Helps in understanding feedback in communication

1. COMMUNICATION
SKILLS
TOPIC 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Student, in this unit, we shall examine the field of communication to serve as a foundation to
what follows in the course. Principally, we shall define communication; outline its elements,
principles and its importance in academic and life in general. We shall also briefly examine the
various types of communication. This unit is further intended to enhance effective
communication by imparting concepts, principles and elements of human communicative
behavior to you through formal and informal interaction contexts with emphasis on critical
appreciation of communication skills/ techniques.
What is Communication?
The term communication comes from a Latin word ‘communicare’ which means to make
common or share. This is similar to the definition of communication by the Webster's Dictionary
as "sending, giving, or exchanging information and ideas," which is often expressed nonverbally
and verbally. Now student, let us examine how other scholars have defined communication.
 Wilkinson (1974) defines communication as the process by which information is
exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs and
behavior.
 Payne (1988) defines communication as negotiation of shared meaning
 Gamble and Gamble (1993) define communication as the desirable or undesirable
transfer of meaning
 Barker (2000) defines communication as the process of creating shared understanding.
Now student, google up more definitions of communication and write at least two in

2. your notebook. This will help to shape your understanding of communication.
Implications of the Definitions
Student, from the definitions we have gathered and the ones above, we can be able to understand
the following:
a) Communication is a process. It is an activity that involves more than one element each
of them playing a role in enhancing effective communication.
b) Communication is an exchange of meaning that is dynamic. Communication is
therefore, not static. Communication as a process is a concept whose critical element is
the changing nature of its occurrence.
c) Communication results in shared understanding of message between the sender and
the receiver. The understanding of the meaning of another person’s message only occurs
when you elicit common meanings for words, phrases, and non-verbal messages.
d) Communication involves a system of symbols, signs and behavior. The system may
be in form of language, gesture, demeanor, facial expressions, etc.
e) Communication involves individuals.
Objectives of Communication
Whether you are speaking, writing, persuading, informing, entertaining, explaining or
convincing, you always have four general objectives:
 To be received (heard or read).
 To be understood.
 To be accepted.
 To get action (change behavior or attitude).
Therefore, communication skills are the tools, techniques or special abilities that one acquires
through learning and practice and which facilitate effective and efficient communication
Significance of Studying Communication Skills
Communication is central to human life. You cannot avoid communication and you will engage

3. in communication nearly every minute of every day in your life. In addition, communication
plays a major role in every aspect of your life. Effective communication therefore both enhances
your daily life and at the same time solves problems in your professional and personal life.
Communication experts believe that poor communication is at the root of many of our problems.
Therefore, there are various reasons why studying communication is important:
a) Studying communication and using it effectively can lead to more positive feelings of
ourselves. Effective communication can improve our self-worth by enabling us to
positively project ourselves in what is called image management.
b) Studying communication can increase our knowledge about human relationships
because studying communication includes learning about how people relate with one
another and about what communication is appropriate for a given situation.
c) Studying communication can teach us important life skills. For instance, it can help us
acquire problem solving skills, decision making skills, public speaking etc. All these
skills are important in academic and career development.
d) Studying communication can help us succeed professionally. Employers regard highly
written, oral and other communication competencies. The ability to listen and analyze
messages is usually considered an essential professional skill. Entrepreneurs too regard
communication skills as top priority skills for success. Indeed, communication is key to
employers understanding employees and vice versa, leading to greater efficiency in
service.
e) Poor communication may lead to misunderstanding, frustration, being ignored by others,
unsuccessful careers, among many other negative consequences.
Elements of Communication
Elements of communication are the components that constitute the communication process.
These are:
a) People
These are the participants in the communication process. People are involved in communication

4. in two roles. They are sources and receivers of messages. Sources initiate/compose the intended
message. S/he encodes the message, while receivers are the intended target of messages, i.e. a
receiver is the person who receives, decodes, comprehends and attaches meaning to the message
sent. The participants’ knowledge, interest and emotional state will affect how the message is
sent or received. In the communication process, people are sources and receivers of a message
simultaneously and continually.
b) Message
This is the verbal or non-verbal form of idea, thought or feeling that one person (source) wishes
to communicate to a group of people (receivers). The message, therefore, is the content of
interaction. A message may be easy to understand or long and complex, it may also be
intentional or un-intentional.
c) Channel
This is the means by which a message moves from a source to a receiver. It is also called the
medium of transmission. The medium may be in form of sound waves (in oral- auditory
messages) or as light waves (in visual communication such as written communication).
d) Feedback
This is the receiver’s verbal, non-verbal or written response to the message from the source.
Feedback is part of any communication situation such that even non-response is feedback.
e) Encoding and decoding processes
These are processes that unconsciously happen during communication. Before the source sends
out their message, they decide on the best channel, the best words and even the message to
deliver in consideration of the state of the receiver. This is called encoding. The receiver on the
other side, after getting the message, plans on how to respond and organizes the message in the
best way possible to be understood by the source. This is called decoding.

5. 1.8 Principles of Communication
There are important properties of communication that you need to keep in mind as you study and
employ communication. The properties constitute the invaluable attributes of communication:
a) Communication is inescapable: Communication is always occurring in human life at
various levels, for instance, at the intra-personal level, when you are thinking, planning,
meditating, as well as when you are observing, gathering information and making
conclusions. It also occurs at the interpersonal level as you interact with one another.
b) Communication is irreversible: You cannot take back something once, it is
communicated. Even if you can, what has been communicated cannot entirely be erased.
Traces of the effect of the communication will always remain.
c) Communication is dynamic: All elements in communication (i.e. setting, participants,
their knowledge, their roles etc.) affect each other as communication progresses.
d) Every communication interaction has a content dimension and relationship
dimension: Content dimension is the information or message that a source desires to
communicate, which has to be packaged in a strategic manner to elicit a desired
reaction. The relationship dimension of communication constitutes the elements in the
communication that seek to signal and acknowledge the state of the social relation
between the communicating parties. The relationship dimension oils the attainment of
communication goals. For instance, if your lecturer entered into the lecturer room with
an unzipped trousers and you wanted to alert him to this fact, you will not just blurt out
to him the content of what you want to say to him! You will need to do a lot of damage
control about the awkward situation, while at the same time, recognizing his superior
position in relation to you as a student. Just think of the exact kind of language you
would use and point out the content and relationship dimension of what you will say.
e) Communication is contextual: communication does not occur in a vacuum. It involves
various aspects of context of communication. The context of communication is the
environment in which communication takes place. The context of communication
involves:
i) Psychological context: that is the needs, desires, values, personality, and so on that people
communicate and bring to the communication activity.

6. ii) Situational context: this involves the place and time of communication, which affects what
and how we communicate.
iii) Environmental context: this involves the physical features of the communication setting,
such as, noise level, cultural context, objects available in setting e.t.c.
f) Communication is complicated: Communication is complicated in several respects. For
instance:
i) It involves choice about multiple aspects of message i.e. we have to make verbal and code
choices, as well as non-verbal behavioral aspects to be used in communication. We also have
to make choices of channel, and all these aspects must be combined strategically in order to
pass across a unified message.
ii) Communication is also complicated because of our differing perception of the same object
that we may wish to communicate about.
Student, scholars have established what they call the 7 Cs of communication. These are;
1. Clarity – which implies that communication must be clear and not vague. The
speaker/writer should check the words used, the commonality of language between the
source and the receiver, choice of words to avoid technical terms that may be unfamiliar
to the receiver etc
2. Completeness – which means that information relayed must have enough details that the
receiver does not ask for more information. It involves asking oneself if the
communication has given all the details, covered all that one planned to share and
answered all the receiver’s questions.
3. Conciseness – requires one to avoid unnecessary words that could interfere with the
communication. This is done by avoiding unnecessary repetition, organizing the message
well, avoiding unnecessary words etc.
4. Correctness – this involves ensuring that the message is accurate in terms of the facts,
the numbers, the spelling, grammar and punctuations, the timing of the message and use
of the correct channel for communication etc
5. Consideration – while encoding the message, the source should have the receiver’s
emotion, desires, problems and their reaction in mind. This can be through use of positive

7. expressions, pleasant statements and integrity in the message.
6. Courtesy – the message should be friendly in order to build goodwill in the receiver.
This is by using expressions that show respect, that are gender sensitive and appreciative.
7. Consistency – this is the uniformity in the message, the facts and sequence of
information.
TOPIC 2: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Now student, it is important to establish the types of communication that exist as this will be
important for our understanding of other content regarding communication.
You can categorize communication in three ways.
a) By the number of people involved in the communication process.
b) By the channel or medium used in the communication process.
c) Communication categorized by direction of flow
Student, this is how communication is categorized according to the number of people involved:
i) Intrapersonal communication: This is the process of sharing meaning within oneself in the
mind, which involves such activities as reflection, problem solving, planning, and solving
internal conflict among others. This is a continuous process we always engage in, but rarely
realize we are involved in it.
ii) Inter-personal communication: This involves exchanging meaning between at least two
people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening.
Interpersonal communication can be of two types:
 Dyadic communication: Involves two people in communication such as a doctor and a
patient, a lecturer and a student.
 Small group communication: Involves three to ten people such communication includes
that which takes place in families and work groups.
iii) Public communication: It involves one person communicating to a large group of people.
iv) Mass communication: This is communication mediated via a technological transmission

