part of journalistic students

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Chapter 1: Note Taking and Summary Writing
Introduction
Note- taking is the practice of recording important pieces of information from a lecture,
discussion, reading, or any other sources of information. The purpose of note-taking is to help
you remember important details, and key concepts, organize complex information, and create a
reference for later review. Note-taking can take various forms based on personal preference and
learning style, such as linear notes or Cornell notes. Effective note-taking involves selecting and
summarizing important ideas, using abbreviations and symbols to save time, and organizing your
notes in a way that makes sense to you.
Objectives:
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Understand Note taking and summary writing
 identify different forms of note-taking and summary writing
 organize your note properly
1.1 What is note?
 “Jotted record or summary”
 “Item of supplementary information”
A. Taking Classroom Notes
Taking notes in the classroom can help you understand new material and prepare for tests. Note-
taking helps you:
 Focus on the topic
 Understand new material, and
 Remember what’s important.
Note-taking is important because it helps your brain collect concepts you see and hear every day.
If you follow a few simple guidelines, note taking will become one of your best learning tools.
1.1.1 Guidelines for note-taking
 Write the topic and date at the top of each page
Number your pages so that you can sort them out if they get mixed up.
 Listen for main ideas.
If your teacher tells you that there were three main causes of the American Revolution, get ready
to list them in your notes.
 Listen for key words

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Key words like first, most importantly and finally tell you how ideas relate to each other.
 Write the main ideas in your own words.
You understand things better if you say them in your own way.
 Use numbers, words, or symbols to organize your notes
Use an asterisk (*) to make a main idea.
Number the steps in a process
 Note new or unfamiliar terms
Include a definition written in your own words
 Pay special attention to what the teacher writes on the board
This information is often on the test at the end of the unit.
Listen carefully for the main points. Don’t try to write down everything the teacher says. If you
miss something, you can always go back and fill in your notes later.
1.1.2 Setting up your notes
Keep separate notes for each subject. You might use a different notebook for each class or a
three-ring binder with dividers. Binders allow you to remove and replace pages, which is
especially helpful if you write on only one side of each sheet.
1.1.3 Reviewing your notes
 Take times every day to review your notes.
 Follow up by checking with your teacher or a classmate and add explanation to clarify
your notes
 Look up the definitions and correct spellings.
 Keep your notes organized and easy to read.
 Be ready for class discussions and quizzes.
B. Taking Reading Notes
Taking notes as you read will help you understand and remember the information. Pause during
your reading to write down important ideas and questions. Here are some tips for taking reading
notes.
 Quickly skim the assignment
Read the title, introduction, headings, and chapter summaries. Look at the charts, pictures, and
illustrations. Your preview will help you when you start reading for details.

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 Read carefully and take notes
Write down the main ideas and important details.
 Add graphic organizers whenever possible.
Graphic organizers can help you arrange your notes in a clear, logical order. You can use any of
the helpful organizers below for taking notes.
A. Using a Before – After organizer
Important events sometimes result in big changes. A before – after organizer can help you
identify these changes by listing the way that things were before and after the event. This type of
organizer can be used to help you understand what you read, especially in social studies and
science.
Example: Before – After organizer
Event: when you pass an electric current through water, the chemical reaction changes the water
into two gasses.
Before water (H2O)
Chemical reaction
After
Hydrogen Oxygen
B. Using a comparison – contrast chart
You can graph, or record, two topics similarities and differences in a comparison – contrast
chart. In this type of organizer, list the characteristics for each of he topics. After the lists are
finished, underline the differences. Read the paragraphs and the corresponding comparison –
contrast chart below.
Free verse and Blank verse
Free verse is poetry that has no regular pattern of rhyme or rhythm. Much modern poetry is free
verse. Blank verse is poetry that has a regular pattern of rhythm, but does not rhyme. Blank verse
becomes very popular during Shakespeare’s time.
Liquid
Gas

