways: Teaching First Nations, Métis and Inuit Learners citing Kainai
Board of Education et al. as its source and from Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada.
The diversity of Canada’s Aboriginal peoples is extraordinary; the chart shares information about this
diversity.
21

This next chart provides information about population trends, language use, family structure and
violence in families. Again, the information is meant to offer a starting place for thinking about who
lives in your community, what languages are spoken, cultural practices, etc.
DEMOGRAPHICS - Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: 2006 Census Highlights1
In 2006, the number of people who identified themselves as an Aboriginal person, that is, North American
Indian (First Nations people), Métis and Inuit, surpassed the one-million mark, reaching 1,172,790.
The past decade has seen a large increase in the Aboriginal population. Between 1996 and 2006, it grew by
45%, nearly six times faster than the 8% rate of increase for the non-Aboriginal population.
In 2006, Aboriginal people, First Nations, Métis and Inuit, accounted for almost 4% of the total population
of Canada. Internationally, the share of Aboriginal people in Canada’s population is second to New
Zealand where the Maori accounted for 15% of the population. Indigenous people made up just 2% of the
population of Australia and of the United States.
Of the three Aboriginal groups in Canada, the Métis experienced the greatest increase in the past decade.
Their number grew 91%, reaching 389,785 people in 2006. This was more than three times as fast as the
29% increase in First Nations people, whose number reached 698,025. The Inuit increased 26%, to 50,485.
Although eight in 10 Aboriginal people live in Ontario and the western provinces, the fastest increase in
the past decade occurred east of Manitoba. The Aboriginal population grew 95% in Nova Scotia, 67% in
New Brunswick, 65% in Newfoundland and Labrador, 53% in Quebec and 68% in Ontario. In the western
provinces, the fastest growth was observed in Manitoba (36%).
Aboriginal people in Canada are increasingly urban. In 2006, 54% lived in urban areas (including large cities
or census metropolitan areas and smaller urban centres), up from 50% in 1996. In 2006, Winnipeg was
home to the largest urban Aboriginal population (68,380). Edmonton, with 52,100, had the second largest
number of Aboriginal people. Vancouver ranked third, with 40,310. Toronto (26,575), Calgary (26,575),
Saskatoon (21,535) and Regina (17,105), were also home to relatively large numbers of urban Aboriginal
people.
The Aboriginal population is younger than the non-Aboriginal population. Almost half (48%) of the
Aboriginal population consists of children and youth aged 24 and under, compared with 31% of the non-
Aboriginal population.
Over the past decade, the share of Aboriginal people living in crowded homes has declined. In 2006, 11%
of Aboriginal people lived in homes with more than one person per room, down from 17% in 1996. At the
same time, nearly one in four lived in homes requiring major repairs in 2006, unchanged from 1996.
Overall, Aboriginal people were almost four times as likely as non-Aboriginal people to live in a crowded
dwelling. They were three times as likely to live in a home in need of major repairs.
Aboriginal women were more likely to be lone parents than non-Aboriginal women. In 2006, 18%
of Aboriginal women aged 15 and over were heading families on their own, compared with 8% of
non-Aboriginal women.
In 2006, 20% of First Nations women over the age of 15 were lone parents, while this was the case for 17% of Inuit
women and 14% of Métis women.
Lone-parent families headed by Aboriginal women tend to be larger than those headed by their non-
Aboriginal counterparts. In 2006, 22% of Aboriginal female lone parents had three or more children, more
than twice the figure for their non-Aboriginal counterparts at 10%. About one in four First Nations (25%)
and Inuit (23%) female lone parents had three or more children, while 16% of Métis female lone parents
had three or more children.
22

While 25% of First Nations women and girls reported having an Aboriginal mother tongue, 29% reported
knowledge of, or the ability to converse in, an Aboriginal language. For Inuit, these figures were 65% and 70%.
For Métis, they were 3% and 4%.
In 2006, approximately half (51%) of First Nations women living on reserve reported that they were able to
speak an Aboriginal language, as compared to 12% of First Nations women living off reserve.
Youth aged 15 to 19 not in school: Comparing internationally - In 2006, 29% of Aboriginal teenagers aged
15 to 19 were no longer pursuing a formal education (29% of Aboriginal teen boys and 28% of Aboriginal
teen girls). This was higher than the average of their non-Aboriginal counterparts (19%) in Canada. Compared
with the youth populations of other countries (Indigenous and non-Indigenous combined), the percentage
of Aboriginal 15- to 19-year olds not in education in Canada was almost double the average of 15% across the
31 member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2008.
Other factors that have been linked to violence in Aboriginal communities include the breakdown of family
life resulting from residential school experience, and the impact of colonization on traditional values and
culture.
In 2009, about 15% of Aboriginal women who had a spouse or common-law partner reported that they had
experienced spousal violence in the previous five years. In the case of non-Aboriginal women the proportion
was 6%.
Crooks et al. (2009, p. 10) identify 10 considerations and strategies that assist in integrating culture into a
program. These include:
1. Awareness of cultural identity needs to be woven into every step of activities.
2. Positive role models from youths’cultural groups are an incredible asset in developing a
healthy cultural identity.
3. Culturally-relevant teachings are best identified through community partners.
4. Cultural identity needs to be reflected in the environment of the setting.
5. Cultural competence needs to be fostered among professionals.
6. Traditions and symbols are important components of cultural identity, (but they are not the
sum of it).
7. Different ways of knowing need to be incorporated into programs.
8. Holistic worldviews are an integral part of most indigenous cultures.
9. Youth need access to culturally relevant material, but also the opportunities for self-reflection.
10. Historical and contemporary cultural images need to be balanced.
SNAP®
also recognizes the positive impact that pro-social role models can have on both
children and the adults in their lives. Incorporating Peer Mentors from the same cultural
groups in SNAP®
, assists both with learning and positive association to cultural identity.
• Child and Parent Peer Mentors are SNAP®
Graduates who successfully demonstrate self-
control and problem-solving skills
• Mentors play important roles including co-facilitating SNAP®
groups where they
actively model effective skills and strategies taught in the SNAP®
program.
24

Aboriginal Peoples, language and cultural identity…and your community
1. Who lives in your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What languages are spoken?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What spiritual practices are followed?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What unique demographics do you notice in your community? For example, do you have a young
community? What impact does this have on SNAP®
programs?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Where do your community members live? Do you have many families living under one roof? What
impact does this have on providing SNAP®
programs?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
25

6. Who will be the main users of your SNAP®
program? What impact would this have on providing SNAP®
programs?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Is your community growing? What impact has this had on your community? Do you have a lot of
people traveling to and from the city? What impact would this have on providing SNAP®
programs?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
8. How can you use the material discussed here to increase cultural safety?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
9. What else would be important for you and your team to discuss concerning your community’s people,
languages and cultural identity?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
26

2.2.3 KNOWLEDGE AND WORLDVIEW…IN YOUR COMMUNITY
“Knowledge, then, is based on experience. One’s experiences through her inward journeys provide both
individual learning and teachings for the collective. The accumulation of each individual’s contribution becomes
a community’s culture. Culture is kept alive and constantly changing because individuals continue their
introspective journeys and contribute their learning to the community.”
Baskin, 2006, p. 1
One of the ways we are bringing Aboriginal views and perspectives to SNAP®
is by
working with Aboriginal professionals and community members to gather their
experiences and advice. This is knowledge. Another way has been to recognize
and use knowledge that has been gathered and/or developed by Aboriginal
researchers and practitioners. Our goal in this section is to support SNAP®
facilitators and staff to continue to recognize and actively incorporate the
knowledge and worldviews reflected in their own communities.
Terms such as Aboriginal worldview and Aboriginal culture are used to
represent knowledge, traditions and concepts which are customarily held and
practiced by Aboriginal peoples and in Aboriginal communities. The Seven
Grandfather Teachings (see highlight) are an example of a prominent tradition
that is accepted across many Aboriginal communities.
According to Sacred Ways of Life – Traditional Knowledge (2005, p. 2), the term traditional
knowledge is used to describe knowledge“passed from generation-to-generation”through:
Storytelling Medicines Ceremonies
Ideologies Arts and Crafts Dances
Traditions A combination of all these
Crooks et al. (2010) comment on the learning style of Aboriginal youth saying,“The learning styles of Aboriginal youth,
in general, include a holistic level where concepts are learned, visual methods that incorporate hands-on activities,
reflective components where time is provided for task completion and for answering questions, and via collaborative
methods, within which small groups work together”(p. 94). (Crooks identifies this as a key strategy to engage
Aboriginal youth, p. 101).
SEVEN
GRANDFATHER
TEACHINGS
1. Wisdom
2. Respect
3. Love
4. Bravery
5. Honesty
6. Humility
7. Truth
SNAP®
builds knowledge and uses various techniques to translate this knowledge into skill building
through the use of modeling, role-plays and practice. This, in turn, helps children and caregivers
generalize these skills into their daily decision making, helping to keep their problems small.
Being responsive to different learning styles is embedded in the SNAP®
programs: an extensive
array of signs (visual), hands-on role plays and recreation activities (physical) and discussion (oral)
are all part of the program. SNAP®
incorporates wellness, relaxation and mindfulness approaches
in many of its programs. Incorporating storytelling as a means of relaxation is also encouraged.
What other spiritual, cultural and learning components could be included?
Crooks et al., 2009
27