8. system involving a source (professional communicator often representing an organization),
and a large number of unseen receivers spread over a wide geographical area. The
transmission system might be in the form of electronic, audio, audio-visual signal or visual
technologies such as publication in form of books or newspapers.
Communication is also categorized by channel or medium;
i) Verbal communication: This type of communication relies on the oral-auditory signal for
communication.
ii) Graphic communication: This communication is also known as visual communication. It
involves visual representation of ideas facts and objects other than written communication
e.g. cartoons, graphs, charts, models, objects, etc.
iii) Written communication: This is the use of visual symbols, representing language, on a
surface which is read by receivers.
iv) Non-verbal communication: This is the use of visual or oral auditory signals that do not
primarily rely on language or verbalized message for communication to take place. This
form of communication is also known as paralinguistic communication and would include
forms such as gestures, posture, distance, facial expression, rate of speech, pause, voice
quality, and so on.
Now, Communication can be categorized by direction of flow, since communication creates
links between people for different functions or purposes. If several links are missing, broken or
not aligned properly, the communication becomes wobbly and may eventually break. The
following are communication situations that represent a different flow of communication
depending on the purpose:
i) Upward communication
This is communicating with people who rank above you, such as your boss or instructor.
ii) Lateral or horizontal communication
This is communicating with people who are at the same rank or level as you – your co-
workers or classmates.
iii) Downward communication

9. This is communicating with people who rank below you, such as the people you might
manage at work.
iv) Internal communication
This is a communication situation that takes place in a company or an organization.
Internal communication is the transmittal of information between and among persons
within a business or organization. It is used to accomplish company goals and objectives.
For example, managers communicating deadline on assignments or employees seeking
promotions.
v) External communication
This is the transfer of information to and from people outside the company or
organization. The goal is to persuade the recipients to respond favorably to company
needs. For example, a job advert tries to attract qualified personnel to fill a certain
position.
vi) Cross-cultural communication
This refers to communicating, either in writing, verbally or non-verbally, with people
who are from a culture different from your own. This calls for an understanding and
respect of cultural differences and being adaptable.
vii)Grapevine communication
This refers to informal communication within a company/organization, where
information spread bypasses the formal communication structure. It spreads in random
ways, irrespective of the authority levels.
Note: The direction your communication flows at any given time will influence what and how
you communicate the words you use and the method you choose.
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication can be divided into 5 categories:
1. Paralanguage
This includes non-verbal communication such as tone, pitch, quality, rate of speech, laughing,
crying, belching or even hesitating or sighing. Paralanguage can help reinforce a verbal message,

10. for example, a father says, ―oh…sorry to his daughter who has just fallen.
2. Kinesics/Body language
Body language is the gestures, movements and mannerisms by which a person communicates
with others. Physical attributes such as appearance, facial expressions, eye contact and posture
all contribute to kinesics or body language. For example:
o Physical appearance includes clothes, jewelry and grooming. Wearing the appropriate
clothing to specific events demonstrates taste and style.
o Facial expressions indicate our emotions: happy, sad, confused, angry etc. Eye contact
may convey confidence, honesty and interest in the conversation.
o Gestures can express many things e.g. a friendly wave to say hello, etc.
o Posture sends a message. Standing or sitting erect denotes that you are paying
attention to the matter at hand, leaning forward conveys increased interest.
3. Environment
Our environment communicates many different messages. For example:
A large desk in a corner office with windows communicates high status within an organization.
Fast food restaurants are deigned to move customers through quickly by using plastic seats that
is comfortable for about 10 minutes.
4. Touch
Touch, or haptic communication, is a primary method for achieving connection with people,
indicating intention, or expressing emotion. The use of touch can be culturally bound. For
example, in a business setting, the most appropriate form of communication is the handshake.
This type of communication is status-driven. That is, a manager may give an employee an
encouraging pat on the back, but not vice versa. People in business must avoid touch that could
be considered condescending or sexual harassment.

11. 5. Space
Space, as it relates to non-verbal communication, is the physical distance maintained with others.
How you use space to communicate depends on:
 Cultural norms.
 Your relationship with the receivers of your communication.
 The activities involved.
Communication Process
Communication is a process because it involves a number of elements each playing a key role for
efficient and effective communication to take place. The sharing of meaningful information
between two or more people with the goal of the receiver understanding the sender's intended
message. In business for example, the effectiveness of a company's internal and external
communication process is often very important to its overall success.
Models of Communication
A model is a diagrammatic representation of an abstract idea with the view to simplifying it. The
purpose of a model is to offer a visual representation of a concept with the intent of facilitating
the understanding of it. Traditionally speaking, there are three standard models of the
communication process: Linear, interactive, and transactional, and each offers a slightly different
perspective on the communication process.
Barriers to Effective Communication
Anything that interferes or distorts our ability to send or receive messages is called a barrier.
Human communication is fraught with problems and difficulties such as:
Differences in opinion: Your worldview is largely determined by your past experiences. As vast
as these experiences are, so are the perceptions and interpretations of the world that you have.
Age, nationality, culture, education, occupation, sex, status, personality etc., all bring to bear the
difference in perception.

12. Jumping to conclusions: You often see what you expect to see, thus hear what you expect to
hear, rather than what is actually intended. This may lead you to unnecessary conclusions.
Stereotyping: Your experiences could run you the risk of treating different people as if they
were the same.
Lack of knowledge: Communication is adversely affected if it is exchanged between persons
whose knowledge of the particular subject is varied or whose backgrounds regarding the subject
are too different. It requires skill on the part of you (communicator) to be aware of the
discrepancy between the levels of knowledge, thus communicate accordingly.
Lack of interest: This is lacking alertness to the message being sent. As an effective
communicator, you should avoid assuming that your interest in the specific subject is everyone’s
interest, thus angle your message to appeal to the interests and needs of the receiver.
Difficulties with expression: This refers to difficulty expressing or conveying your message as
clearly as possible. It includes lack of vocabulary or communicative competence as well as lack
of confidence, both of which can be overcome by respectively improving your vocabulary and
preparing carefully.
Emotions: Both the receiver and communicator could harbor strongly felt emotions that could
prevent almost anything from being communicated. Such emotions could entirely distort the
communication and should be avoided. However, any audience knows that a speaker without
emotion and enthusiasm is likely to be a dull speaker. Emotion just needs a clear balance.
Personality: Your personality traits/behaviors can affect the behavior of others in a
communication situation. We may not be able to change the personalities of others, but at least
we should be prepared to consider our own personality to see, if change in behavior may result in
more satisfactory relationships, thus better communication.
Institutional Communication
Student, communication is key to the success of any organization/institution. Communication
can happen through the spoken or written channel. Some of the ways in which communication
happens are through the use of Letter of job application, the Curriculum vitae, minutes of
meetings, letters of inquiry, emails and memos.
a) Emails

13. Electronic mail, more commonly referred to as e-mail, is written communication just like memos
and letters. The primary difference is the method of transmission. E-mail messages are sent
instantly through the internet via the modem on your computer and the modem in the recipient’s
computer. The use of e-mail today is so quick, easy and inexpensive that its use is increasing at a
phenomenal rate. In order to ensure that communication via e-mail is appropriate, follow the
following guidelines:
 Use the correct address
 Use a subject line
 Limit the length, topics and recipients
 Watch the tone of your E-mail
 Check spelling and grammar
 Do not send confidential information
 Know your company policy on writing emails
(b) Memoranda/memos
Memos are also a logical way to coordinate the efforts of many people within an organization –
especially large and diverse organizations and for those who do not have access to e-mail. There can
be no fixed rules about the style of language which is appropriate for an internal memorandum. It
will depend on several factors such as:
a) Nature of the message – information, enquiry, request, reprimand, congratulations and so
on.
b) Context of the message – potential reaction of the reader, what has gone before, how
much the recipient knows already, urgency of the situation and priority of any action required –
routine, emergency, crisis, follow-up instructions to all staff and so on.
c) Status and personality of the recipient – position in the organization, known tastes and
attitudes on written style and methods of working, technical/practical background, educational
level and so on.

14. TOPIC 3: LISTENING SKILLS
Introduction
When people speak, we may hear the words coming out of their mouths, but we may not really
be listening to what is being said. You may think your acting skills are great but people can tell
quickly that your ears are working but your mind is not engaged.
Student, do you know a Turkish Proverb which says that listening requires more intelligence
than speaking? What is implied here? Listening skills are an important part of public speaking.
Listening is an important part of communication. Indeed, the art of listening is a skill. How good
is your listening skill? There is no doubt that much of what you learn every day is a result of
listening. You can see why this is an essential skill for public speaking success.
Listening thus involves:
 Hearing.
 Understanding.
 Judging.
 Identify the likely obstacles to effective listening
 Distinguish clearly between hearing and listening.
 Identify the likely obstacles to effective listening.
 Practice the skills for effective listening.
Student, it is important for you to distinguish between hearing and listening as this will help you
apply them appropriately.
Difference between Hearing and Listening
Hearing is a physical process. Hearing is simply the act of perceiving sounds with the ear. If you

15. are not hearing-impaired, hearing simply happens. You can hear someone speak without
listening to the words. Hearing defines only the physical measurement of the sound waves that
are transmitted to the ear and into the brain where they are processed into audible information.
Hearing occurs with or without your consent. Indeed, hearing is such a passive quality that it
occurs even while you sleep. Listening is a cognitive and emotional engagement. When you
merely hear someone's words but are not listening to what is being said, it can lead to
misunderstandings, missed opportunities and resentment.
Importance of Listening
a) Listening is an essential task for effective communicators. We actually do spend the
largest part of our time listening, for instance it has been observed that college students
spend up to 50% of their time listening.
b) Listening helps us build and maintain relationship. Part of our ability to build and retain
relationships involves our ability to understand and respond empathetically to messages
from others.
c) Listening can help us determine whether people we are communicating with are honest
or deceitful.
d) Listening is an essential skill for success in academics and business world.
e) Listening is directly linked to our ability to remember information.
The Listening Process
The listening process involves receiving oral stimuli (music, words or sounds) in the ear
(Hearing). The ear translates the vibration from oral stimuli into sensation that is registered by
the brain (Listening). The brain, using attention and working memory, interprets the sensation
and gives it meaning (Interpretation). The interpreted message is then stored in short term
memory for immediate use (Retaining) or long term memory for future recall (Recalling). The
last stage in the listening process is reacting/responding. Whenever a need arises, the listener
will retrieve information from either the short term memory or the long term memory and react
to the need accordingly.
Stages of Listening
Student, there are four stages of listening which are:
Sensing: Our minds have the ability to listen four times faster than a person can talk. One

