The document outlines the structure and functions of the nervous system, particularly the central and peripheral nervous systems, and elaborates on seizures, their types, symptoms, causes, and effects. It covers focal and generalized onset seizures, describing various characteristics and warning signs, as well as potential triggers such as alcohol withdrawal and brain injuries. Management and treatment options for seizures, especially those related to epilepsy, include medications, dietary changes, and lifestyle adjustments to potentially reduce seizure occurrences.

1. THERAPEUTICS II
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
DISORDERS
KAGEKE WALTER
EIHI

2. What is the nervous system?
The nervous system is a complex system that regulates and coordinates
body activities. It is made up of two major divisions, including the
following:
• Central nervous system (CNS). This consists of the brain and spinal
cord.
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS). This consists of somatic and
autonomic nervous system .

3. SEIZURES
What are seizures?
• Seizures are changes in the brain’s electrical activity or function.
These changes can cause noticeable symptoms or in other cases no
symptoms at all (convulsive or non convulsive).
• They are the major symptom of epilepsy(a brain condition
characterized by recurrent episodes of seizures)

4. Types of Seizures
Focal onset seizures
• They occur in one area of the brain.
• Focal onset seizures cause motor, sensory, autonomic, psychic
symptoms without an obvious alteration in consciousness.
• These seizures may also be manifested as changes in somatic
sensation (e.g paresthesia ie sensation of pricking or tingling of the
skin), vision, equilibrium, autonomic function olfactory changes, and
hearing.
• Generalized onset seizures
• These seizures start in both sides of the brain simultaneously.
• Among the more common types of generalized onset seizures are
tonic-clonic, absence, myoclonic and atonic.

5. • Tonic-clonic: These are also known as grand mal seizures. “Tonic”
refers to muscle stiffening. “Clonic” refers to the jerky(sudden
uncontrolled movements) arm and leg movements during the
convulsions, loss consciousness for a few minutes.
• Tonic: stiffening of the body, upward deviation of the eyes, dilation of
the pupils, and altered respiratory patterns
• Myoclonic: sudden muscle jerks
• Absence: Also called petit-mal seizures, these last for only a few
seconds. They can cause you to blink repeatedly or stare into space.
Other people may mistakenly think you're day-dreaming.
• Atonic: During these seizures, also known as drop attacks, your muscles
suddenly stop working. Your head may nod or your entire body could
fall to the ground. Atonic seizures are brief, lasting about 15 seconds.

6. Symptoms before seizure
• A sudden feeling of fear or anxiety
• Dizziness
• A change in vision
• A jerky movement of the arms and legs that may cause you to drop
things or fall down
• An out of body sensation
• headache

7. Symptoms that indicate a seizure is in progress
• Losing consciousness, followed by confusion
• Having uncontrollable muscle spasms
• frothing from the mouth
• Falling down
• Having a strange taste in your mouth
• Clenching your teeth
• Biting your tongue
• Having sudden, rapid eye movements
• Making unusual noises, such as grunting
• Losing control of bladder or bowel function
• Having sudden mood changes

8. Causes of seizures
Anything that affects the body also may disturb the brain and lead to a
seizure. Some examples include:
• Alcohol withdrawal
• A brain infection, such as meningitis
• A brain injury during childbirth
• A congenital brain defect
• Drug abuse
• Drug withdrawal
• An electrolyte imbalance eg Na, Ca, Cl
• Electric shock
• Extremely high blood pressure
• A fever

9. Causes cont’d
• Head trauma
• Low blood glucose levels
• Kidney failure(uremic, toxins, electrolyte imbalances)
• A stroke
• A brain tumor
• Vascular abnormality in the brain
• Seizures can run in families.

10. What are the effects of seizures?
• If you don’t get treatment for seizures, their symptoms can become worse and progressively longer
in duration.
• Extremely long seizures can lead to coma or death.
• Seizures also can lead to injury, such as falls or trauma to the body.
Investigations
• Blood tests to check for electrolyte imbalances
• Lumbar puncture to check for infection eg meningitis
• Toxicology screening to test for drugs, poisons, or toxins
• Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• CT scan
•

11. Management
Treatments for seizures depend on the cause. By treating the cause of
the seizures, you may be able to prevent future seizures from
occurring. The treatment for seizures due to epilepsy include:
Medications
• Anticonvulsants (Phenytoin, Lamotrigine, Topiramate, Valproic acid,
Carbamazepine, Felbamate, Ethosuximide)
• Barbiturates (Phenobarbital)
• Benzodiazepines (Clonazepam)
• Surgery to correct brain abnormalities
• A special diet, known as a ketogenic diet (high fat content with low
carbohydrate content) this increases formation of ATP and adenosine
that inhibits generation of seizures.

12. Prevention
In many instances, a seizure isn’t preventable. However, maintaining a
healthy lifestyle can reduce the risk. You can do the following:
• Get plenty of sleep.
• Eat a healthy diet and stay well hydrated.
• Exercise regularly.
• Engage in stress-reducing techniques.
• Avoid taking illegal drugs.

13. THANK YOU