Although there are numerous tools available to help explain Aboriginal worldview, we’ve chosen to adapt
material from Our Words, Our Ways: Teaching First Nations, Métis and Inuit Learners because of its clear
approach and its adaptability to working with children and parents through SNAP®
.
The Making of a Star Quilt…the making of connections
The making of a star quilt:
• is an art activity using design and geometry;
• creates an opportunity to meet a quilt maker from the community;
• is a way to learn cultural teachings regarding the star pattern and quilt;
• involves working with others to meet a common goal; and
• is an opportunity to explore and learn about the importance of establishing and maintaining
relationships.
As a means to welcome parents into the room and provide a relaxed atmosphere, a couple of
our SNAP®
sites in Western Canada used beading as a craft activity at the beginning of each
SNAP®
Parent group with the goal of incorporating a sense of cultural safety and creating
space for a greater sharing of personal stories.
What activities like this can you incorporate into your work at SNAP®
?
Connection
to the land
and comunity
Interconnectedness
of all living things
Dynamic
nature of the
world
Strength in
“power with”
Holistic
perspective
Five threads
common to
Aboriginal
worldviews
28

Five threads common to Aboriginal
worldviews…4
• The whole person, encompassing their
mental, physical, emotional and spiritual
capabilities in relation to all living things.
• All forms are interconnected, that the
survival of each life form is dependent on
the survival of all others.
• The force that animates the life forms is
derived from an unseen but knowable
spiritual realm.
• A unified vision, rather than an artificial
fragmentation of concepts.
• All life is sacred and that all life forms are
connected. Humans are neither above
nor below others in the circle of life.
Everything that exists in the circle is one
unity, one heart.
• Interconnectedness of all living things and
the spirit that exists within each.
• Spirituality, personal health, community
health and the health of the environment
are understood to be interrelated.
• With the recognition of the connections
among all things come the questions—
What are an individual’s relations to other
people? To nature? To the land?
• All individuals assume a responsibility for
themselves, not in isolation, but in relation
to all else. Each individual is regarded as a
participating, contributing member of the
group. Cooperation and sharing are vital.
Strategies modified for fostering this
perspective in SNAP®
• Build activities around meaningful content
relating to participants’experiences and
engaging them in tasks based on their
interests.
• Create opportunities for visual symbolic
thinking and holistic approaches.
• Look for opportunities to make connections
among topics and activities.
• When appropriate, ask a member of the
community to assist with the learning.
• Create a community; encourage each
participant to be a contributor.
• Encourage participants to be aware of their
sphere of influence and to always consider
the impact of their actions on others and
on the community.
Holistic perspective
Interconnectedness of all living things
4
We’ve reproduced and adapted“Five Threads”material from Alberta Education`s (2005) Our Words, Our Ways: Teaching First
Nations, Métis and Inuit Learners because of its clear approach and its applicability to working with children and parents through
SNAP®.
29

30
worldviews… (continued)
• A sacred relationship with nature is
the heart of traditional teachings and
practices. From the understanding of the
interconnectedness of all things comes the
understanding that the well-being of the
Earth is essential for survival.
• Growing out of this connection to the Earth,
Aboriginal worldviews encompass a fluid
sense of time and the cyclical nature of
change—day and night, the seasons, life
and death.
• Connection to the Earth also teaches
about the importance of place and of the
connection to a place of belonging. The
Earth provides the land on which people
build communities—land and community
dictate a way of life.
• Aboriginal cultures are dynamic, adaptive
and adapting, not limited to the past.
• In Aboriginal worldviews, everything—
people, relationships, situations—is
dynamic. Individuals change, and Aboriginal
cultures evolve and adapt. Learning is
recognized as a creative process from
which new structures, forms and practices
evolve.
Strength in“power with”
• In Aboriginal cultures, worldviews reflect
“power with,”rather than“power over.”
The image for this concept is a circle, and
all living things are viewed as equal within
the circle.“Power with”is a dialogue, where
everyone stands on the ground, face to
face.
(continued)
• Explore ways to create a sense of home in
the group.
• Think about how to draw participants into
the group and make them feel welcome.
• Recognize and celebrate the seasons and
the changes that they bring.
• Use nature as a setting for programming.
• Mark occasions.
• Create opportunities for experiential
learning. When teaching participants
about traditional Aboriginal food such as
blueberries, plan the learning activity so
that the group can go out to the land and
actually have the experience of picking
berries.
• Encourage participants to consider
multiple perspectives. Focus less on
opinion and argument or right and wrong,
and encourage participants to share
and extend their own thinking through
discussion with others.
• Explore the relationships between
concepts. Encourage participants to
go beyond dichotomous“this OR that”
thinking. Help them focus on multiple
possibilities instead—“this AND that.”
• Learn from the participants about
how they learn best. Work in genuine
collaboration with them to determine the
approaches that are most effective.
• Involve participants when making
decisions about the group.
Connection to the land and community
Dynamic nature of the world

worldviews… (continued)
• The image for“power over”is a pyramid,
with those at the top holding the greatest
power.“Power over”is a hierarchy, where
the few stand above the many.
(continued)
• Use role plays to create“daily life”
situations so that participants can practice
their SNAP®
skills and become effective at
making real decisions about things that
matter.
• Work toward consensus.
• Invite older or stronger participants to
mentor younger or less able participants.
Find ways to reverse the process, e.g., find
a skill that a younger student could mentor
in an older student.
• Welcome and validate parent input
into decision making about their child’s
program. Treat them as full partners in
the collaboration that is essential for
supporting their child.
• Recognize that parents have expert
knowledge about their Aboriginal
community. Ask for their help and advice
in choosing visitors to the group, and
connecting with other community and
cultural resources.
31
Dynamic nature of the world (continued)

The Medicine Wheel is one of the tools used
by some Aboriginal peoples
to communicate teachings. In the
first example, the Cree Medicine Wheel
is used to communicate about
human development. Annie
Wenger-Nabigon (2010) describes
developmental stages and
tasks; here she draws on
previous work by Nabigon and
Mawhiney to describe The East
Door (pp. 145-146):
“The East Door (spring)
represents beginnings, positive
aspects of renewal, good
feelings, good food, vision,
purpose and direction. Being able
to have an awareness of emotions
and an ability to share them with
appropriate language and expression,
as well as being able to reduce stress
through laughter and sharing is integral
to mental health. Having a core sense of self-
esteem and self-love makes it possible to deal
with inferiority, which is the“rascal”of the East Door,
or the negative (dark) side of life. This negative aspect of the
East Door creates shame, anger, feelings of inequality, powerlessness and victimization.“Let us not forget
that we co-create our lives with our souls (minds), and so we must learn how to empower ourselves
so that we can create the kind of life we really want”(p. 22). Teachings about affection, sexuality,
companionship, sacrifice and loyalty help to create balance. This is also the direction containing teachings
about childhood.”
32
The Healing Journey, a website dedicated to
helping Aboriginal communities deal with family
violence, uses the Medicine Wheel here to help
Aboriginal women identify safety issues across all
parts of their lives.
One Aboriginal community created
learning logs in the shape of the
medicine wheel.
What are your ideas for using the
medicine wheel in SNAP®
?