16. challenge to effective listening would be focusing our minds on hearing what is said rather than
the several other things going on in our lives at any given moment. To improve the skill, look
directly at the person talking. As you hear the words said, also start reading the body language.
Listen for tone and intonation.
Understanding: Rather than thinking about what you are going to say next, try to think of what
is being said from the standpoint of the communicator. Think of yourself as their advocate and
your purpose is to help everyone understand what the speaker is trying to communicate.
Evaluating: This involves appraising the message. Ask yourself, what are the implications of the
message, the applications, benefit or damage of the information? Responding: Acting on the
message. You will benefit little if you do not act on what you have heard.
Important Aspects of the Listening Process
a) Attention – At any one time there are many oral-auditory stimuli such that our mind has to
focus on specific stimuli and block others. This process is called attention. Attention is
selective or automatic.
i) Selective attention – This is sustained focus we give to information we deem important.
Selective attention can be obstructed by our mind’s instinct to pay automatic attention to
certain stimuli.
ii) Automatic attention – This is instinctive focus we give to stimuli signaling a change in our
surrounding. We give automatic attention to stimuli that we deem important or that which
we perceive to signal danger. Automatic attention, therefore, competes with selective
attention.
b) Working memory – This is the part of our consciousness that interprets and assigns
meaning to stimuli we pay attention to. We may use it without thinking about it. It looks for
shortcuts when processing information e.g. patterns of letters or words in assigning
meanings. The working memory works in conjunction with the long term memory.
c) Short term memory – Once information is interpreted in working memory, it is either sent
to the short term or long term memory. The short term memory is part of the memory that
acts as a temporary storage place for information. The information stored in short term
memory is that which we want to use immediately, but not necessarily in future. It is the

17. least efficient of our memory resources, because information stored here is easily forgotten
unless some strategy like rehearsal is used. Unfortunately, most people, students included,
rely on short term memory for information that deserves to be recalled in the long term.
d) Long term memory – This is the permanent storage place for information including past
experiences, language, values, knowledge, images of people, memories of sights, sounds,
smells and even fantasies. Unlike short term memory, long term memory has no known
limitation on the quantity or duration of stored information.
Types of Listening
There are various types of listening, which can be used for various purposes either independently
or in combination.
a) Active listening – It involves listening with a purpose and comprises:
 Listening carefully using all our available senses.
 Paraphrasing what we hear both mentally and verbally.
 Checking our understanding to ensure accuracy.
 Providing feedback positively or negatively.
b) Empathetic listening – It is a form of active listening where we attempt to understand the
other person by perceiving their world view as if it is our own. It is putting ourselves in the
shoes of another person in order to feel and understand what the person is going through. This
kind is very useful in sustaining relationships, counseling process, resolving disputes, as well
as dealing with traumatic situations.
c) Comprehensive listening - This is listening for understanding. It is especially useful when
attending to a lecture/talk/instructions etc. It involves listening for key points, special
emphasis, flow of information etc
d) Critical listening – This is listening that analyses, evaluates, critiques or challenges a
speaker’s message by evaluating its accuracy, meaningfulness and utility. This goes hand in
hand with critical thinking and it involves asking question such as:
 Is the speaker’s message possible? Is it realistic?
 Does the speaker back up his or her claims? Are these claims reliable?

18.  Is the speaker credible or an authority?
 Is the message free of contradiction and inconsistencies?
 Critical listening is very useful when we are confronted with persuasive messages such as
advertisements, political communications, propaganda and the like.
e) Listening for enjoyment/appreciative listening – This type of listening helps us to relax
like when we enjoy listening to, for instance, music.
f) Reflective Listening-This refers to attentively listening to the speaker’s actual words, as
well as tone of voice, and observing the body language and emotions displayed. Reflective
listening is particularly an important tool in one-on-one situations. It is not practical in a
speaker-audience situation.
g) Passive listening- This means concentrating at a low level and absorbing just enough of the
speaker’s words to stay involved in a conversation or speech. Such listening is characterized
by:
 Listeners remembering little of what is said
 Listeners let the speaker’s inflection or tone of voice signal when they should react by
nodding, smiling or saying, ―I see‖
 Listeners may suggest that the speaker has the listener’s attention, even though that may
not be the case
 It is appropriate when you listen for pleasure and when it doesn’t matter whether or not
you retain what you hear
Student, it is important to know that everyone wants to be heard and understood, but at one time
or another, most people don't listen and fail to understand the meaning of another person's words.
This could be caused by barriers to the listening process. Now, let us examine some barriers that
affect listening.
Barriers to effective listening
Student, you can sharpen your listening skills by doing the following:

19.  Focus: Pay attention to your speaker. Make eye contact with him/her and let him/her
know you are listening by nodding or agreeing.
 Remove distractions: e.g. Close any books and remove any work from your desk when
listening to a lecture.
 Summarize: Summarize what the speaker has just said. This will not only strengthen your
understanding of the subject, but will also improve your memory of the lecture and keep
you from getting distracted by outside stimuli.
 Take notes: Taking notes will also improve your listening skills as it physically forces
you to listen.
 Respond when appropriate by asking questions: It is important that you do respond. This
lets the speaker know that you listened to what s/he had to say and you either understand
or want to know more. Asking questions shows the speaker that you are interested in
what s/he has to say.
Barriers to Effective Listening
Aids to effective Listening
Effective listening is a life-long skill that is of paramount importance in academic life. There are
various ways of improving listening skills that can make your life in academics and beyond very
fruitful. Strategies that improve your listening skills include:
(a) Be prepared physically and mentally: Listening is a combination of physical and mental
activities.
(b) Make efficient use of available time: Do not rush through your conversation as you may lack
full understanding of the message.
(c) Listen attentively: Be attentive and show interest in the speaker’s message.
(d) Listen for ideas and feelings: Look out for factual information as well as the speaker’s tone of
voice.
(e) Establish eye contact: Do not stare at the speaker, instead, glance away periodically to reflect
on the topic.
(f) Use body language to show you are listening: Body language can convey you level of interest.
Employ appropriate non-verbal cues.

20. (g) Overlook personal characteristics of the speaker: Do not prejudge a speaker on the basis of
distracting personal characteristics such as mannerisms, voice, speech patterns or appearance.
(h) Choose strategic seating: posture can affect listening. Choose a physical location that is
conducive, comfortable and practical.
(i) Ask questions if permitted: This helps clarify the speaker’s information.
(j) Take notes: Jot down key ideas or concepts for further referencing.
(k) Identifying and understanding barriers to the listening process and work towards eliminating
them.
(l) Identifying patterns in what we are listening to – Understanding the overall message, its main
points and supporting points is essential in having a graphical impression of messages and is
an important aid in the recall process.
(m) Applying memory retention skills such as:
 Rehearsing and rephrasing what we listen to.
 Using mnemonic devices (using a series of letters forming a meaningful or
pronounceable word where each letter stands for a particular concept, idea or point for
easy recall).

21. TOPIC 4: GROUP COMMUNICATION AND
INTERACTION
Introduction
Now dear student, it is important for you to know that there will be opportunities for you to
be part of a group where communication has to take place, either with colleagues here in
college or in your future work place. Working in a group enhances group interaction that
results in relationships that can be long lasting and beneficial for success in life or even in
organizations. Let us examine group communication and interaction at these two levels.
Group interaction at the Academic level
At the academic level, you will be part of a study group, a tutorial group or presenting
information in a seminar or conference. In recent times, more focus has been on training
students to work with others and thus develop ‘people skills’ or ‘inter-personal skills’.
Indeed, most employers look for such skills in their future employees. At this university, you
will be expected to engage in group discussions, doing group tasks, support groups and in
doing group assignments.
Advantages of group discussions
1. Ideas can be shared among members
2. Members can stimulate each other’s thinking
3. One can seek and gain clarity on an issue
4. Opportunities to learn how to deal with challenges and criticism
5. One can tap into a wide pool of backgrounds, experiences, knowledge and even
understanding
Student, can you think of any disadvantages of engaging in group discussions?