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Example: Comparison – contrast chart
Free verse Blank verse
- Poetry - Poetry
- Unrhymed - Unrhymed
- No regular rhythm - regular rhythm
- Modern – Shakespeare’s time
Try it. Read the following paragraph comparing folktales and fables. Then create a
comparison – contrast chart listing the characteristics of the two forms of writing.
Underline the characteristics that are different.
People often confuse fables and folktales. A fable is a brief story that teaches a lesson. Fables
sometimes feature animals. A folktale is a brief story that is passed from generation to
generation. Folktales sometimes contain animals but are usually told to entertain rather than
teach.
C. Using a time line
Some types of writing are organized chronologically, or according to when things happen. In
histories, biographies, and narratives, for example, the order of the events is very important.
When you want to take notes on this kind of writing, a time line can help you keep the flow of
events organized.
Read the following short biography. Then look at the time line to see how the details are
arranged.
Louisa May Alcott
By the time Louisa May Alcott died in 1888, she was famous for writing a very successful book,
Little Women. Louisa was born in 1832 and was rasied in Massachusetts. Her first poem was
published in 1851, and by 1854, she had published a book of stories and poems. Little Women
was published in 1869. From then until her death, she wrote several other books, including
several sequels to Little Women.

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A time line:
Louisa May Alcott
1832 Born
1851 First poem published
1854 First book published
1869 Little Women
Wrote other books
1888 Died
Try it. Read the following brief biography. Then create a time line that lists the important
events.
In 1950, Gwendolyn Brooks become the first African American author to receive a Pulitzer
Prize. She was recognized for her collection of poetry titled Annie Allen. Born in 1917,
Gwendolyn grew up in Chicago, where her parents encouraged her to write. She was widely
admired for her writing, being named poet laureate of Illinois in 1968. She died in 2000.
*Which ones do you think will be the most valuable for you the next time that you have a
reading assignment?
1.2 Summary Writing
A summary is a condensed, or shortened, version of a longer piece of writing, a conversation, or
a situation. It presents the main ideas and major support, stripping down the information to its
essential elements.
1.2.1 Four basics of a good summary
A. It has a topic sentence (in a paragraph) or a thesis statement (in an essay) that states what
is being summarized and its main idea.
B. It identifies the major support points.
C. It includes any final observations or recommendations made in the original piece.
D. It is written in your own words and presents information without your opinions.
1.2.2 The reading process for summaries
To write a summary, you must first understand what you are reading. To note what is important
as you read, you might follow the process:
A. Double-underline the main point and write “main point” in the margin next to it.

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B. Underline each major support point. This support may be a sentence or a group of
sentences. For each major support point, write “major support” in the margin.
C. Underline the final observations, recommendations, or conclusions, and write
“conclusion” in the margin.
D. After you finish reading, write a sentence or two, in your own words, about what is
important about the piece.
Example1:
Lou Enrico
Target and Wal-Mart: Not as Different as You Think
Keep Wal-Mart Out! That slogan is what you hear from a lot of people who think Wal-Mart is
just plain bad, while Target is good. Communities organize to prevent Wal-Mart from building
new stores, and groups promote boycotts of the whole chain. In contrast, Target, the fourth-
biggest retailer in the United States, is welcome anywhere. However, the two stores are more
alike than different; the biggest difference is in people’s perceptions about them.
One perceived difference is in the quality of the merchandise of the two chains. Many people
think that low quality comes with Wal-Mart’s low prices. They believe that the store’s clothing
will fall apart because of poor workmanship and inferior fabrics. They think its electronics will
fail just after the warranty expires. Target, on the other hand, is perceived as carrying stylish,
high-quality merchandise at affordable prices. People think that the clothing and shoes are as
durable as they are hip and that the furniture could be found in expensive department stores.
However, there is no proof at all that the clothing, electronics, furniture, food — anything — at
Target is higher quality than anything at Wal-Mart.
Another perceived difference is in the business practices of the two chains. The media are always
running reports that make Wal-Mart look like a villain: Wal-Mart employees are poorly paid.
Wal-Mart buys from sweatshops in third-world countries. Wal-Mart discourages unions
(Borosage and Peters). Recently, the American Federation of Teachers urged a boycott of Wal-
Mart because of its “dismal record” on worker pay, benefits, and rights (“Join”). In contrast,
Target is rarely in the news, so we assume that its practices are better. However, there is no proof
that Target employees make any more than Wal-Mart workers, and Target discourages
unionization (Bhatnagar; Jones). Target also buys products from foreign sources that may not
pay and treat their workers fairly. In reality, Wal-Mart has made many positive changes to its
business practices, while Target has not, probably because it has not been criticized by the
media. Wal-Mart has changed sources of foreign suppliers, for one thing. Also, it was recently
named one of the thirty best companies for diversity by Black Enterprise.
One of the biggest perceived differences concerns Wal-Mart’s effect on local economies. People
accuse Wal-Mart of putting small retailers out of business and destroying downtowns that once
had many family businesses (Borosage and Peters). It is said to be personally responsible for
changing the U.S. economy for the worse. In contrast, people are happy to hear that Target is
opening a new store. It is true that some Wal-Marts do put local retailers out of business. The
stores are big, they are not located in downtown areas, and they carry a whole range of
merchandise that used to be spread throughout many smaller businesses. However, Target also
takes business away from smaller stores. Yet Wal-Mart, in contrast to Target, often helps rural
towns by opening stores where people previously had to drive long distances to shop. You will
not find many Targets in these kinds of areas. Target wants to locate in richer communities.