Knowledge and worldview…and your community
1. What teachings does your community follow?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How are those teachings shared? Storytelling? Ceremonies? Arts and crafts?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
How can these be used in SNAP®
?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What are your community’s cultural practices?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
How can these be used in SNAP®?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
33

34
4. Who communicates those traditions and how can they be involved in SNAP®
?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. How can the“five threads”common to Aboriginal worldviews be incorporated into SNAP®
?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
6. How can you use the material discussed here to increase cultural safety at SNAP®
?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What else would be important for you and your team to discuss concerning your community’s
knowledge and worldview?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

SECTION THREE: IMPLEMENTING SNAP®
IN YOUR COMMUNITY
“The importance of parent engagement for Aboriginal youth cannot be understated, as historically speaking
the family was the educational system for Aboriginal youth, and engagement in general helps to facilitate
adherence to a more holistic way of life, greatly desired by Aboriginal peoples.”
McEachern and Donato, 2013, p. 10
35
There are a number of things to consider when it comes to implementing SNAP®
in Aboriginal
communities. For example, SNAP®
programs are often run in schools because they offer a
child-focused setting and children are already there. As well, referrals typically come from
local police services, child welfare agencies, children’s mental health centres and schools
themselves.
However, as we have shown, Aboriginal peoples have complex relationships with education
systems and schools, dating back to the Canadian Government’s early efforts in the 1800s
to“civilize”them by placing many of them in residential schools. (For more information, see
Section Two.)
Some schools have taken steps to address these issues and/or are Aboriginal-run. We encourage
SNAP®
facilitators to approach the school in a spirit of collaboration, working together to create
a culturally safe climate for students. This could include: organizing an all-school assembly to
inform staff as well and students about the language and cultural framework of SNAP®
; creating
a school and classroom environment that is FUN and instructional at the same time; having
students create and post visuals that are relevant to SNAP®
skill-building, while at the same time,
reflecting their culture, language and world view. Historically, the family and community were
the“education system”for Aboriginal children. Today, Aboriginal communities are in different
stages of successfully engaging parents and community members in this critical role.
Because child welfare and police services share similarly complex relationships with
Aboriginal peoples (see Section Two) their roles as primary referral sources need to be
considered carefully. Consistent with Aboriginal worldviews and practices, it is important to
actively engage parents and other community members in the referral process.

Implementation Criteria
Collaboration
and partnerships
SNAP®
sites need a strong history
of collaborating or working with
others. Strong relationships
with a range of agencies and key
community members help make
sure that children and families with
complex needs have access to a
wide range of community resources.
SNAP®
often looks for strong
partnerships with:
• Schools
• Mental health agencies
• Local police services
• Child welfare
• Other community
organizations
The above groups also play critical
roles in the referral process,
providing the majority of referrals to
SNAP®
programs.
Community challenges, concerns and solutions
Challenges/Concerns:
Due to the involvement of the police and child welfare in
apprehending children during the residential school period
and the“60s scoop”and beyond, Aboriginal peoples often
have complex relationships with police and child welfare
services. While some of these services may now be directly
run and managed by First Nations peoples, some of the
tensions still exist.
Many Aboriginal communities do not have locally-based
child welfare and/or mental health agencies. Instead the
services are provided out of a regionally-based office and
workers and other professionals fly in and/or drive to the
communities.
The capacity of organizations based in and/or providing
services in Aboriginal communities is often limited.
Suggested Solutions:
In Aboriginal communities, these partnerships may look very
different. Our Community Advisors shared the following
partnerships that help make SNAP®
successful:
Health/nursing stations
Extended family (aunts, uncles, etc.)
Elders, foster parents
Boarding parents
Mentorship programs
Schools
Chief & Council
What resources and partnerships do you have in your
community to draw on?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
36
3.1 GETTING STARTED
In our journey so far, we have concentrated on the importance of cultural safety in
working with children and families in Aboriginal communities. When you and your team
have explored and addressed cultural safety issues as they relate to your community,
then it is time to get started.
In this section, we consider some of the implementation issues/challenges identified
by SNAP®
facilitators and staff working in Aboriginal communities. We also provide the
solutions they developed, along with suggestions gathered from additional sources.
We parent
differently, we
view the world
differently.
Community
Advisor

37
Policies
All professionals and/or
organizations using SNAP®
are
expected to develop and implement
written policies regarding cultural
competence, parent involvement,
confidentially, privacy, and client
feedback.
The task of creating policies can be overwhelming,
particularly when Aboriginal organizations are burdened
with heavy administrative loads and challenges.
What are some concerns in your community?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Include sample policies in the training to help support
communities to develop their own policies.
Solutions for your community:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Staffing
Staff should be hired from within
the community in which the
program is operating (this helps to
build community capacity and trust).
Allocate full-time staff to operate
the program such as:
• One full-time senior staff
person with clinical and
administrative skills to
oversee the program and
provide leadership and clinical
supervision
• One to two full-time family (in
home) workers who are also
SNAP®
Parent Group Leaders
• Two full time child workers
who are also SNAP®
Children’s Group Leaders
• Part time staff to do intake,
data entry, coordinate
volunteers and peer mentors,
coordinate transportation and
prepare meals
Most SNAP
®
Advisors suggested that they did not have the
appropriate staffing and often felt the workload was too
much. It is imperative that there be enough workers to
carry out all aspects of the SNAP
®
program from the start.
A lack of appropriate training and qualifications may be a
considerable barrier when attempting to get staff to work in
a clinical program, particularly in remote communities.
The desire to include more mentoring opportunities was
acknowledged, but this resource was underused in current
Aboriginal SNAP
®
sites.
Every aspect of carrying out the program requires more
support: i.e., during parent programs, assisting participants
to fill out forms or do homework, completing administrative
requirements including database entry and management.
High staff turnover
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Engage volunteers and mentors from the beginning for the
parent programs and administrative aspects of SNAP
®
.
Having“go-to”people—such as experienced mentor-
facilitators and an Advisory Committee—for advice and
support is critical for navigating between a mainstream-
developed clinical intervention and the culture and realities
of working in Aboriginal communities.
Involve everyone who might be associated with the delivery
of the SNAP
®
program in the initial SNAP
®
core training.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
38

39
Training
SNAP®
training is mandatory for all
staff delivering both the clinical and
school-based models.
Training Modules are available for
professionals and organizations
interested in delivering services for
children with disruptive behaviour
problems.
The investment of time and money for training
Continued investment in training given staff turnover
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
SNAP
®
is currently working on customized SNAP
®
training,
such as 2-day training for people working in Aboriginal
communities.
Given that training is time-consuming and costly, carefully
consider the people who can become knowledgeable
resources for your community.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Licensing
Upon completion of SNAP®
training,
licenses are issued.
A SNAP
®
licence is an annual investment tied to meeting
ongoing fidelity and integrity audits, to ensure best
practices that result in positive outcomes for children
and families.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
SNAP
®
Implementation Team works with sites
implementing SNAP
®
to ensure they are supported and
able to deliver their program with the highest integrity.
40

Target population
Boys and Girls 6-11; conduct-type
problems such as aggression, rule-
breaking, stealing, non-compliance,
social aggression, trouble with
self-control and problem-solving.
Behaviours are in the clinical range
which means they are worse off
than 98% of kids their own age. At
risk of future offending.
Is it okay to use SNAP
®
with children who are younger or
older or who have developmental issues like FASD?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
SNAP
®
is a proven strategy to help children deal with
emotion regulation, self-control and problem-solving for
6-11 year olds; however, a child may stay in the SNAP
®
program up to the age of 18 depending on needs.
Younger siblings are included in activity group work that
introduces SNAP
®
.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
41

Referrals
Children and families referred
to SNAP®
programs are typically
referred by caregivers/Elders,
schools, police, child welfare and
mental health agencies.
*However, we recognize that in Aboriginal
communities, the journey participants take to
get to SNAP®
may be very different.
Our Community Advisors shared many challenges and
concerns as well as many solutions. We encourage you to
think about what the referral journey might look like in your
community.
Sometimes the very involvement of police and child welfare
discourages parents and children from participating
because of the lack of trust.
When child welfare and police services are not locally-
based, this may increase lack of trust.
Language on the forms is hard to understand.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Share information about the program in fun ways during
school and community events; offer door prizes.
Go on door to door campaigns and sit and have tea.
Start small; it is okay to have two participants because they
will tell others.
Gain the trust of the participants and community members
first and then involve police and child welfare.
Meet with partners who could provide referrals and explain
forms to them.
Create simplified versions or translated versions of the
forms.
Identify trusted community partners and individuals to
engage with.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
42