22. Now, to work with colleagues in academic groups requires that you do the following:
 Work in a supportive manner by helping each other find solutions for the difficulties and
concerns they may have
 Encourage each other to aim for the best by recognizing their efforts and acknowledging
their contributions
 Always listen to the views expressed by others
 Come to group meetings on time and show respect for time limits set by group
 Prepare and make contributions during group meetings
 Treat other group members with respect through your verbal and non-verbal interactions
Student, when interacting with colleagues at the academic level, there will be moments when you
may require to interrupt the speaker, seek for clarification or even offer or receive constructive
criticism. You need to understand how to do this in a scholarly way that will still leave you as
academic partners.
Interrupting politely
If you wish to interrupt a speaker in the process of the speech/sharing, do the following:
1. Wait for an opportunity when you can interrupt eg during a pause in the speech, the end
of a statement, when speaker changes from one point to another
2. Raise your hand and wait for the speaker to notice you
3. Begin by appreciating the speaker for the presentation
4. Use polite language to address the speaker
5. After the speaker’s response, thank them
Requesting for clarification
If you did not understand an idea/information that was shared, you can do the following:
1. Wait for an opportunity when you can interrupt eg during a pause in the speech, the end
of a statement, when speaker changes from one point to another
2. Raise your hand and wait for the speaker to notice you
3. Begin by appreciating the speaker for the presentation
4. Point at the exact issue that you wish addressed or for which you seek clarification
5. In the event that you are not satisfied with the answer, express this to get help from other

23. members
6. After the speaker’s response, thank them
Offering and receiving constructive criticism
If you disagree with another person’s ideas, you can do the following:
1. Point out what is good as well as what can be improved
2. Comment on what was said and not the person who said it
3. Give suggestions on changes that can be made
4. Be precise in your statement
5. Use a voice that will help the speaker to accept your criticism
Receiving criticism
1. Listen attentively
2. Take time to think about what has been said and to look for the truth in it
3. Ask questions to clarify anything you did not understand
4. Thank others for their constructive criticism
Well student, an effective group has a leadership that provides direction for the activities of the
group and even sometimes intervenes when there is a conflict. If you are a group leader, you
need to be effective in communication in terms of the choice of words used, your voice, body
language and even interaction with members. Below are some of the things you should do:
 Organize and lead group meetings. This will include having a clear agenda every time the
group meets
 Communicate to group members about the goals of the group
 Ensure that all members have opportunity to contribute during group meetings and that
turn taking is observed
 Intervene where there is conflict or contention among members and to bring peace
 Ensure the group remains on course to achieve their goal
 Listen to the members and respond to their concerns
 Demonstrate respect for members through your verbal and non-verbal communication

24.  Have confidence and inspire members to believe in you
Group Interaction in the Work place
In the work place, you will be a member of a team which holds regular meetings to ensure
effective operation of the organization. Such meetings include managerial meetings,
briefings, advisory meetings, brainstorming meetings and even task force meetings. Meetings
are meant to ensure group communication. The leadership structure of organizations requires
that the leader of the meeting, also called the chairman/chairperson chairs the meeting, but as
a member, you have a role to play by making contributions to the issues being discussed. As
a group member, you need to practice the following:
a) Interrupting politely – when listening to a speech, you may realize the need to interrupt
the speaker to seek clarification or to make an announcement. This can be done politely
by raising your hand once you realize that the speaker is about to pause. Use of polite
words like excuse me and thank you are useful in making your interruption polite so as
not to offend the speaker.
b) Seeking clarification – As you listen to a speech, you may find certain bits of information
contentious or not clear. The logical thing to do is to seek clarification from the speaker.
The process begins when you interrupt politely and after being given the opportunity to
speak, begin by appreciating the speaker for the informative speech and then point out the
issue that you need clarified.
c) Justifying opinions – As a speaker, you may find that the ideas you share with the
audience do not find acceptance thus the need to justify them. This can be done by
explaining the issue to the best of your knowledge and even asking the audience to make
additional comments or suggestions that will give the argument strength.
d) Listening attentively – now, for you to be a good speaker, you will need to be a good
listener. Listening attentively involves focusing on the speaker to get both verbal and
non-verbal information. It also involves listening for key points that form the gist of the
speech and making short notes from the speech.

25. e) Willingness to share information – a good speaker is one who is willing to share
information and ideas which they embrace. This is the only way to ensure that your ideas
are considered in the event of decision making or need for change.
Now student, let us look at a very important meeting that will usher you into the work place or
open opportunities for you to pursue your ambitions personally or even academically. This
meeting is called an interview.
Communication in an Interview
An interview is a planned and controlled meeting, where the interviewee faces a panel of
interviewers. There are several types of interviews like group interview, behavioral interview,
disciplinary interview and appraisal interviews among others. However, for the sake of this
lesson we shall focus on the employment interview. The purpose of the employment interview is
to select a person who is most suitable for the job. When you land an invitation for an interview,
it means that you have potential of qualifying for the job and therefore there is need to prepare
adequately to ensure that what you wrote in the application letter and the curriculum vitae agree
with your personality and oral presentation about yourself.
Most interview panels will interview you to find out the following:
a) Your intelligence and knowledge of current affairs.
b) Your knowledge concerning the job you applied for.
c) Your Personal values.
d) Ability to make decisions.
e) How you apply common sense when faced with challenging or controversial issues.
f) Initiative- are you someone who can take a lead in a situation?
g) Resourcefulness – what value will you add to the organization?
h) Your grooming habits and ability to address people.
How to prepare for an interview
a) Re-read the job advertisement to remind yourself about the requirements.
b) Organize your original certificates and other testimonials.

26. c) If you can find information about the organization, read it to familiarize yourself with the
operations of the organization.
d) Get a friend to help you practice answering questions, the presentation, posture, voice
projection and other aspects of etiquette.
e) Organize the cloths to put on and other grooming requirements.
In the interview room
a) Respond to questions briefly and precisely.
b) Project your voice to be heard clearly.
c) Maintain eye contact with the panel.
d) Do not boast about your achievements, instead share about them when asked.
e) Speak positively about the organization and other people.
f) Thank the panel for the opportunity to appear before them and as you leave the room
close the door silently behind you.
TOPIC 5: EFFECTIVE SPEAKING SKILLS
Introduction
This topic introduces you to oral presentation skills that will be important for you as a scholar
who is expected to share information with other scholars at the university or in various fora.
As a student, you may be involved in tutorial presentations, seminars, conferences and group
meetings. The skills attained in this section should help you to develop confidence in public
speaking, especially when sharing information with more than one person. When you excel
in speech, you win the favor with your audience and sometimes may even get a promotion.
Like all other skills, speaking skills are best acquired through practice and therefore you will
be expected to use the information in this section and make practice when you have an
opportunity to share information. This topic is divided into three sections namely:
 Speech making (Types and format of a speech).

27.  An effective speech and speech presenter.
 Group communication and interaction.
Section 1: Speech making
According to the Oxford dictionary, a speech is oral communication given publicly to an
audience and this is usually done by one person. This kind of speech is referred to as
public speaking and is different from normal conversations. Both aim to share
information in a persuasive manner and organize the message to meet the demands of the
audience. However, there are differences especially because public speaking is more
structured and demands more preparation than a conversation. Through speech, we
express our thoughts and socialize with others. Our speaking style determines how the
message we want to share is received. You will acquire effective speaking skills through
practice, experience and conscious efforts to improve each time you make a presentation.
There are two main types of speeches. These are:
a) Informative speeches- here the speaker sets out to inform or shed light on a subject or
issue that he has learnt through experiences, observation, discussions with colleagues,
reading texts or through concern about emerging issues. Under informative speeches,
we have:
i) Reports-these describe investigations carried out and whose findings need to
be shared with a group.
ii) Briefings- these are short talks that inform the audience about specific issues
that are of importance to the group.
iii) Explanations- detailed information intended to clarify an issue for the
audience.
(b) Persuasive speeches-these are speeches meant to bring change in attitude or behavior.
They involve collecting and using information with a view to persuade someone to accept a
certain view point. They include speeches made during political campaigns, negotiation
and conflict resolution meetings, Sales promotions and proposal presentations.

28. Speech delivery methods
When invited to make a speech, it is important to understand that there are several types of
speech delivery methods. These methods are:
(a) Impromptu method –this is speech delivery that is done without prior preparation on the
part of the speech presenter and happens when one is invited to ‘say something’ without
being given a topic in advance and often without an indication of how much time to use
in speech delivery. Occasions where this can happen include a celebration ceremony, an
occasion where advice is given to a group, at birthdays or even funerals. For one to
deliver an impromptu speech effectively, one will need to consider the nature of the
occasion, the audience present, the expectation of the audience and how much time to use
in delivering the speech without boring the audience or sharing too little information. The
advantages of an impromptu speech include:
(i) The speaker can give direction to the speech since they are not limited by a topic.
(ii) A speaker who makes an effective impromptu speech gains respect from the
audience for thinking on their feet.
(iii) The speaker can exhaust what they wish to share since the length of the speech
may not be suggested in the invitation which is mostly done on the spur of the
moment.
The challenges of giving an impromptu speech include:
(i) The speaker may suffer stage fright for lack of preparation.
(ii) The speaker may dwell on irrelevant information that may not benefit the
audience.
(iii) Too much time may be spent by the speaker leading to boredom and restlessness
among the audience.
(b) Memorized speech method–this type of speech delivery involves the speaker gathering
information around the topic and writing down the speech to deliver during the occasion.
The speaker then goes ahead to commit this speech to memory by cramming it word for
word. Through various rehearsals, the speaker is able to repeat the speech before the
audience. The advantages of a memorized speech include:

29. (i) It allows the speaker to share information that has been researched and therefore
useful and relevant information.
(ii) The speaker can use time allocated properly since the speaker will keep to the
memorized information and not introduce irrelevant ideas.
(iii) The speaker has confidence arising from the preparation of the speech.
The challenges of giving a memorized speech include:
(i) The speaker may lose the pace and track of the speech if any interruption takes
place.
(ii) The audience can detect a memorized speech and this lowers the respect given to
the speaker.
(iii) The memorized speech does not allow for the introduction of new ideas or even
illustration as the speaker has to focus on what has been memorized.
(c) The Manuscript delivery method - this is where the speaker gathers information around
the topic and writes down a speech which is read to the audience during speech delivery.
The advantages of using the manuscript method include:
(i) The speaker shares researched information with the audience.
(ii) The speaker can keep to the allocated time in delivering the speech.
(iii) The speaker is relatively confident due to effort made during speech preparation.
The challenges of using the manuscript speech include:
(1) The speaker is forced to concentrate on reading the speech and may not maintain eye
contact with the audience.
(2) Any interruption during speech delivery may affect the speech.
(3) Speaker may not introduce new ideas or new illustrations apart from those written down.
(4) There is limited use of the stage as the speaker has to maintain their position near the script.
(d). Extemporaneous method - in this speech delivery method, the speaker gathers
information and prepares the speech by writing it down. The speaker then identifies
phrases or words that signal the key ideas to bring out in the speech. The speaker writes

