Chapter 2 covers database system concepts, including data models, schemas, DBMS architecture, and database languages. It explains the distinction between data models (high-level vs. low-level), schemas, and instances, as well as the three-schema architecture for data independence. The chapter also discusses DBMS languages for defining and manipulating data, different user interfaces, and classification criteria for DBMS types.

1. Chapter 2: Database System Concepts
and Architecture
• 2.1 Data Models, Schemas, and
Instances
• 2.2 DBMS Architecture and Data
Independence
• 2.3 Database Languages and Interfaces
• 2.4 The Database System Environment
• 2.5 Classification of Database
Management Systems
Chapter 2: Database System Concepts
and Architecture

2. 2.1 Data Models, Schemas, and
Instances
• One fundamental characteristic of the database
approach is that it provides some level of data
abstraction by hiding details of data storage that
are not needed by most database users.
• A data model—a collection of concepts that can
be used to describe the structure of a
database—provides the necessary means to
achieve this abstraction.

3. • Data Model Operations: Operations for
specifying database retrievals and updates
by referring to the concepts of the data
model.
‧generic operation: insert, delete, modify,
retrieve
‧user-defined operations: comput_GPA

4. 2.1.1 Categories of Data Models
a) High-level or conceptual data
models provide concepts that are
close to the way many users perceive
data.
– Conceptual data models use concepts such
as entities, attributes, and relationships.

5. – An entity represents a real-world object or
concept, such as an employee or a project,
that is described in the database.
– An attribute represents some property of
interest that further describes an entity, such
as the employee’s name or salary.
– A relationship among two or more entities
represents an interaction among the entities;
for example, a works-on relationship between
an employee and a project.

6. b) low-level or physical data models
provide concepts that describe the
details of how data is stored in the
computer.
• Concepts provided by low-level data models
re generally meant for computer specialists,
not for typical end users
c) Implementation (record-oriented) data
models: Provide concepts that fall
between the above two, balancing user
views with some computer storage
details.
• ‧relational ‧network ‧hierarchical

7. 2.1.2 Schemas, Instances, and Database State
• In any data model it is important to distinguish between
the description of the database and the database itself.
• Database Schema (meta-data): The description of a
database. Includes descriptions of the database
structure and the constraints that should hold on the
database.
• Schema Diagram: A diagrammatic display of (some
aspects of ) a database schema. (refer to Fig 2.1 2-5)
• A schema diagram displays only some aspects of a
schema, such as the names of record types and data
items, and some types of constraints
• Database Instance: The actual data stored in a
database at a particular moment in time. Also called
database state ( or occurrence, snapshot)
(refer to Fig 1.2 2-6)

8. • The database schema changes very infrequently. The
database state changes every time the database is
updated. Schema is also called intension, whereas
state is called extension.
• The distinction between database schema and
database state is very important.
• When we define a new database, we specify its
database schema only to the DBMS. At this point, the
corresponding database state is the empty state with no
data. We get the initial state of the database when the
database is first populated or loaded with the initial data.
From then on, every time an update operation is applied
to the database, we get another database state.
• The DBMS is partly responsible for ensuring that every
state of the database is a valid state—that is, a state
that satisfies the structure and constraints specified in
the schema.

9. define
empty state
initial state
load
state
update
update
valid state
satisfy database schema
Schema evolution: when there is sometimes a change in schema
diagram (DateOfBirth for a student object)

10. Figure 2.1 Schema diagram for UNIVERSITY database
schema construct
Known data:
name of record types, data items

11. Figure 1.2
UNIVERSITY Database

12. 2.2 DBMS Architecture and Data Independence
1. The internal level has an internal schema, which describes the
physical storage structure of the database. The internal schema
uses a physical data model and describes the complete details of
data storage and access paths for the database.
2. The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which
describes the structure of the whole database for a community of
users. The conceptual schema hides the details of physical
storage structures and concentrates on describing entities, data
types, relationships, user operations, and constraints. A high-level
data model or an implementation data model can be used at this
level.
3. The external or view level includes a number of external
schemas or user views. Each external schema describes the
part of the database that a particular user group is interested in
and hides the rest of the database from that user group. A high-
level data model or an implementation data model can be used at
this level.
2.2.1 The Three-Schema Architecture