Strong client
participation and
engagement
SNAP®
sites need to demonstrate
successful engagement of children
and parents/primary caregivers
to ensure a high degree of
participation from clients (by
providing transportation, child care,
food, etc.).
Challenges in engaging service providers and SNAP®
participants were one of the main reasons for developing this
Companion Manual. Our Community Advisors shared the
following:
Poor enrolment and commitment to SNAP
®
for Parents
programs (this was by far the most commonly mentioned
challenge).
Depending on the seasons, the goose hunt, or other
hunting practices, participants were absent for weeks on
end, which had particularly negative effects on participant
attendance and engagement.
Completing SNAP
®
homework was also a problem because
of the language used and the expectation that it would be
completed independently.
ALL materials are in English yet many SNAP
®
participants
speak their Aboriginal language first; English is their second
language.
Limited opportunities for Elders and others to share
traditional knowledge using storytelling and symbol-based
means to share knowledge between the generations.
Community members did not trust the program,
particularly when police or child welfare was involved.
The use of a video camera made clients feel uncomfortable
or wary—they pulled back and did not participate.
If a client had already participated in SNAP
®
, preference was
given to those who had not, even though the experienced
participant could have served as a mentor, helping others
to engage.
It is more difficult to engage support staff when they are
not paid.
It is difficult to engage boarding parents.
The program is not mandatory or court ordered.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
43

(continued)
Strong client
participation and
engagement
SNAP®
food, etc.).
Engaging the Community:
Feasts and forums offer opportunities to introduce SNAP
®
.
Going door to door to personally introduce the program.
Going to the places where you are having a hard time
engaging people and setting up a booth. For example, at
parent-teacher interviews.
Draws and door prizes were mentioned often as successful
tools.
Focus on getting a few trusted and respected people into
the program, and then they can speak to its success.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Engaging Participants:
Whenever possible, meet them in their homes so you
understand their unique situations. For example, if
someone has 20 people in the home, getting ready and out
the door on time may be a challenge.
Offer materials that have been translated or changed
to reflect the learning styles and reading levels of the
participants.
Use pictures and culturally relevant symbols (animals, the
medicine wheel) to provide information (e.g. use Aboriginal
faces to describe emotions – with one word under each face).
Use oral teachings, explaining the content in your own
words and using a traditional teaching with content such as
a story from your community.
Adopt traditional practices—Aboriginal learning took
place in families and through ceremonies involving
intergenerational relationships where Elders, parents and
mentors passed down and shared knowledge.
Provide opportunities to engage Elders and other
knowledge keepers in sharing their experiences to help
explain a topic – this has worked particularly well for the
boys’groups.
44

(continued)
Strong client
participation and
engagement
SNAP®
food, etc.).
Provide childcare within the room, while parents are
participating, as opposed to providing child care outside of
the group, to support intergenerational learning.
Allow participants to work as a group (instead of
individually) for homework and other work – even for
completing forms.
Ensure your setting reflects your culture, heritage and
community values by using up your own information for
SNAP
®
.
Go to the participant’s house to help them fill out forms.
Offer a set time and space where people can come for help
with material.
Make sure your timing works with the local hunting season
or other cultural practices that may affect people getting to
your programs.
Provide food because it feeds the mind, body and spirit.
Feasts often play important roles in communities as they
offer a time and space for gathering.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Engaging Support Staff:
Start your own Advisory council. Include Elders, support
staff such as community mentors, teachers, and staff and
volunteers from community partner organizations.
Find support staff that can help as part of their existing
work roles such as school counsellors, health and wellness
workers, etc. Provide them with a year to year‘contract’
with the program.
Encourage your Advisory Council to make decisions about
cultural components to include setting, engagement
strategies, etc.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
45

Service components
SNAP®
programs include a number
of service components for children
and families based on their level of
risk and need:
SNAP®
Children’s Group
SNAP®
Parent Group
Individualized Family Counselling
Individual Counselling and
Mentoring
School Advocacy and Teacher
Support
Arson Prevention
Victim Restitution
Homework ClubAcademic Tutoring
Additional components include:
Girls Growing Up Healthy (GGUH)
SNAP®
Youth Leadership
Long Term Connections/
Continued Care
Crisis Intervention
Family overwhelmed by all the components offered
Not enough staffing resources to implement additional
service components
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Determine which components are needed and wanted
Ensure staff feel supported through supervision and work
with them to help with time-management
Consult with the Implementation Team regarding managing
service delivery.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
46

Record keeping
All professionals and/or
organizations using SNAP®
are
required to keep accurate case
files that include contact notes,
individualized treatment plans, and
review records.
The work load for the administrative components was
identified as one of the major barriers by our Advisors.
Equipment and databases were said to be extraordinarily
challenging with a great deal of time going to this task,
taking away time from working with participants.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Streamline — Draw on learnings from databases being
used in Aboriginal communities and create a standardized
template. Aboriginal community members could then work
with CDI staff who would set up the original data base for
record keeping and provide extensive training and support
to all staff. One Advisor said that when the person who
normally took care of this was unable to do so for a period
of time, it was“VERY challenging”to keep up with during
her absence.
If available, partner with colleges and universities in your
area .
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
47

3.2 SCREENING, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Now that you are familiar with the steps and activities involved in implementing SNAP®
in your
community, it is time to talk about screening and assessment.
In this section, we want to:
1. Help foster common understanding among SNAP®
facilitators, staff and community partners
regarding screening, assessments and evaluation in Aboriginal communities.
2. Support our work together to identify the risk and protective factors and
assessment methods that are relevant to and culturally safe for
Aboriginal communities and your community, in particular.
3. Help SNAP®
facilitators and staff working in Aboriginal
communities become more comfortable with
screening/assessment and evaluation language. This
will also help in explaining potentially challenging
forms and translating and/or adjusting language
for participants (because many words do not
have direct Aboriginal translations).
4. Recognize the importance of using a variety
of methods when collecting important
information and feedback in Aboriginal
communities that reflect culturally safe and
relevant practices, i.e. storytelling.
48
One child I have noticed in
particular is in Grade 3 and belongs
to SNAP®
boys group. His teacher has
also indicated the boy no longer gets into
trouble or interfers with other students.
The boy now belongs to a recess supervision
team. When the bell goes off, he’s rushing to
the office for his supervision vest so he can
begin his duties. It is such a pleasure to see
this positive outcome. Other children at the
school are always asking why they can’t attend
SNAP®
classes. The administration are anxious
for SNAP®
Girls to begin because they see
positive results daily as the boys improve their
behaviour choices within the school.
Anonymous Feedback
received from SNA P®
School