30. these notes down on a flash card as prompts to assist in speech delivery. The advantage
of making an extemporaneous speech include:
(i) Allows the speaker to prepare and share researched information.
(ii) Allows the speaker to maintain eye contact, use the stage effectively and include
other non-verbal cues during speech presentation.
(iii) The speaker can be creative in speech delivery, can introduce new ideas and even
new illustrations that come to mind during the speech presentation.
The challenges of using the extemporaneous method include:
(i) The speaker may over expound the key ideas and use more time than allocated or lack
ideas to expound thus giving the audience less information.
(ii) One might forget the supporting details since it is not written down.
You may have noted that all these speech types have advantages and challenges. This means that
none is adequate in itself, yet each has an occasion where it can be used. However, most speakers
prefer the extemporaneous speech type as it allows the speaker to be creative, to include new
ideas and illustrations in the speech and most importantly, it allows the speaker to connect with
the audience through eye contact, use of gestures and other forms of demonstration. If well used,
this speech type leads to audience confidence in the information shared.
Now that you know the different speech delivery methods and are aware of the advantages and
challenges of using any method, it time for you to learn how to prepare an effective speech by
first understanding characteristics of an effective speech and then characteristics of an effective
speech presenter.
An effective speech
An effective speech is one that communicates what the speaker wants to share with the audience
and the presentation is done with ease by the speaker. An effective speech has certain
characteristics which include:
(a) Clarity-this is achieved when the speaker chooses the appropriate language, uses simple
language, organizes the information in a logical order, projects the voice to reach the

31. audience and even uses the appropriate visual aid to support the verbal information.
Clarity keeps confusion on the part of the audience to a minimum.
(b) Brevity- In organizing the speech, the speaker should confine themselves to three to five
points which are then supported with appropriate illustrations. A good speech should not
involve long winding statements that make no meaning to the audience.
(c) Coherence of ideas- this is achieved when ideas in the speech flow logically and are
connected to one another to bring out an argument or information.
(d) Associates new ideas with familiar ones-effective speeches assist the speaker to link what
they know with the new information. This is done by use of illustrations and scenario that
are included in the speech. This makes the speech memorable and interesting to the
audience.
(e) Grammaticality-any speech is made in a language which should communicate the
message. Use of proper grammatical structures make the speech interesting and earns the
speaker admiration, a factor that goes a long way in making the speech memorable and
effective.
(f) The speech is interesting. The speaker takes the occasion of the speech presentation as a
performance. This means that the speaker practices the speech, thinks about the
appropriate illustrations, appropriate non-verbal cues and other aspects of demonstration
to make the speech interesting. The speaker includes light moments in the speech like
jokes, warm-up activities and involves the audience in the speech presentation.
(g) Involves the use of visual aids which are all the materials that are used to support verbal
information. These include charts, pictures, real objects (realia), maps, slides made
through power-point and pictures projected as slide shows.
How to prepare a speech
An effective speech is a product of good preparation by the speaker. If you receive an
invitation to make a speech, you will need to remember that a good speech has three main
sections: the introduction, the body and the conclusion. When preparing the speech, you
will need to do the following:
(a) Interpret the topic and gather information from colleagues, books and internet to ensure
that you are sharing useful and current information. The information gathered forms the
content of the speech

32. (b) Write an outline of the speech. The outline is a plan that should assist you to establish the
main ideas and the supporting ideas/illustrations that clarify the main points. The number
of ideas in your speech will depend on the time available and the type of audience. The
ideal number of ideas is between four and six. There is no particular way to create an
outline since all you need is to list the important aspects of the essay under the
introduction, body and conclusion.
(c) Write down a draft of the speech. In the structure of the draft, the introduction should be
interesting to capture the attention of the audience and create rapport between the speaker
and the audience. The speaker can provide the thesis statement that provides the direction
that the speech will take. In the body of the speech, the speaker provides the key ideas
they wish to share, together with illustrations to support them. A conclusion signals the
end of the speech by providing a summary of the discussion or recommendations for
action or a warning for change. The conclusion should have a punch line like a quote
from a famous person, a proverb or saying that is memorable to the audience.
(d) Edit it for clarity and coherence of ideas-this is important since you need to share
information that is free from grammatical errors, poor organization of ideas and
incoherent explanations.
(e) After editing the draft, you can then take time to identify key phrases and ideas which
you can use in the rehearsal. Just as in the old saying, practice makes perfect, so a speech
that is rehearsed gives the presenter easy time during presentation.
Characteristics of an effective speech presenter
I am sure you have listened to a number of people sharing ideas and information in a gathering
where you were part of the audience. Some of the speakers performed better than others in
speech delivery, sharing information and in their poise on stage. If you reflect on the speakers
you admired, certain characteristics are evident about them.
Effective speakers are easy to identify since they have the following characteristics:
(i)They know their strengths and weaknesses when speaking before people. Every speaker has an
aspect that enables them to perform well when giving a speech or perform poorly. For example,

33. some people have loud voices that do not need an amplifier, some people are articulate in their
use of language while others are fun to listen to as they use lots of funny examples. Speakers
may also have weaknesses like sweating too much, mother tongue interference, low voice or
speaking too fast. An effective speaker exploits their strength and works to reduce and cover
their weaknesses.
(ii)They know their audience through carrying out audience research. They find out audience
size, type, their educational background, religious and political affiliations. These aspects help
the speaker to choose appropriate language and words, attire, whether to project their voice or
not and the kind of information to share.
(iii) An effective speaker engages in topic research so that they can share relevant and beneficial
information with the audience. Such a speaker gathers information through discussions with
colleagues, reading texts and materials on the internet and other information sources. An
informative speech is a result of sharing new ideas, current thoughts on an issue or even what
prominent people have concluded about an issue.
(iv) An effective speaker dresses appropriately to suit the occasion. It is important for you to note
that people form opinions from first impressions and how you groom yourself will determine
how your message is received. Avoid very exposing clothes and those which are too bright,
instead keep to cool colors and presentable clothes. Your appearance can be a barrier to effective
sharing of information as it can form the focus of your audience or it can send a message about
your belief systems that may differ with the cultural norms of your audience.
(v)The speaker uses their voice effectively. The quality of your voice can make your speech
appealing or repulsive to your audience. It is therefore important to consider the following
aspects of the voice when making a speech:
 Volume- which is the loudness or softness of the speaker’s voice. An effective speaker
balances their voice to suit the occasion
 Pitch-these are the vocal notes we hit when we speak. It is the highness or lowness
 Pace –this is the speed at which people speak. One needs to avoid speaking too slowly as
this will lead to boredom and consequently dozing

34.  Pronunciation –This is the articulation of words that includes proper stress and
intonation. One can practice pronunciation, consult a colleague or the dictionary for the
correct manner of pronunciation
(vi). An effective speaker makes use of non-verbal cues like gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, stage management and proper posture. Do you know that research has shown that
actions speak louder than words? There is a possibility that your verbal communication does not
say the same thing with your body language. If well exploited, non-verbal aspects of
communication can reinforce what you say verbally.
(vii) Makes use of visual aids that support the verbal information being shared. Research has
established that people remember more what they see than what they hear. To make your speech
memorable, it is important to bring in visual aids.
(viii) Effective speakers know how to handle stage fright.
Now student, let us briefly look at what stage fright is and how to handle it during speech
delivery.
Stage fright and how to handle it
I am sure you that you have found yourself sweating profusely or shaking during a
speech presentation occasion or, witnessed someone else undergoing the same. This is a
natural response that human bodies go through when faced with a situation that leads to
anxiety. This response is called stage fright. To handle it, you can do the following:
a) Prepare adequately for the presentation by doing both audience research and topic
research. Preparation creates self confidence in the speaker.
b) Include light moments in your speech like jokes and warm-up activities.
c) Involve the audience in the presentation.
d) Use a visual aid to support verbal information.
e) Use non-verbal cues, adopt a relaxed posture and maintain eye contact with your
audience.
f) Burn up some of the nervous energy by taking deep breathes before you start talking.
g) Think positively concerning the impact of your message and enjoy the moment.

35. The Speech Occasion
Now that you have an idea about what makes for an effective speech and an effective speaker,
the next consideration is the speech occasion when you get to the stage to share information. As
you prepare for this day, consider the following:
a) The date when you give the speech - write it down so as to remind yourself to prepare
b) The venue of the presentation. This has a determining effect on your arrival time, the size
of audience you expect, your voice projection, need for public address system and use of
visual aids.
c) The nature of the occasion will also determine the language to use and the kind of
grooming expected.
d) The kind of visual aid that will support or clarify your verbal explanation.
Visual and Audio Aids in speech delivery
An aid is any material that supports verbal information during speech delivery. Audio aids
include recorded sounds that have relevance to the speech. Visual aids include pictures, charts,
real objects (realia), computer slide shows and power-point presentations. Both the visual and
audio aids are useful in making the presentation captivating, engaging and lively. A good visual
aid can enhance the retention of information shared and by referring to it, the speaker may
remove some of the attention from themselves and thus reduce stage fright.
How to create and use Visual aids effectively
a) Make a visual aid from materials that are locally available. You can also purchase
commercially created aids but these may not meet the need for your speech.
b) Make the visual aid as colorful as possible to capture the attention of the audience.
c) Ensure that the font size is big enough to be seen by everybody in the audience.
d) Ensure the content of the visual aid supports the verbal information.
How to use a visual Aid
a) Place the visual aid high enough to be visible.