13. 2.2 DBMS Architecture and Data Independence
Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
- Insulation of programs and data/program and operations
(program-data and program-operation independence)
- Support of multiple views of the data.
- Use of catalog (database description)
Defines DBMS schema at three levels: (see 2-9)
- Internal schema at the internal level to describe data storage structures and access
paths. Typically uses a physical data model.
- Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the structure and constraints
for the whole database. Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
- External schema at the external level to describe the various user views. Usually
uses the same data model as the conceptual level or high-level data model.
Mappings among schema levels are also needed. Programs refer to an external schema,
and are mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for execution
2.2.1 Three-Schema Architecture

14. Figure 2.2 The Three-schema architecture 2-6

15. 2.2.2 Data Independence
Logical Data Independence: The capacity to change the conceptual schema without
having to change the external schemas and their application programs.
Physical Data Independence: The capacity to change the internal schema without
having to change the conceptual schema.
When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings between this
schema and higher-lever schemas need to be changed in a DBMS that fully supports
data independence. The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged. Hence, the
application programs need not be changed since they refer to the external schemas.
By adding or removing a record type or data
item to
· expand the database
· reduce the database
Reorganize physical files to improve performance
e.g. List all sections offered in Fall 1998
Disadvantages of two levels of mappings:
Overhead during compilation or execution of a query or program

16. • UNIVERSITY Conceptual Schema
STUDENT (Name, Student Number, Class, Major)
COURSE (Course Name, Course Number, Credit, Dept)
PREREQUISITE (Course Number, Prerequisite Number)
SECTION (Section Id, Course Number, Semester, Year,
Instructor)
GRADE_REPORT(Student Number, Section Id , Grade)
•
UNIVERSITY External Schema
TRANSCRIPT(Student Name, Course Number, Grade,
Semester, Year, Section Id)
derived from STUDENT, SECTION, GRADE_REPORT
• PREREQUISITES(Course Name, Course Number,
Prerequisites)
derived from PREREQUISITE, COURSE
• Change GRADE-REPORT Schema Construct
GRADE_REPORT (Student Number, Student Name, Section
Id, Course Number, Grade)
• Change Mapping (& View Definition)
TRANSCRIPT derived from SECTION, GRADE_REPORT

17. 2.3 Database Languages and Interfaces
Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA and database designers to
specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also
used to define internal and external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate
storage definition language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL) are
used to define internal and external schemas.
Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used to specify database retrievals and
updates (insertion, deletion, modifications)
- DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a general-purpose
programming language (host language).
- Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly (query
language).
provide appropriate languages and interfaces for each category of users.
2.3.1 DBMS Languages
DDL Compiler

18. 2.3 Database Languages and Interfaces
Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA and database designers to
specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also
used to define internal and external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate
storage definition language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL) are
used to define internal and external schemas.
SDL specify the Internal Schema. The mapping between the conceptual and
internal schema is done in one of the two.
VDL specify user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema, but in
most DBMSs the DDL is used to define both conceptual and external
schemas.
Data) can be embedded in a general-purpose programming language (host
language).
Manipulation Language (DML): Used to specify database retrievals and
updates (insertion, deletion, modifications)
DML commands (data sublanguage - Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands
can be applied directly (query language).
provide appropriate languages and interfaces for each category of users.
2.3.1 DBMS Languages
DDL Compiler

19. Types of DML
-Procedural DML:
• Also called record-at-a-time (record-oriented) or low-level DML
• Must be embedded in a programming language.
• Searches for and retrieves individual database records and uses looping
and other constructs of the host programming language to retrieve multiple
records.
-Declarative or non-procedural DML:
• Also called set-at-a-time (set-oriented) or high-level DML.
• Can be used as a stand-alone query language or can be embedded in a
programming language.
• Searches for and retrieves information from multiple related database
records in a single command.
- host language: general-purpose language
- data sublanguage: DML
- C++