3.2.1 HOW DO ASSESSMENTS, STANDARDIZED MEASURES AND RISK/PROTECTIVE FACTORS RELATE
TO ABORIGINAL PEOPLES?
“What do pathways to resilience or vulnerability look like for Aboriginal youth? That is, [w]hat are the‘serious
threats to adaptation or development’that lead to offending for Aboriginal youth?”
Zubrick & Robson, 2003, p. 9.
SNAP®
uses standardized measurements and tools for assessments/evaluation. The Early Assessment Risk
List Tools (EARL-PC pre-checklist referral mechanism used by school or policing personnel; EARL-20B for
boys; and EARL-21G for girls) are used at initial assessment and follow-up time periods of the SNAP®
program
to identify areas of concerns/risks/needs and assist with treatment planning. These tools were designed to assist
practitioners working within a wide range of disciplines in the identification of risk factors associated with future
antisocial behaviour; promote a structured, gender-sensitive approach to risk assessment; help professionals to
develop, prioritize and implement risk-reducing treatment options; make scientific research about risk factors
accessible to practitioners; and bridge the gap between risk factor research and clinical practice, and vice versa.
Additional ecosystemic assessment tools are used as well-- designed to capture both needs and strengths.
How well do these items relate to expectations and norms in Aboriginal communities? At present, there is no
formal research to answer this question, however, we are learning how to better understand risks that are more
relevant to Aboriginal communities based on input from our Community Advisors and the available literature
(see for example, discussion in Price-Robertson and Bromfield, 2011).
Some issues to consider:
• Standardized measures were not developed with Aboriginal people, so content, language and
references may not be relevant to them;
• Standardized measures typically rely on“word-based”questions and answers, gathered during
interviews. We have growing knowledge that Aboriginal peoples may be more comfortable using
symbols and pictures and participating in groups and forums;
• Standardized measures typically assess“individuals”(children, parents) and“family”functioning
and do not take into account extended family and kinship structures in Aboriginal communities
• Standardized measures typically do not reflect and/or capture the holistic way in which Aboriginal
community members view themselves, including: spiritual, physical, intellectual and psychological
domains. They also do not actively gather important contextual information to help provide an
understanding of the individual within their community, within a particular time frame.
The SNAP®
program has always taken a holistic approach to assessing the child’s risk and protective factors,
using a broader lens to explore the influence of extended family and broader community. However, acquiring
a greater understanding of the community’s history is an important factor to assess more fully.
SNAP®
assessments gather information about common risk factors such as poor emotion regulation, self-
control and problem-solving. While these risk factors may also apply to Aboriginal children and youth, some
could just as well describe commonly accepted behaviours and practices in Aboriginal families and communities.
In 1999, Dr. Clare Brant described the ways in which Aboriginal children have been misunderstood by
mainstream professionals:
“Many general psychiatrists see Native children and adolescents in assessments, and often find them passive, difficult
to assess, and not forthcoming. This behaviour, which affects the individual Native child’s attitude and performance in
an assessment situation, is understandable in view of the child’s cultural background. The psychiatrist may, at times,
misinterpret the behaviour as resistance, passive-aggression, opposition, depression, or withdrawal. The general
psychiatrist’s failure to recognize the derivatives of the individual child’s cultural heritage as they affect his behaviour
in a clinical situation may result in unperceived errors in diagnosis, in formulation, and in treatment. For example,
overuse of antidepressants and the all too frequent diagnosis of personality disorders may occur. This may turn what
is intended to be a helpful encounter into one that is not useful or even traumatic for the patient. Such encounters will
no doubt also be frustrating for the clinician.
Dr. Clare Brant, quoted in Report of the Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba, 1999, Volume 2.
49

Given that a testing situation may cause discomfort or anxiety for some individuals and with our greater
understanding of the importance of creating a culturally safe environment, the need to establish safety
within the relationship is crucial so that both the child and key adults in the child’s life feel comfortable
and at ease with the assessment process.
In Rugge’s 2006 review of risk assessment of Aboriginal offenders, Rugge states that the majority of risk
factors do apply to Aboriginal offenders and that“one should start from there rather than reinventing the
wheel”(p. iv). While Rugge’s review focuses on adult offenders, many of the risks identified originate in
childhood, so it is important to consider this view as well. The literature is clear: there are“seven years of
warning”before a juvenile becomes a serious violent offender (Loeber, Farrington, & Petechuk, 2003).
Relevance to SNAP®
approach
As we have seen, the EARL risk
assessment and ecosystemic
assessment tools are designed to
capture both needs and strenghts.
SNAP®
facilitators are encouraged
to“meet the child and family
where they are at.”
The SNAP®
approach includes the
use of narrative (story telling).
Families, kin and community are
encouraged to tell their“story”
in the manner in which they feel
comfortable.
Knowing the reasons behind
questions that feel“intrusive”
can help facilitators feel more
comfortable asking them. Training
can help with this.
“Common ground”4.1
in Risk research
While there are many different perspectives, a common theme
is the need for risk assessment, though opinions differ on the
appropriate assessor and the form the assessment should
take. There is agreement that“needs”should be identified and
that appropriate treatment plans should target these needs.
There is also acknowledgement that there are many different
methods of doing things, and that no one method is always
better than another - they can simply be different.
For example, methods of communication between Aboriginal
and non-Aboriginal groups are often different in the context
of risk assessment. Whereas the empirical method of
communication involves emphasis on numbers and structured
objectivity, many Aboriginal communities stress non-verbal
communication techniques, valuing the importance of story
telling and passing down the teachings from one generation to
the next.
What is valued in a non-Aboriginal society may not be valued
to such a degree in an Aboriginal society and vice versa. For
example, respecting the land, respecting family and Elders,
and living off the land are values found in many Aboriginal
communities. An understanding of both cultures is required to
address the current issues at hand.
4.1
Excerpted from Rugge, 2006, p. iv
50

3.2.2 ASSESSING RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES - A CULTURALLY
SAFER APPROACH
“By nature of their historical and contemporary circumstances, Aboriginal people, at a population level, have
significantly higher risk exposure than the mainstream population. . . Likewise, the extensive and inclusive
nature of kinship relations within and across Aboriginal societies means this population as a whole is
disproportionately affected by adversity. There is thus a need to reduce risk exposure at the population level.”
Zubrick & Robson, 2003, p. 7
SNAP®
programs work by identifying and addressing risk factors which raise the likelihood of negative
outcomes; SNAP®
programs also work to promote protective factors to reduce negative outcomes.
While there are some risk and protective factors that may be similar across cultures, there are also factors
unique to the context and realities of Aboriginal individuals, families and communities.
Effective and culturally safe practice requires that risk factors be relevant and appropriate to Aboriginal
populations. Because this is a comparatively recent area of work for SNAP®
, we are including the
risk factors commonly assessed in SNAP®
programs and have added a developing list of risk factors
associated with Aboriginal children, families and communities, identified through the literature and our
interviews with Community Advisors.
Most importantly, SNAP®
facilitators and staff will need to carefully consider which risk factors and
which protective factors are relevant to their communities. How the community presents its own risk
and protective factors is very important as well. Using this Companion Manual with the EARLs will
enhance programming for Aboriginal people in culturally sensitive and culturally safe ways, while at the
same time addressing risk factors specific to their environment and culture such as isolation, school
failure and substance abuse, among others. See EARL chart below for risks identified on the EARLs.
Family (F) Items Child (C) Items Responsivity (R)
Household Circumstances Developmental Problems Family Responsivity
Caregiver Continuity Onset of Behavioural Difficulties Child Responsivity
Supports Abuse/Neglect/Trauma
Stressors Hyperactivity/Impulsivity/Attention Deficits (HIA)
Parenting Style Likeability
Antisocial Values and Conduct Peer Socialization
Caregiver-Daughter Interaction (*) Academic Performance
Neighbourhood
Authority Contact (+)
Antisocial Attitudes
Antisocial Behaviour
Coping Ability
Sexual Development (*)
(+) Item specific to the EARL-20B; (*) item specific to the EARL-21G
EARLY ASSESSMENT RISK LIST (EARL) - RISK FACTORS (EARL-20B, EARL-21G)
51

52
RISK FACTORS
Commonly identified in
SNAP®
programs
Coping Ability
(which includes poor emotion
regulation, self-control and
problem solving; as well as,
depression & anxiety)
Peer Socialization
(which includes bullying, being
bullied)
Antisocial Behaviour
(which includes delinquency,
aggression and violence)
Indicators of risk that may be related to
Aboriginal peoples - In Development
Substance abuse5
Suicide
Being bullied6
See comments below from Justice System and Aboriginal
People regarding Aboriginal concepts of crime7
Gang involvement8
Freng et al. (2012) cite literature linking
Aboriginal youth involvement in gangs to“social and economic
conditions of reservation communities, which are not that
dissimilar from inner cities or the barrios where other gangs
have developed”; note common risk factors apply to Aboriginal
youth including: female-headed households, maternal antisocial
behavior, poor attachment, family dysfunction, and families that
move on and off the reservation; family member connected
to gangs, especially cousins, poor school performance and
adjustment, delinquency, drug use and sales (p. 449).
Why do Aboriginal youth join gangs? Freng et al. report
primary reasons given were:“respect”(36%);“for fun”(36%);
having a family member in the gang (32%); protection and
having a friend in the gang (24%); money (16%).
“Gang and non-gang members did not differ on levels of
cultural identity and social isolation…Non-gang members, on
the other hand, reported higher levels of guilt than gang
members. Both family factors, parental monitoring and parental
deviance, were significantly different between gang and nongang
members. Gang members reported significantly less parental
monitoring and higher levels of perceived parental deviance than
did nongang members.”(p. 456)
Internalized oppression/self hate - Plus - see authority contact below
5
Bertrand et al., 2013; McEachern and Donato cite: Rojas & Gretton, 2007; Yessine & Bonta, 2009 and note that offending patterns
seem to be affected by increased alcohol or drug use, citing Bonta, LaPrairie, & Wallace-Capretta, 1997.
6
Bertrand et al., 2013
7
“A starting point must be the different ways crime is understood by Aboriginal Australians. The very concept of‘crime’is problematic
for Aboriginal people because it has social and historical associations with police racism and violence, deaths in custody, dispossession,
and colonisation. In terms of specific problems, family violence affecting the whole extended family, is a key issue for Aborigines, while
property crimes tend to be the preoccupation of white society. The overall focus is on causes (rather than symptoms) and on the whole
culture and community (rather than on individual offenders) Chartrand & Whitecloud, 2001, pp 192-93).
8