36. b) Refer to the visual aid only to support your verbal conversation. Do not refer to it throughout
the presentation. Remember you are the speaker and not the aid.
c) Display the aid for some good time to enable the audience link the verbal and the visual
information.
d) Do not stand in front of the visual aid as this interferes with the concentration of your
audience.
TOPIC 6: READING SKILLS
Introduction
In this topic, we shall examine reading as an important communication skill that you as a
university student will be constantly engaged in as you research, conduct routine study as well as
during revision for examinations. We shall therefore be concerned with how you can develop
effective reading skills that you can use in your university studies and in life after college.
What is Reading?
Reading is the process of interpreting, analyzing and understanding written messages. Reading
for study at university level is an active integration of the text involving interpretation and
thinking as you read. Reading is, therefore, a dynamic process involving the following
properties:
a) Decoding or interpreting written symbols
b) It is a physical and mental activity
c) It requires attention and thought
d) It is an interaction of the language of the text and background knowledge of the reader,
such that, the written message focuses the reader on what background knowledge (in long
term memory), the reader should bring to the interpretation of written message being
read.
Purpose for Reading
Before we engage in reading we need to establish the purpose for which we seek to read.
Generally speaking, we engage in reading for the following purposes:

37. a) We read to entertainment or leisure
b) To acquire information and knowledge
c) For academic purposes -at the university level reading is particularly more focused and
rigorous and would normally entail the following purposes:
 To gain an overall understanding of main ideas presented in some reading.
 To find specific information such as a name, date or a definition of a concept.
 To gain understanding of material so as to recall it as presented in the text.
 To evaluate, critique or analyze some material. The purpose of our reading will, to
a large extent, determine the type of reading of style we adopt as the discussion
below will indicate.
Types of Reading
Types of reading refer to styles we may adopt in our reading as determined by the purpose for
which we are reading. Types of reading include:
a) Scanning – This style or technique is used when you are looking for a name, definition
or any other specific piece of information in a text like a house in classified ads,
addresses or phone in a directory, an important concept, information for a research essay
in a library catalogue, table of content, index page etc. In using the technique, you move
your eye quickly over the page to find particular words or phrases that are relevant to
specific information you are looking for.
While scanning, a good reader should first:
 Ensure that the text he/she is scanning is the correct text and that he/she knows precisely
what he is looking for.
 Try to determine the text structure or its style of arrangement, i.e. clues or signals which
can assist in understanding the text pattern.
 Scan with speed without reading extraneous or irrelevant material.
b) Skimming – In this technique you read quickly through a text in order to get a grip of the
main ideas or general information about the text. In using this technique, you intend to
get a general grasp of ideas presented by the author. This technique is useful when:

38.  Trying to decide if a book in library is useful or right for your studies.
 Previewing books or texts before detailed reading.
 Refreshing your understanding of a text after you have read it in detail.
You can skim:
 Introductory paragraphs – to give the general theme
 Concluding paragraph
 Transitional paragraphs
 Subheadings
 Italicized, underlined and boldfaced items
 As an efficient reading strategy, skimming is a very useful skill both for recreational and
study reading. In study reading, it is useful for the following reasons:
c) Active/detailed reading – This technique is used in serious study. It calls for an active
involvement in the reading process. In this type of reading you need to interrogate or
think over what you read so as to both evaluate what you have read and facilitate recall of
read material. This is the kind of reading that is most extensively used at university
during study. As you use this type of reading the following tips are important.
 Always make notes
 Pick out what you think are the important points of what you are reading by highlighting
these points.
 Record main headings as you read, this helps you to see the flow of your reading and
notes.
 As you prepare for active reading note down questions you want the material to answer.
 After you have read a section of text and have made a summary of what you have read in
your notes, skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is. As you do
this, fill in gaps that you may notice in your notes.
d) Extensive reading is purposeful, organized, wide reading of long texts such as journals,
novels, magazines, and periodicals etc., especially those that relate to one‘s area of study,
to enrich one‘s vocabulary, which is basic to all good reading.
e) Intensive reading is a concentrated, thorough and comprehensive reading style. It is

39. applied when one wants to understand the contents of the reading deeply. It is an
intellectually involving affair in that the reader will be trying to evaluate how the ideas
involved could be applied or adapted to different situations. It is also analytical, critical
and interpretive. It could involve a paragraph, a whole passage or even a whole book, like
in the case of a literature book.
f) Light reading – this is the type of reading that we apply when reading papers and novels
for leisure. This does not involve any critical assessment or appraisal of the material one
is reading. It is fast and superficial.
g) Word by word reading – this is the style used by beginners when they are reading for
the first time and in an attempt to understand each word or phrase at a time. It is also
applicable when one is reading scientific or mathematics process or formula.
Effective and Efficient Reading Strategies
To read effectively means to be able to comprehend, evaluate and utilize that which one has read,
while reading efficiently means reading effectively with the least amount of physical (psycho-
motor) effort and time. To attain efficiency, one has to:
1. Reduce certain poor reading habits
2. Utilize better psycho-motor reading strategies
Common Poor Reading Habits
(a) Vocalization (sounding out)
This is reading aloud (the tendency to register the sound of the words as you read), which wastes
time. Scholars have observed that reading aloud takes at least twice as long as reading silently
and yet it is not any more effective.
b) Sub-vocalization
This is where the reader makes a conscious effort not to move his/her lips when reading but
his/her internal speech organs; larynx or vocal cords are mechanically working. That is, the
tendency to internally acknowledge or pronounce the sound of the words in your head.
c) Finger reading, pointing at words and head movement

40. These habits not only affect the rate of reading but also affect the comprehension, since they
prevent the reader from grasping full phrases and clauses, therefore hindering him/her from
understanding the ideas expressed fully.
d) Narrow recognition span and poor rhythmic eye movement
Recognition span is the number of words a reader can recognize while eyes are fixed at one
point. Fixations are the stops a reader takes to take in a word or phrase and then move on to the
next. A narrow recognition span wastes time and energy and therefore affects one‘s rate and
comprehension. Efficient readers take in several words per fixation, which should be at least a
phrase. Thus, rhythmically, eyes should move systematically from the middle of one phrase to
another.
e) Regression (backtracking while reading)
This is glancing back and re-reading words, phrases and sentences that have already been read. It
is a characteristic of lacking concentration and poor reading. It affects comprehension because it
interrupts the reading process (though process). An efficient reader should move forward at all
times.
Note: Regression is different from review which is done after, for clarification.
Effective Reading and Comprehension Skills
Two important techniques that have been developed for effective reading and comprehension are
SQ3R and SQ4R.
Survey – stands for a rapid preview of material in order to get an overview a topic, chapter, or
book. The idea here is to look for main points of the text, its content and approach. In doing this:
i) Read the title to help give you an idea of the subject.
ii) Read the introduction or summary to see what the author thinks are the key points.
iii) Notice boldface headings to see what the structure of the text is.
iv) Notice any maps, charts or graphs which give a summation of ideas in the text.
v) Notice reading aids and any questions at the end of chapter because they are meant to
help you understand and remember.
a) Question – When reading you should develop a questioning attitude. Questions help your
mind to engage and concentrate. This is because your mind is actively engaged when it is

41. looking for answers to questions. In using questions as you read, keep in mind the following:
 Try to turn bold face headings into questions you think the section should answer.
 Ask yourself:
 What is the main point being made here?
 What is author trying to explain here?
 Have I understood the argument and conclusion?
b) Read – After formulating questions you can start reading the material carefully in detail.
The approach you take in reading may depend on subject. If the subject is complex your
reading may be slower and if the subject is familiar, you might adopt a faster pace. How you
read may also be determined by your personal approach. As you read:
 Remember to take notes.
 Engage actively with your material.
 Look for answers to questions you have set for yourself and make up new questions
if necessary.
c) Recall – After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer
them from memory. If not take a look back at the text. Do this as often as you need to. As
you do this you may highlight important points of your notes.
d) Review – Once you have finished reading, for instance, a whole chapter or section, go back
over all questions in all headings to see if you can still answer them. If not, look back and
refresh your memory. Do this as an important part of your revision for exams.
(e) The fourth R on SQ4R is Reflection. This involves linking new information to what has
been read before, thereby retaining it. The reader asks themselves, how do the new ideas
confirm your ideas, add to them or conflict with them, do you agree with the opinion given?
Importance of SQ3R and SQ4R
 It makes reading a conscious active effort.
 It enables a reader think constructively along similar lines as the writer.
 The prediction or question formulation stage is both a sign and an aid to understanding.
 The stages improve one ‘s concentration and retention ability.
 Reading is organized into stages, therefore it takes less time and effort and it is more

42. effective.
Note Making
Notes are a shortened version of information. Note taking is an integral part of reading, listening
as well as during revision or study.
How to Make Notes
1. You should only choose the main points of what you are reading or listening to. Do not record
all the materials from your source.
2. Show the difference between main points, supporting points and examples. This can be done
by use of highlighting through the use of colours, underlining, or using various types of font
or bolding for the different aspects of your notes.
3. Brevity is important in taking notes. Use abbreviations wherever possible. You could also
achieve brevity by adopting mathematical or scientific symbols or device your own personal
code of symbols and signs.
4. Use phrases, not complete sentences to save time. Number items, put information in bulleted
lists, or use an outline to make it easier to review notes
Advantages of Notes
1. Making notes helps you to learn and understand by translating what you are
studying into your own words and thereby helping you to understand and
remember what you are studying.
2. Taking notes helps you concentrate while you are studying because the note
taking process helps you process and digest the information.
3. Making notes helps you assess information because you are selecting the most
important parts of what you are reading. Through making notes, you are also
spotting the key issues and ideas of the materials.
4. Note making also helps you think about the subject. Writing down ideas often
produces ideas about other ideas you already know. This makes you think and
connect what you are noting down with what you already know. This process
makes remembering of information more likely.
Interpreting Non-linear Texts/ Transcoding