20. 2.3.2 DBMS Interfaces
- Stand-alone query language interfaces. (casual end user)
- Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in programming
languages: (programmer)
-Pre-compiler Approach
-Procedure (Subroutine) Call Approach
- User-friendly interfaces:
-Menu-based Interfaces for Browsing.
-Forms-based Interfaces.
-Graphical User Interfaces.
-Natural language Interfaces
-Combination of the above
-Interfaces for Parametic Users (using function keys)
-Parametric users, such as bank tellers, often have a small set of
operations that they must perform repeatedly.
- Interfaces for the DBA:
-Creating accounts, granting authorizations
-Setting system parameters
-Changing schemas or access path

21. • These interfaces present the user with lists of options, called menus, that
lead the user through the formulation of a request.
• Avoid memorizing specific commands and query language rather query is
composed step by step by pick up options from a menu that is display by
the system.
2.3.2 DBMS Interfaces
Menu based Interface
Form based Interface
A forms-based interface displays a form to each user. Users can fill out all of
the form entries to insert new data, or they fill out only certain entries, in which
case the DBMS will retrieve matching data for the remaining entries. Forms
are usually designed and programmed for naive users as interfaces to
canned transactions.

22. •The database and the DBMS catalog are usually stored on disk.
• Access to the disk is controlled primarily by the operating system (OS), which
schedules disk input/output.
•A stored data manager module of the DBMS controls access to DBMS
information that is stored on disk(database or catalog).
•It uses the OS service for carrying out low-level data transfer between the disk
and main storage
•DDL compiler processes schema definitions, specified in the DDL, and stores
descriptions of the schemas (meta-data) in the DBMS catalog.
•run-time database processor handles database accesses at run time; it
receives retrieval or update operations and carries them out on the database.
•query compiler handles high-level queries that are entered interactively. It
parses, analyzes, and compiles or interprets a query
•pre-compiler extracts DML commands from an application program written in a
host programming language.
2.4 The Database System Environment
2.4.1 DBMS Component Modules

23. 2.4.1 DBMS Component Modules
2.4 The Database System Environment
Figure 2.3 A typical component modules of a DBMS. The dotted line show accesses
that are under the control of the stored data manager.

24. 2.4.2 Database System Utilities
DBMSs database utilities that help the DBA in managing the database system.
Common utilities have the following types of functions:
Loading is used to load existing data files—such as text files or sequential
files—into the database.
Backing up :creates a backup copy of the database
- File reorganizing : used to reorganize a database file into a different file
organization to improve performance.
- Report generation utilities.
- Performance monitoring utilities: monitors database usage and
provides statistics to the DBA. The DBA uses the statistics to make a
decision
- Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,
data compression, etc.

25. 2.5 Classification of Database Management Systems
Several criteria are normally used to classify DBMSs.
Based on the data model used:
•Data models
-Traditional: Relational, Network (see 2-19), Hierarchical
- Emerging: Object-oriented, Semantic, Entity- Relationship, other.
Other classifications:
•Number of users : Single-user (typically used with personal computers) vs.
multi-user (most DBMSs)
•Number of sites:
Centralized (uses a single computer) vs. distributed (uses multiple computers).
Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous
• Cost of DBMS software. $10,000~100,000
$100~3,000
•Types of access paths used. (inverted file structures, …)
•Purpose general purpose
special purpose
e.g. airline reservations, telephone directory, on-line transaction
processing system

26. Relational Data Model
• represents a database as a collection of tables, where each table can be
stored as a separate file.
• use the high-level query language called SQL and support a limited form of
user views
Object Data Model
• defines a database in terms of objects, their properties, and their operations
• Objects with the same structure and behavior belong to a class, and classes
are organized into hierarchies (or acyclic graphs).
Object-relational model:
• relational database extend to incorporate object database concepts and other
capabilities.
Network model
• represents data as record types and also represents a limited type of 1:N
relationship, called a set type.
hierarchical model
• represents data as hierarchical tree structures. Each hierarchy represents a
number of related records