53
SNAP®
programs
Antisocial Values and
Conduct/Antisocial Attitudes
Parenting Style
Poor Parent Management
Strategies
(e.g. supervision and monitoring)
Trauma/Abuse/Neglect
Caregiver Continuity (disruptions
of the parent-child relationship
are predictive of later violent
behaviour of children) Hawkins
et al., 1998)
Exposure to familial involvement in crime9
Exposure to family violence10
Exposure to familial substance abuse11
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum (FASD)12
“In a recent study on
Aboriginal youth in western Canada, many of whom were
diagnosed with FASD, violent reoffending rates along with
sexual offending behaviour were much higher than in a
comparable group of non-FASD youth. The suggestion is that
cognitive deficits set the stage for low impulse control along with
difficulties in social development, and along with a history of
prior victimization places these young people at greater risk for
violence perpetration.”(Leschied, 2008, p. 36)
Insecure attachment
Punitive parenting“As adults, many former residential school
students reported being ill-prepared to be parents, having
problems showing affection to their own children and using
punitive or harsh discipline. Information presented in this report
shows a link between punitive parenting and aggressive behaviour
among children.”(Canadian Population Health Initiative, 2008, p. 17)
Child abuse13
High rates of caregiver inconsistency14
“While Western culture
would state that inconsistent living conditions are a risk factor
for youth, Aboriginal culture emphasizes reliance on extended
family and community members. Thus, having multiple
caregivers may be a sign of strong familial and communal support
rather than a factor for Aboriginal youth”(Bertrand et al, 2013,
p. 168). We have to distinguish between“caregiver inconsistency”
that disrupts attachment and“care by many”that supports
attachment and healthy development.
Unstable living conditions15
9
10
11
12
Bertrand et al., 2013 cite Rojas and Gretton, 2007
13
14
15

54
SNAP®
programs
Authority Contact
Academic Performance (i.e.
school failure)
Canadian Population Health Initiative (2008) reports:“…Aboriginal
Peoples are over-represented in the prison system.”P. 48
Youth crime on reserves (National Crime Prevention Centre,
A Statistical snapshot of youth at risk And youth offending in
Canada, 2012):
“In 2004, 9,815 youths aged 12 to 17 were accused (charged or
otherwise) of a criminal offence on a reserve. This rate (24,391 per
100,000) was more than three times higher than the average for
the rest of Canada (7,023).
Approximately 41.3% of youth crimes committed on reserves were
classified as other Criminal Code offences category. This proportion
is similar for crimes committed outside reserves (37.1%).
Property crime offences constituted one-third of on-reserve youth
crime and 41.9% of youth crime outside reserves in 2004.
In 2004, about one-quarter of on-reserve youth offences were
violent crimes, compared with one-fifth elsewhere in Canada.
The vast majority of violent offences, both on and outside of
reserves, were assaults.
Young offenders were accused of committing homicides on
reserves at about 11 times the rate of young people so accused
elsewhere in Canada, and were seven times more likely to be
accused of break and enter and disturbing the peace.
The higher rates of crime committed on reserves speaks to the
need to better understand the causes and characteristics of
Aboriginal youth offending.”
School and learning17
Learning or mental disability17
Canadian Population Health Initiative (2008) reports: Compared
to non-Aboriginal inmates, Aboriginal inmates tend to have
lower rates of completed education, lower employment
histories, higher rates of unstable housing, higher rates of
repeat offending and higher rates of violent offences.”(p. 41)
16
Bertrand et al, 2013 17
Bertrand et al, 2013

55
SNAP®
programs
Supports
(i.e. isolation)
Culture stress“Culture stress is a term used to refer to the
loss of confidence in the ways of understanding life and
living that have been taught within a particular culture. It
comes about when the complex of relationships, knowledge,
languages, social institutions, beliefs, values, and ethical rules
that bind a people and give them a collective sense of who
they are and where they belong is subjected to change. For
aboriginal people, such things as loss of land and control over
living conditions, suppression of belief systems and spirituality,
weakening of social and political institutions, and racial
discrimination have seriously damaged their confidence and
thus predisposed them to suicide, self-injury and other self-
destructive behaviours.”Report of the Royal Commission on
the Suicide of Aboriginal People,1995.
Multiple marginality Freng et al. (2012) cite Vigil’s term
“multiple marginality”to summarize the multiple problems
that Aboriginal youth experience, increasing risks for gang
membership:“difficult economic conditions and poverty,
discrimination, exclusion from mainstream society,
marginalization, hopelessness, negative social influences,
and disorganized communities marked by multiple social
problems.”
“Mental illness”Canadian Population Health Initiative (2008)
reports:“Canadian prevalence rates of mental illness among
incarcerated Aboriginal populations are difficult to find.
One Canadian study reported that 92% of Aboriginal federal
offenders required help for a substance abuse problem; 96%
reported a personal or emotional issue that needed attention.
Data from the 1995 Aboriginal Offender Survey showed
that many Aboriginal federal inmates experienced abuse
as children (45% physically abused, 21% sexually abused),
lived in severe poverty (35%), experienced parental absence
(41%), used drugs (60%) and alcohol (58%) and had childhood
behaviour problems (57%).”(p. 41)

56
Risk factors…and your community
1. How will your team discuss and determine which risk factors are relevant to your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Are there risk factors that should be added? Removed?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How will you assess the risk factors?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What support do you need to carry out this process?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What else would be important for you and your team to discuss concerning risk factors and
your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

57
3.2.3 Protective factors relevant to Aboriginal communities
Something that supports Aboriginal youth to do well is…Something that supports Aboriginal youth to do well is…
“Positive support from family, friends and support workers”“No discrimination”“Youth centre”,“UNYA”,
“Friendship centre”“Working at the Day Care on weekends”“Hikes, bike rides, canoeing”“More activities = less
trouble”“Have little workshops on their opportunities for the future”“Youth and Elder walks”“Having adults
support them and listen to what they have to say.”
Tsuruda Raven’s children III: Aboriginal youth health in BC. 2012, p. 54
In the opening quote above, researchers asked youth what is working for them in their communities. The
young people’s responses are consistent with the literature and advice we received from our Community
Advisors.
Homel, Lincoln and Herd (1999) describe the importance of using Aboriginal and Indigenous approaches
to increasing protective factors:
“The data and research we have cited suggest that if developmental pathways were thought about from an
indigenous perspective, promising modes of intervention that are unique to Aboriginal communities might
become apparent (for example, building on the strengths of Aboriginal child rearing practices). Moreover,
our evaluation of indigenous prevention programs (Homel et al., in preparation) strongly suggests that many
Aboriginal communities are confronting crime and violence with a high degree of success, and that community
empowerment is a key factor.”(p. 22).
Bertrand et al. (2013) observe that discussions regarding protective factors
typically involve addressing risk factors—addressing substance abuse,
for example, may lead to a reduction in crime. They also note that
Aboriginal youth have“significant risk factors…coupled with the
low incidence of various protective factors”(p. 185).
Similar to our review of risk factors, because this is also
a comparatively recent area of work for SNAP®
, we are
including the protective factors commonly assessed in
SNAP®
programs and have added a developing list of
protective factors associated with Aboriginal children,
families and communities, identified through the
literature and our interviews with Community
Advisors.
“A program coordinator
from the Yukon told us of an
interesting use of SNAP®
. She
had received a call from a woman
in Old Crow, Yukon. Old Crow is a
very Northern, extremely remote, fly-in
community where“subsistence living”
is still very much part of life, and a lot of
time is spent out in nature. The woman
visited schools and taught SNAP®
to the kids
so that they could use it when they went
caribou hunting in the springtime. She said
that caribou hunting was one of the most
important times for impulse control and
that SNAP®
seemed like a very useful tool
for such an occasion.”
From Creating Change With SNAP®
,
SNAP®
Update, April 2004