43. In addition to using continuous prose, writers code information in diagrammatic displays like
table, graphs, maps, charts and histograms.
Student, these are effective for the following reasons:
 they are concise as they summarize results effectively
 they demonstrate relationships between variables graphically
 they help to predict trends
 they communicate a lot of information at a glance
 they are easy to remember
Student, writer will usually assist you to interpret these diagrams by: providing detailed titles,
providing a scale, stating the source of the diagram if it is not theirs originally, providing a key to
the shading and if more than one diagram is provided, they will number it to avoid confusion.
TOPIC 7: STUDY SKILLS
Introduction
In this unit, you will be exposed to study skills that you will require in order to study effectively
and achieve your academic aspirations. Reading has often been thought to be the same as
studying. However, reading is an active process where one makes sense of written words while
studying is an activity of purposeful reading that involves comprehending and recalling. Because
of this, studying requires that you be in good health in order to concentrate, eat a balanced diet
and have proper rest in order to improve memory. This topic will help you to think and plan how
you should study and how to improve your studying. Student, we will begin by attempting to
understand what studying is.
Definition of Studying

44. Studying is a purposeful process that you use to read, understand and organize information so
that it can be recalled when needed. It is therefore the next step that you need to be involved in
after reading a text or trying to make meaning of the written symbols. Studying demands
concentration and so you need to consider the following:
(a) Prepare a personal timetable
Now student, a timetable is a means of planning and managing time, which is crucial to any
student. It is widely argued that not planning is planning to fail, so let us look at how to prepare a
study timetable.
1 Consider the hours you will need for reading the units in each module. This would have
been the hours you would have spent sitting in a lecture room.
2 Include self-study hours where you can read text books borrowed from the library or on-
line
3 Discussion hours when you can interact with the lecturer and colleagues on the Moodle
platform. It could also be discussion with colleagues who live near your areas
4 Time for break when you can relax from the work and even take meals
5 Leisure time when you can undertake light activities or attend to other duties at home or
the work place.
6 Time to research and complete your assignments
7 Time for the face-to-face meetings with your lecturers
(b) Budget and purchase reading materials
Student, to do well in studying, you need to purchase study materials that are necessary but in
short supply in the university library. The purchase of the learning materials like texts should be
done at the beginning of the semester or academic year.
(c) The study environment
A favourable place of study contributes to the success that one achieves. This environment
should have the following features:
 Be well lit to enable you to see without straining
 free from distractions

45.  Should have comfortable furniture
 should be well aerated
 There should be enough space to hold the reading materials
(d) Study groups
Student, your academic success will also depend with you finding time to work with colleagues
in study groups. This will enable you to make use of limited resources, to tap into the
experiences and knowledge of colleagues, give one another support and learn from one another.
Group meetings should be held regularly to enable members share ideas and learn from one
another.
An effective study group should have :
 Members who have a common goal to achieve
 A leader who directs the activities of the group
 Members who share common areas of study
 Members who are not close relatives or friends
Tips about organizing a successful study group.
 You should take turns in organizing for the work every time the group meets. If possible,
have a rotational chairperson
 Always fix meetings and ensure regular time and common venue
 Always plan the activities of the next meeting ahead before you leave
(e) Study activities
Study time should be a busy and active time and so you can engage in a number of the activities
listed below:
 Review your lecture notes to connect information shared with you over a period of time
 Read text books borrowed from the library and make notes
 Think and recall what you have read
 Revise past papers of examinations in your area of specialization
 Engage in discussion with colleagues in study groups
 Research for answers to assignments or project work given in class
Student, since you are a distance learner, most of your time will be spent with your modules or

46. on-line on the Moodle platform where your study units are posted. The study units for Open and
Distance Learning in Kibabii University have the following components:
a. Table of contents: what is in the unit.
b. Introduction: what the unit is about.
c. Objectives: goals of the course.
d. Main content of the course: lessons that are given in form of headings and sub- headings.
e. Conclusion which gives the overall focus or point of the unit.
f. Summary which gives the gist of what is covered in the unit.
i. Tutor-marked assignment which gives you an assignment to be completed on the unit. This
assignment is to be marked by your tutor.
ii. References which gives you a list of books for further reading and resources you can consult
in libraries, internet and at study centers.
g. Key or answers to all activities or exercises given in the unit.
All courses are accompanied with Course Guides which state all that you need to know about the
course such as:
a) Course duration
b) Course aims and objectives
c) Credit units
d) Course structure
e) Materials needed
f) Mode of assessment
Now, for you to be an effective student, it will be important for you to consider the following
habits of effective students.
Habits of Highly Effective Students
Students who succeed in their studies exhibit the following habits. They:
 Don't attempt to cram all studying into one session.
 Plan their study time.

47.  Study at a particular time or the same time.
 Each study time should have a specific goal
 Start with the most difficult subject first.
 Always review your notes before starting an assignment
 Make sure they are not distracted while studying.
 Use study groups effectively.
Now student, along with studying you will need to develop critical thinking skills that will
enable you function as a scholar. Let us establish what critical thinking is.
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what to do or what to believe.
It includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.
Someone with critical thinking skills is able to do the following:
 Understand the logical connections between ideas
 Identify, construct and evaluate arguments
 Detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
 Solve problems systematically
 Identify the relevance and importance of ideas
 Reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values
Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A person with a good memory and
who knows a lot of facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking. A critical thinker is able to
deduce consequences from what he knows, and he knows how to make use of information to
solve problems, and to seek relevant sources of information to inform himself.
Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of other
people. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, it
can also play an important role in cooperative reasoning and constructive tasks and help us
acquire knowledge, improve our theories and strengthen arguments.
We can use critical thinking to enhance work processes and improve social institutions.

48. Some people believe that critical thinking hinders creativity because it requires following the
rules of logic and rationality, but creativity might require breaking rules. This is a misconception.
Critical thinking is quite compatible with thinking "out-of-the-box", challenging consensus and
pursuing less popular approaches. If anything, critical thinking is an essential part of creativity
because we need critical thinking to evaluate and improve our creative ideas.
Importance of Critical Thinking
i) Critical thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. The ability to think clearly and
rationally is important whatever we choose to do.
ii) New knowledge economy. The new economy places increasing demands on flexible
intellectual skills, and the ability to analyze information and integrate diverse sources of
knowledge in solving problems.
iii) Enhances language and presentation skills. Improve comprehension and the way we
express our ideas- how to analyze the logical structure of texts.
iv) Promotes creativity. New ideas being generated are useful and relevant to the task at
hand. It helps in evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying them if
necessary
v) Self-reflection. In order to live a meaningful life and to structure our lives accordingly,
we need to justify and reflect on our values and decisions.
vi) The foundation of science and democracy. The proper functioning of a liberal
democracy requires citizens who can think critically about social issues to inform their
judgments about proper governance and to overcome biases and prejudice.
TOPIC 8: LIBRARY SKILLS
Introduction
The use of the library is vital to study activities. This is because the library is a storehouse of
information which is important for a scholar. Effective library usage is important because it is an
essential part of life in education, particularly at university level, where you are required to find

49. and acquire materials on your own, either for research or for study. In this topic, you will learn
about the library, types of libraries, Sections of a library and the arrangements made by the
library staff to enable you access library materials.
We will begin by defining a library.
A library is an information center where book and non-book material are stored for use by library
users.
Types of Libraries
Libraries can be divided into five main categories:
(a) National Libraries are also referred to as reference libraries because they are used for
references. Their main function is to collect and preserve for posterity the books,
periodicals and newspapers published in the country. They are formed through a law and
these laws require publishers to deposit copies of all publications they produce. National
libraries also purchase books published in other countries.
a) Public libraries are types of libraries that are funded by the public through local authorities
or government and the use of these libraries is open to all members of public. The function of
these libraries is to promote a reading culture in a country’s citizens. They provide a wide
range of loan services, where you can borrow reading material. They endeavor to provide
reading material to the entire country, communities and they do this by providing travelling
and mobile libraries even in remote areas. They also provide special facilities for the old and
disabled and also organize provision of library services for hospital, jails etc.
b) Special libraries contain a collection of books and other materials dealing with a limited field
of knowledge for a particular society, research organization, government department, or
educational institution department. A special library may also be a special branch of a public
library serving certain interest or occupation groups. A special library is intended to serve
needs of specific users requiring detailed materials in a limited area. A library may be special
in a variety of ways.

50. c) Private libraries are libraries owned by individuals, clubs, and societies to which members of
the public have no right of access. They may contain a variety of materials or specialized
materials depending on the interests of the individuals or group.
d) Academic libraries are libraries associated with educational institutions and are established
to serve the needs of those in the institutions. Such libraries include university, college,
polytechnics and so on. University libraries, for instance, are meant to serve academic needs
of students and members of the academic staff.
Services of a Library
Now student, we will focus on an academic library. The functions of this kind of library include:
 Providing a quiet reading environment for staff and students
 Stores book and non-book material on behalf of the users
 It offers lending service
 Enhances the advancement of knowledge for students and lecturers
 It provides reprographic services
Sections in the Library
The library is not only for lending out books. There are other areas of the library that offer other
services. These areas are briefly explained below.
Reference section: The reference section of the library stores books, such as dictionaries,
encyclopedias, thesaurus, year books, abstracts, research documents, directories, etc. that are not
to be loaned out. They are strictly to be consulted. The following services are offered by this
section:
 Storing books that are difficult to replace.
 Finding information in encyclopedias.
 Storing a single copy books for consultation
 Keeping out of print books.
 Storing bibliographies of published materials.