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The fact that Wal-Mart is the largest retailer has led to a lot of the negative publicity it is getting.
This negative publicity makes me wonder how else the media changes people’s perceptions. Is
perception reality?
Here is the paragraph from the four basics of a good summary, underline and annotated
using the steps of the reading process.
.
Main point
Major support
Major support
Major support
Conclusion
Example2 Summary Writing Format
In the essay Exit Preparation, author Selam’s main point is (state main point). According to
Selam “…passage 1…” (para.3). Selalm also writes “…passage 2…” (para.8). finally, she states
“…passage 3…” (para. 12) Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often a simple
rephrasing of the main point.
NB:- the writer argues that Wal-Mart is really no worse than Target, yet Wal- Mart has been
criticized even as it has tried to improve its business practices.
The essay “Target and Wal-Mart: Not as Different as You Think” states that while Wal-
Mart is often villainized, and Target is welcomed, the two large chains are more similar
than different.
The first similarity the author presents is the quality of the merchandise, which, he says,
is perceived as poor at Wal-Mart and high at Target. However, there is no proof for this
perception, he notes. The second similarity concerns the business practices of the
two chains. While Wal-Mart if often criticized for its low pay and anti-union activities,
Target is not blamed for its negative business practices. The author cites improvements
Wal-Mart has made in its practices.
The third similarity is the effect on local economies. Both chain stores can have a
negative effect on small businesses, but Wal –Mart, not Target, is fought by local
communities. The author gives examples of how Wal-Mart has helped local economies,
while Target has not. The author concludes by saying that Wal-Mart is singled out
for bad publicity because of its large size. He wonders about other ways in which the
media shape people’s views.

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Chapter Two: Writing Skills
Introduction
This chapter deals about the basics of writing, like structure of a sentence, necessity of correct
spelling, punctuation, paragraph, and essay. A sentence won’t work as well without some words-
adjectives, adverbs, and conjunctions, for instance. It won’t work at all without certain other
words- nouns or pronouns and verbs. So as you continue to read, write, and speak the English
language, it will be helpful to know how, when, and where to use its parts… to keep it running
smoothly.
2.1 Sentence Structure
For journalists to write properly and correctly or to communicate information appropriately they
must learn to express ideas and thoughts clearly by constructing simple and grammar compliant
sentences. This requires the proper use of words as the smallest units of a language to develop
statements that are grammatically correct and semantically meaningful. Generally, a sentence is
conceptualized as a group of words that expresses a complete thought. For example: The chief
editor is a Nigerian. The reporter has travelled to Abuja. The radio station is own by government.
2.2 Types of Sentence
However, there is variety of ways by which sentences in English could be classified.
Conventionally sentences are categorized on the basis of structure and function. Structure refers
to the form in which a sentence is expressed (minor or major) while function denotes the aim for
which the sentence is used for.
2.2.1 Types of Sentence by Structure
Structurally we can make a distinction between major and minor sentences. Major sentences are
expressions that are complete in thought and contain the major components of a sentence
(subject and predicate).
For example:
 The journalist has visited the scene of the accident.
 The story was published on the cover page.
 The reporter interviewed all the parties in the dispute.
In all these sentences the idea is complete and the structure adequate because the sentences have
subject and predicate with nouns and verbs.
A minor sentence on the other hand is meaningful and complete in thought but lacks one or both
of the important components of a major sentence.