58
18
As identified in The Canadian Census Aboriginal Peoples’Survey, 1991.
19
See discussion in Wilson and Rosenberg, 2002; The Public Health Agency of Canada considers culture among the key
determinants of health (National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2008; Public Health Agency of Canada, 2008). The Assembly
of First Nations (2007) conducted a longitudinal survey of First Nations health and concludes in chapter two of the report that
language and culture are part of the overall well-being of both individuals and communities/nations
SNAP®
programs
Leadership skills
Social skills
Parental support and community
connections
Related to Aboriginal Peoples – In Development
Smith, K., Findlay, L., & Crompton, S. (2010), p. 49 cite:
“Aboriginal children living off-reserve are more likely to do well in
school if they volunteer, take part in sports, cultural activities, clubs
and groups, and art or music, or spend time with Elders. Physical
exercise is also known to be associated with positive outcomes for
Aboriginal children, including increased self esteem and decreased
rates of smoking.”
Community involvement, finding their own voice
Matthew, C. 2009, p. 57-58:“Perhaps the most important theme
to emerge was that of resilience and self-reliance in Aboriginal
youth, and the key role of community involvement in building that
resilience. The emphasis on resiliency underscores that protective
factors can reduce negative outcomes. This research has shown
that participation promotes resilience, reduces risk, develops
youth’s competencies, enhances physical and emotional health,
improves youth programs and services, and promotes youth’s
commitment to programs (McCreary Centre Society 2006). This
is especially true for those growing up in poverty as their feelings
of alienation and anomie from society can be overcome through
volunteer experience that provides them with a sense of purpose
and coherence (Centre of Excellence for Youth Engagement 2003).”
Fleer (2004) recommends reframing as“family involvement”– we
would take it a step further to include“community involvement”to
reflect the kinship orientation of Aboriginal peoples.
Traditional activities18
also referred to as cultural
attachment,19
language and culture
Spending time on the land
Acquiring food through hunting, trapping or fishing
Participating in traditional ways of doing things such as:
hunting, fishing, trapping, storytelling, traditional dancing,
fiddle playing, jigging, arts and crafts, pow-wows, etc.
Traditional foods
Spirituality
Traditional medicine
“Low suicide rates in First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities
have been linked to strong traditions, customs, ceremonies
and traditional healing methods that provide you with a sense
of security, belonging and identity.”National Aboriginal Health
Organization Fact Sheet, 2009
PROTECTIVE FACTORS

20
Bertrand et al, 2013
SNAP®
programs
Child supports and positive
peer socialization/community
connections
Child and family responsivity/
engagement
Related to Aboriginal Peoples – In Development
“Participation in weekly activities and optimism were found to be
protective for both the frequency of alcohol use and heavy drinking
trajectories. Attendance of religious services was also found to be
protective for heavy drinking behaviors. In contrast, positive peer
relationships were a risk factor for frequency of alcohol use, but not
heavy drinking”(Rawana and Ames, 2012, p. 229).
Multiple caregivers20
Access to community Elders
Increased cultural emphasis on specific protective factors -such as
healthy families and strong community networks
This is a beginning list which needs further input from Community Advisors, SNAP®
facilitators and teams,
and others. We need to learn more about which factors are most effective and in what ways.
In order to make families feel more welcome and SNAP®
teachings more culturally
meaningful, Native Child and Family Services of Toronto, one of our Partner agencies, have
made the following adaptations which may work well for your program:
• Including a Naming Ceremony and feast for SNAP®
families prior to the start of Session
#1 as well as a Pow Wow and Feast at the completion of Group #13
• Renaming the session segments and topics in Ojibway e.g. Nan Kiid (in place of CODE
ENGAGE) and adding one of the Four Directions to the topic name (e.g. Northern
Direction: Mental Hard Thoughts/Cool Thoughts)
• Providing parents with the option of using a Medicine Wheel rather than using a
Learning Log
• Beginning the sessions with a traditional story to introduce the evening’s topic
• Having children make crafts which reflect traditional teachings
• Incorporating smudge, prayers, talking sticks, sharing circles into sessions and
ceremonies
• Introducing spirit names
• Broadening the Ecosystemic Approach when engaging with families to include their
clan, community and Nation
• Understanding that Restorative Justice is an important component of the SNAP®
model,
especially as it relates to the Stopping Stealing module
59

Protective factors…and your community
1. How will your team discuss and determine which protective factors are relevant to your
community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Are there protective factors that should be added? Removed?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. How will you assess the protective factors?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What else would be important for you and your team to discuss concerning protective factors
and your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
60

3.3 PROGRAMMING
What does drumming have to do with SNAP®
?
As our knowledge grows with respect to identifying
and assessing risk and protective factors
with children and families in Aboriginal
communities, so too will our knowledge
regarding programming and
interventions. Fortunately, we can
continue to build on the extensive
work that has already been done
and the advice of our Community
Advisors. Here is one example.
The Story of the Drum
When asking an Aboriginal Community Advisor about
cultural components that should be incorporated into the
SNAP®
program, she responded by simply saying:“the drum.”
When asked why, she shared about how the life of the drum
mirrors the journey of SNAP®
participants. in the following way
How does it mirror their journey?
At the end of the SNAP®
program, upon graduation, they could have
a ceremony for the drum. It would represent their growth and passing
into another stage. It would symbolize their journey, offer support, and
acknowledge their journey and success.
In addition to the symbolism offered, studies cited in ‘Report into
Drumbeat at Alice Springs Prison’(2010), report on the benefits of
using drumming with difficult -to-engage young people and prisoners,
suggesting that striking a drum allows someone to“commit small
acts of controlled violence”(p. 10). Drumming appears to offer
participants ways to constructively: release their feelings,
manage their emotions, calm themselves, and vent frustrations
(Report into Drumbeat, 2010). These are all behaviours linked
with self-regulation, a protective factor. Through group
feedback gathering, participants reported increases in
self-confidence, social skills, self-responsibility, personal
insight and community connection (p. 20).
Several of our SNAP®
Aboriginal sites
located in Alberta have incorporated
drumming circles into their graduation
ceremonies and have invited an Elder to
lead them in this ceremony.
61
Crooks et al. (2009, p. 9) have identified four principles for successful programming:
Understanding and integrating cultural identity; increasing youth engagement; fostering
youth empowerment; and establishing and maintaining effective partnerships . Crooks et al.
describe the loss of cultural identity as a“major risk factor”for Aboriginal youth and
assert that strengthening cultural identity needs to be a key program component.

Similarly, the Centre for Suicide Prevention has identified five goals of cultural enhancement activities
as a promising suicide prevention strategy (White & Jodoin, 2004, p. 29). They include: sharing elements
of Aboriginal culture/traditions lost to the new generation; enhancing personal resources of youth;
providing with alternate options for youth when in need; facilitating meaningful relationships between
youth and the older generation; and helping children and youth bridge the gap between their Aboriginal
culture and its non-Aboriginal counterpart.
62
The SNAP®
model recognizes the importance of providing programs and services that are
grounded in integrating identity, engagement and effective partnerships. As such, SNAP®
has
identified 9 Principles that are the foundation of SNAP®
model services. Inherent in these
principles is the idea that programs and services must be responsive to clients, their families and
communities.
1. Scientist-Practioner - An interactive science-practice paradigm is sustained by regular cross-
discipline workgroups to support the high quality evolution of SNAP®
program development,
outcomes and research.
2. Client-Centred - Services are informed by client personal and cultural narratives and goals,
ensuring client responsiveness through growth oriented engagement and alliances.
3. Gender Sensitive - Specific gendered factors which account for differential development,
learning styles, and trajectories of boys and girls with conduct problems are integrated
throughout SNAP®
programs.
4. Ecosystemic - Each client’s ecological system (individual, home, school, community) is assessed
to identify and inform strengths, needs, and risk and protective factors and to match them
with appropriate service components and treatment intensity.
5. Strength and Skill Based - Specific, consistent use of positive reinforcement, as part of
our evidence-based, cognitive-behavioural practice, promotes and strengthens individual
capabilities and the acquisition of primary SNAP®
skills: emotion regulation, self-control and
problem solving.
6. Continuing Services - Continuing needs and commitment to service are regularly and jointly
assessed to support and ensure high risk families, children and youth are engaged in services.
7. Collaborative - Effective collaborations with appropriate child and family oriented services are
conducted to ensure service coordination and family support system development during and
after SNAP®
services.
8. Community Responsive - SNAP®
programs are adapted to diverse, cultural and socio-
economic factors that characterize communities in order to be responsive to social
determinants of child and family mental health.
9. Accountable Service Excellence - Combination of high quality staff development activities, that
include consistent supervision, training, integrity and the attainment of accountable standards
assessed through a series of well- developed research, evaluation, fidelity and quality
assurance activities foster overall service excellence.