51.  Keeping dictionaries of every subject.
 Keeping abstracts (summaries) of research materials published.
 Keeping special publications like Who is who.
From the above, we see that the reference section of a library is an important area that you must
always visit whenever you enter a library.
Serials section: This section stores recent journals that are in every field. If you want any new
information, the place you have to go is the serials section of a library. Serials section is a branch
of a reference library. Documents are consulted and not on loan in this section.
Media section: This section of the library contains films, video-tapes, audio-tapes, internet, E-
mail, etc.
Africana section: This section keeps any material that is African based. All journals, books,
abstracts, newspapers, magazines, etc. published in Africa are housed in Africana section of the
library.
New arrivals: Some libraries have a section for displaying books that have just arrived.
Study areas: Often you may go to the library not to consult or borrow books. Libraries offer
seating spaces for study purposes. Since libraries are supposed to be noiseless zones, they are
conducive for reading and study purposes.
Circulation section: This is a section in the library that offers charging and discharging services
to the library users.
Borrowing a book
Let us assume that you have been given the author and title of a certain book, which has been
assigned to you to read. You would like to borrow it from the library, because it may take you
sometime to read it. The first thing you do when you get to a library is to check whether or not
the book is in stock and be sure it is available for lending. The next thing is to locate that book
where it is in the library. To locate a book in the library, you should take the following steps.
Consult the right card catalogues.
For example, if you know the name of the author of the book, you should consult author or name
catalogue. Author or name catalogue consists of the name of the author on cards arranged in

52. alphabetic order according to the author’s surname, institution or editor, by which the book is
best known.
If you know only the title of the book and not the author’s name, another card catalogue arranged
according to book titles is also available in the library. The titles of books are arranged in
alphabetical order. If you can locate the title of the book, you will automatically get other
information about the book, especially the publisher, the date published, the surname and the
other names of the author. Also the class mark of the book will be indicated.
Information Sources
Information sources are materials used as resources of information in the library, which are
selected to meet the needs of users of specific libraries.
Types of Information Sources
Information sources can be grouped into print or non-print information sources.
Print Information Sources are divided into four categories.
a) Reference sources
1. Reference sources are designed to be consulted for definite information and are meant to be
referred to rather than being read as texts. Usually they are not allowed to be taken away
from the library building. Reference sources include: encyclopedias, dictionaries,
bibliographies, indexes, and atlases. Reference sources are divided into two that is, general
reference books and quick references.
2. General reference books include research reports, including theses and dissertations;
official publications such as government publications including Kenya Gazette,
parliamentary reports, statistics reports, development plans and government budget
estimates; bibliographies; indexes and abstracts.
3. Quick references are books that will provide you with material or direct and factual
information. They provide basic and background information to a topic and are designed for
consultation when you are in urgent need of a piece of information or fact. The information
provided is usually in shortened form for quick reference. They are written by specialists in
specified fields. Some quick reference books include:
i) Dictionaries, which may be general language dictionaries that give meaning, pronunciation,

53. spelling, usage of meaning, trace history of words, synonyms and antonyms. They may also
be subject dictionaries, which provide meanings of words as used in that particular field.
ii) Encyclopedias, which are like dictionaries. Most are in a number of volumes covering all
types of subjects and cover a wide range of knowledge. Others are specialized and cover
specific fields of knowledge.
iii) Other quick reference books include yearbooks, covering major events that occurred in the
year of publication; and atlases, providing varied geographical information.
b) Periodicals
These are publications that have a distinct title and published at stated intervals. They contain
articles or other writings by several contributors. The intervals in which they are published could
be fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, or once a year. Periodicals include:
 Journals, which are publications by a society, institution or professional body
containing news, proceedings, transactions and reports of work contained in a
particular field of study e.g. communication, linguistics, philosophy, political science
etc.
 Magazines, which contain varied information written by various writers. They
deal with general topics, and are non-professional and non-technical. Examples include
Parents, Adams, Time and Newsweek magazines.
 Newspaper, which contain recent news and may be published daily or weekly.
The news items generally include politics, sports, business and advertisements
among others.
c) Textbooks
A textbook is book written specifically for use by those studying for examination in a particular
system. Textbooks discuss subject areas in details and are the main material found in academic
libraries. They include most of course texts used in the university.
d) Recreational books
These are books read for leisure or entertainment and may not be meant for serious study. This
includes mainly fictional works.

54. Non-Printed Information Sources
These sources of information are those that are not books or periodicals or journals. These
information sources are audio-visual or visual and they include materials such as films, video
tapes, slides and internet material which is in soft form.
Organization of Information Sources in the Library
Libraries do have a wide and enormous variety of information, which must be organized to make
it easy to access by library users. As a library user you need to understand how the sources are
organized in order to benefit from information they contain. Library information sources are
organized in three ways: Classification, Cataloguing and use of Call Number.
A library classification is a system of coding and organizing library materials to enable library
users access them easily. There are various classification schemes used in libraries and the
common ones are:
i) Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), which was invented by Melvin Dewey. This is a
numerical system using groupings of ten i.e there are ten major classes, each of which has
ten divisions and these are further divided into ten sections. Each if these branches of
knowledge is assigned numbers eg 001-099
000 –computer science, information and general works
100 –philosophy and psychology
200-religion
300-Social sciences
400-Language
500-Science
600-Technology
700-Arts and recreation
800-Literature
900-History and geography
ii) Library of Congress Classification (LCC) was created by library of congress in America.
It is a classification system where all knowledge is divided into 21 basic classes, each

55. identified using a single letter of the alphabet. Most of these alphabetical letters are further
divided into sub-classes identified by two letters of the alphabet. The 21 classes of
knowledge are:
A- General works
B- Philosophy, psychology and religion
C- Auxiliary sciences and history
D- World history
E- History of the Americas
F- History of the Americas
G- Geography, anthropology and recreation
H- Social sciences
J-Political sciences
K- Law
L- Education
M- Music
N- Fine arts
P-Language and Literature
Q- Science
S- Agriculture
T- Technology
U- Military science
V-naval science
Z-Bibliography, library science and information resources
Cataloguing
A catalogue is a complete list of all printed materials available and stocked in the library and
arranged in a systematic order. Student, the catalogue is important as it helps you to easily access
materials when you require them. It is also useful in establishing how many texts are available by
a given author.
Types of Catalogues

56. There are different types of catalogues and different libraries choose to use different types of
catalogues depending on convenience and personnel they have in libraries.
The common types of catalogue are:
a) Author catalogue, where a library lists material in library alphabetically according to the
surname of the author.
b) Title catalogue, where a library lists materials arranged alphabetically according to the
title of the materials. Articles that precedes titles e.g. a, an and the are, not included in the
title. They are ignored.
c) Subject catalogue, which lists materials in the library in alphabetical order according to
subject heading.
Catalogue Format
There are two types of catalogue formats:
i) Card catalogue, in which catalogues are done on cards where each card contains only
one entry and the card entries are arranged alphabetically either using author system,
subject system or title system. The cards are placed in drawers where they can be
accessed by library user. Most libraries are phasing out this system in favor of computer
catalogue.
ii) Computer catalogue format uses computers which have catalogue information of
various entries of materials found in a library. The system is very efficient and can be
used to store more varied information than card catalogue. It can also be accessed very
fast, at the click of a button. This is the format used in the Kibabii University library.
A Call Number
This is a group of numbers and/or letters found on the spine of a book to assist you to find where
a book is in the library. Additionally, the call number facilitates easy returning of materials to
their right places on the shelves as well as orderly arrangement of books on the shelves.
Evaluating Information Sources
In a library, there are numerous information sources and you need to be able to select
information sources that would be most helpful for study or research. In the case of a book its
various parts may guide you into evaluating this information source. The various parts of a book
that might be relevant include:

57. i) Book cover, which contain the author’s name and the title of the book. At the back cover, it
contains a brief history of author and may indicate his/her credibility and also a brief
summary of the contents of the book.
ii) Title page, which shows the title of the book, full name or all names of authors, edition,
volume, publisher, place of publication, the translator etc.
iii) Preface/forward, this is the section that reveals the purpose of materials contained in the
book as well as its relevance. The forward is usually written by someone else other than
author who is an authority or has a great understanding of materials contained in the book.
iv) Table of content, which shows the title of topics, chapters and pages on which the
information is found.
v) The introduction usually provides general survey of material contained in the book. It also
offers advice on how the book is arranged and should be read e.g. whether it should be read
progressively or whether each section may be read independently.
vi) The glossary is a list of technical or special terms used in the text and their definitions.
vii) Appendix comes towards the end of the book and it may contain notes about things that
might not have been fully explained in the text. It also includes tables, statistics and so on,
for which there is no room to be included in text.
viii) The Index is a systematically arranged list of items which show information for each item
and how it can be traced by means of page number.
Choosing the Right Book
Using the parts of book described above you can now assess the quality of books in the library
before reading them. Coupled with the information above, there are other criteria that you can
use in selecting the right book as illustrated below:
i) Relevance of the book, which is determined by the purpose you have established for your
reading which can be achieved by looking at various sections of books described above.
ii) Up-to-datedness, which is the publication date of the book and the edition. This is
important because information keeps changing over time or new developments emerge in a
field of study. Therefore, more current books contain new developments that old books may

58. not have.
iii) The credibility of author and publisher. You need to select materials that are written by
credible authors and well known publishing firms. In so doing you will be reading material
that is reliable and reputable. This is more so because a lot of materials circulating which
may pass off as facts may actually be coming from unreliable sources.
iv) Book’s popularity. A popular book will have certain characteristics: It is in high demand as
reflected in sales and it has several reprints.
v) Presentation of material. This refers to how the author presents material, which is very
important in assessing the suitability of the material. Presentation involves how the material
is produced, how it is organized, the usefulness of illustration used and the level of language
used.