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For example:
 Thank you.
 Go ahead.
 Well done.
In these sentences the idea is complete in relation to the context of engagement; however the
sentences do not have a subject which is a fundamental structure of a major sentence. Major
sentences are further classified into four in respect of the sophistication of their structure. They
are simple, compound, complex and compound-complex as explained below:
a) Simple sentence is usually a short expression with single statement. It contains one main
clause and one finite verb. Example: The editor is in the newsroom. The newspaper is biased. I
am a journalist.
b) Compound sentence is an expression that contains two or more main clauses and a
corresponding number of finite verbs and the clauses are linked by coordinating conjunctions.
Example: He reported the story and the newspaper published it. He will edit the story or write
a new one. The editor left on time but the governor was late.
c) Complex sentence has one main clause and one or more dependent clauses that are linked to
the main clause by subordinating conjunction.
Example: The editor has been sad since the reporter left. The reporter cannot go to the location
unless the editor gives permission.
d) Compound-Complex sentence has two or more main clauses and at least one subordinate
clause.
Example: The reporter wrote the story and the editor edited it while the newspaper published
it.
2.2.2 Sentence Type by Function
Function denotes an anticipated goal that is intended or wished to be accomplished. On this basis
English sentences are classified into four:
a) Declarative sentence is a sentence that establishes the veracity, truthfulness or accuracy
of an assertion or anticipated likelihood. In other words, it states fact or possibility and is
basically used to make statement or provide information. For example: The editor approves the
story. The reporter will attend the press conference. The radio station is popular.

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b) Interrogative sentence is a sentence that question or challenges the accuracy, veracity or
truthfulness of an assertion. It is traditionally used to ask question or seek information of some
kind.
c) Imperative sentence is an expression that gives command, instruction, order or makes polite
request. The verb in this sentence is mostly in the imperative mood hence in infinitive or basic
form.
Example: Publish the story on the cover page. Interview the eye witness please. Have a
successful presentation.
d) Exclamatory sentence is rarely use in journalistic contents. It is a sentence that expresses a
sudden, frightening or intense emotion. It ends conventionally with an exclamation mark to
symbolize emphatic or emotional outcry. For example: What a horrible story! This is poor
editing! I am disappointed in your performance!
2.3 Writing Complete Sentence
Every sentence has two basic parts: a complete subject (which tells who or what is doing
something) and a complete predicate (which tells what the subject is doing or tells something
about the subject).
Example1:
Complete subject:
Who or what does something?
Complete predicate:
What does the subject do?
The Amazon River winds through the jungle.
The Nile River Empties into the sea.
Try it. For each of the sentences below, write the complete subject in the left column and write
the complete predicate in the right column.
1. Old Faithful, a geyser in Yellowstone National Park, erupts for about four minutes every
hour.
2. Antarctica is not owned by any country.
Subject and predicates
Every sentence has a subject and a predicate. A simple subject consists of the subject without the
words that modify it. A simple predicate is the verb without the words that modify it or complete
the thought.