We briefly highlight the material we have gathered thus far to guide discussions regarding programming
in Aboriginal communities:
Strengthen cultural identity to
reduce suicide, substance abuse
Strengthen cultural identity to
increase feelings of belonging,
self-esteem, well-being, identity
Support development of youth
empowerment
Mentoring
“It is important for programs to both understand and integrate
cultural identity into programs designed for Aboriginal youth,
as the loss of such an identity has been identified as the cause
of much dismay and tragedy within the Aboriginal community.
Fostering a strong cultural identity (otherwise known as
enculturation) in Aboriginal youth may provide them with a
strong protective factor against risks such as suicide and/or
substance use.”
McEachern & Donato, 2013, p. 8
“Communities that have taken active steps to preserve and
rehabilitate their own cultures are shown to be those in which
youth suicide rates are dramatically lower.”
Chandler & Lalonde, 1998, p. 3
“In order to help facilitate enculturation, a program may
incorporate culture-enhancing activities such as the sharing
of Aboriginal culture and traditions, attempting to increase
feelings of belonging, self-esteem, security, well-being and
identity among the youth. This also helps to facilitate feelings
of connectedness between the youth and their peers of an
older generation by utilizing Elders as mentors and positive
role models (Dawson, 2007)”
“Programs should aim to facilitate the growth and
development of youth empowerment”
“Mentoring is a promising strategy.”
Richards, Rosevear & Gilbert, 2011, p. 3
It is apparent there are various and different components to Aboriginal culture. How can elements
of Aboriginal culture be incorporated based on the points listed on the previous page? How do we
ensure it is done in a culturally safe and relevant way?
63

Programming…and your community
1. How will your team discuss and determine what approaches are relevant and appropriate for
your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Are there approaches that are culturally safer than others?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What do SNAP®
programs and resources have to offer to your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What else would be important for you and your team to discuss concerning programming and
your community?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
60
64

SECTION FOUR: MATERIALS AND RESOURCES
There are many SNAP®
resources available for professionals planning to work with children and families.
Resource materials designed to support the delivery of the SNAP®
model, ongoing research activities, and
clinical assessments are intended for use by clinicians and professionals.
SNAP®
Boys Group Manual, SNAP®
Boys Parent Group Manual, SNAP®
Girls Parent Group Manual,
SNAP®
Girls Group Manual and SNAP®
School Based Manual provide fully outlined activities and group
sessions with specific topics for children and/or parents. Issues pertaining to parents include monitoring
and routines and listening and encouraging school and home relations. Topics for girls and boys address
issues such as avoiding trouble, stealing, bullying and lying.
In addition, the following resources (many available online; full information in the References Section)
focus specifically on Aboriginal peoples and communities and may provide useful materials, ideas and
activities:
Aboriginal Cultural Safety Initiative - Videos
Aboriginal Youth: A Manual of Promising Strategies for Suicide Prevention
Engaging and Empowering Aboriginal Youth: A toolkit for service providers, 2nd ed.
Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography on Aspects of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada
Many Hands, One Dream
NACCHO Cultural Safety Training Standards: A background paper
Our Words, Our Ways
Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
Sacred Ways of Life – Traditional Knowledge
They Came for the Children, Truth and Reconciliation Commission
Touchstones of Hope for Indigenous Children, Youth and Families
Let’s make this list better. What other materials have helped you in your work with SNAP®
?
65

66
SECTION FIVE: REFERENCES
Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada Website. http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/
eng/1100100016302/1100100016303
Alberta Education. (2005). Our Words, Our Ways: Teaching First Nations, Métis and Inuit Learners. Retrieved
from: http://education.alberta.ca/media/307199/words.pdf
Anishnawbe Health Toronto. Aboriginal Cultural Safety Initiative Website. Retrieved from:
http://www.aht.ca/aboriginal-culture-safety
Assembly of First Nations (2007). First Nations regional longitudinal health survey (RHS) 2002/03: Results
for adults, youth and children living in First Nations communities. Ottawa, ON: Assembly of First
Nations/First Nations Information Governance Committee.
Augimeri, L.K., Walsh, M., & Slater, N. (2011). Rolling out SNAP® an evidence-based intervention: A
summary of implementation, evaluation and research. International Journal of Child, Youth and
Family Studies, 2.1: 330-352.
Augimeri, L. K., Koegl, C.J., Webter, & Levene, K. (2001). Early assessment risk list for boys: EARL-20B,
Version 2. Toronto, ON: Earlscourt Child and Family Centre.
Augimeri, L., Walsh, M., Woods, S. & Jiang, D. (2012). Risk Assessment and Clinical Risk Management for
Young Antisocial Children: The forgotten group. Universitas Psychologica, 11(4), 1147-1156. Retrieved
from: http://www.childdevelop.ca/site/DocServer/Augimeri_Walsh_Woods_Jiang__2012__Risk_
assessment_and_cl.pdf?docID=261
Ball, Jessica. (2008). Cultural Safety in Practice with Children, Families and Communities. Poster. School
of Child and Youth Care, University of Victoria. Retrieved from: http://www.ecdip.org/docs/pdf/
Cultural%20Safety%20Poster.pdf
Baskin, C. (2006). Aboriginal world views as challenges and possibilities in social work education. Critical
social work, Volume 7, No. 2. Retrieved from: http://www.uwindsor.ca/criticalsocialwork/aboriginal-
world-views-as-challenges-and-possibilities-in-social-work-education
Bennett, M., Blackstock, C. and De La Ronde, R. (2005). A Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography on
Aspects of Aboriginal Child Welfare in Canada. 2nd edition. First Nations Research Site of the Centre
of Excellence for Child Welfare and The First Nations Child & Family Caring Society of Canada.
Retrieved from: http://www.fncfcs.com/sites/default/files/docs/AboriginalCWLitReview_2ndEd.pdf
Bertrand, L.D., MacRae-Krisa, L.D., Costello, M. and Winterdyk, J. (2013). Ethnic diversity and youth
offending: an examination of risk and protective factors. International Journal of Child, Youth and
Family Studies, 1: 166–188 166. Retrieved from: http://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/ijcyfs/article/
view/11852/3348
Blackstock, C. (2010). The Canadian Human Rights Tribunal on First Nations Child Welfare: Why if Canada
wins, equality and justice lose. Children and Youth Services Review. Retrieved from: http://chrr.info/
files/CHRT-FNCW-Blackstock,_2010.pdf

67
Blackstock, C. (2008). Rooting mental health in an Aboriginal worldview. Prepared for The Provincial Centre
of Excellence for Child and Youth Mental Health at CHEO. http://www.excellenceforchildandyouth.
ca/sites/default/files/position_aboriginal_world_view.pdf
Blackstock, C., Cross, T., George, J., Brown, I. and Formsma, J. (2006). Reconciliation in Child Welfare:
Touchstones of Hope for Indigenous Children, Youth, and Families. Ottawa, ON, Canada: First Nations
Child & Family Caring Society of Canada / Portland, OR: National Indian Child Welfare Association.
Retrieved from: http://www.reconciliationmovement.org/docs/Touchstones_of_Hope.pdf
Blackstock, C. (2003).“First Nations child and family services: Restoring peace and harmony in First
Nations communities”in Kathleen Kufeldt and Brad McKenzie (eds.) Child Welfare: Connecting
Research Policy and Practice. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
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SECTION SIX: APPENDICES
Appendix A

Companion Manual for SNAP in Aboriginal Communities

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Companion Manual for SNAP in Aboriginal Communities