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Example2:
A. Ancient Egyptians worshiped the Nile River.
B. The distance from New York City to Los Angeles matches the length of the Nile.
A simple subject may be compound, which means that it includes two or more subjects sharing
the same predicate (or predicates). A simple predicate may also be compound, which means that
it includes two or more verbs sharing the same subject (or subjects).
Example3:
Crocodiles and hippos live and thrive in the Nile.
Try it. Sand accumulates in the Blue Nile and turns the water brownish blue.
The Blue Nile and the White Nile combine at Khartoum, Sudan.
How can I make sure my sentences are complete?
1. Check your subjects and predicates
Incomplete thoughts are called fragments. Fragments may be missing a subject, a predicate, or
both.
Example4: Fragment:
Consists of four large island and more than 3,000 small ones.
Japan consists of four large island and more than 3,000 small ones. (A subject is added &
revised.)
In Japan.
Mount Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan. (A subject and predicate are added & revised.)
Shinto pilgrims this scared mountain.
Shinto pilgrims climb this scared mountain.( A predicate is added & revised.)
2. Check for dependent clauses
A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) contains a subject and a verb but does not
express a complete thought. It cannot stand by itself as a sentence. A dependent clause needs to
be connected to an independent clause to complete its meaning. A dependent clause plus an
independent clause creates a complex sentence.
A dependent clause (they cannot stand alone.) Combined with independent clause (complex

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sentences are created)
Where the wilderness is mostly untouched The Yukon Territory is located in a northerly
region where the wilderness is mostly
untouched
Because the sun never sets during some of the
summer season
…., people go to bed with the sun still shining.
That are extremely cold Winters that are extremely cold can turn
gasoline to slush.
A comma is needed after a dependent clause that comes at the beginning of a sentence. A comma
is usually not needed if the dependent clause comes at the end. A dependent clause in the middle
of a sentence may or may not need to be set off by commas.
NB:- Use commas to set off nonrestrictive phrases and clauses- those not necessary to the basic
meaning of the sentence.
Restrictive phrases or clauses- those that are needed in the sentence-restrict or limit the meaning
of the sentence; they are not set off with commas.
Example5: Groundwater that is free from harmful pollutants is rare.
2.4 Fixing sentence problems
A. Avoid run-on sentences
Sometimes you may accidentally write a run-on sentence by putting together two or more
sentences. One type of run-on is called a comma splice, in which the sentences are connected
with a comma only. Another type of run-on has no punctuation at all.
One way to fix run-on sentences is to add a coordinating conjunction (and, so, or, for, but, yet, or
nor) and a comma (if not already present). Another is to connect the two sentences with a
semicolon.
Example5:Run-on sentence
The Rock of Gibraltar stands between Europe and Africa less than eight miles separate the
continents.
Corrected sentences:

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The Rock of Gibraltar stands between Europe and Africa, and less than eight miles separate the
continents.
The Rock of Gibraltar stands between Europe and Africa; less than eight miles separate the
continents.
Try it. Correct the run-on sentences below by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
1. The Gibraltar peninsula is a thin, hilly strip of land it is connected to Spain.
2. Storks spend winters in Africa and summers in Europe they migrate over Gibraltar.
B. Eliminate rambling sentences
A rambling sentence occurs when you connect too many ideas with the word and. Study the
rambling sentence below and two ways it can be corrected.
Example6: Rambling sentence:
Loch Ness is a large lake in northern Scotland and it is famous for its legendary monster and
many tourists visit the loch and hope they see the monster.
Corrected sentences
Loch Ness, is a large lake in northern Scotland, is famous for its legendary monster. Many
tourists, hoping to see the monster, visit the loch.
Loch Ness is a large lake in northern Scotland that is famous for its legendary monster. Many
tourists, who hope to see the monster, visit the loch.
Try it. Rewrite the following rambling sentences so they contain fewer and’s. Whenever
possible, make complex sentences.
1. The water in Loch Ness stays about 42 degrees Fahrenheit and it is very deep and it never
freezes.
2. Scientists searched the lake with sonar equipment in the 1960s and numerous sightings of
a monster were reported and this made people even more curious about the Loch Ness monster.
C. Check for wordy sentences
Unnecessary repetition creates wordy sentences. Removing unnecessary words improves the
sentence. Study the wordy sentence below and the two ways in which it is corrected.
Example7: Wordy sentences:
Huge, giant stones stand on end upright in England.
Corrected sentences (unnecessary words are eliminated)

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Huge stones stand on end in England.
Giant stones stand upright in England.
D. Move misplaced modifiers
Misplaced modifiers occur when a descriptive phrase is improperly located in a sentence and
appears to describe the wrong word or idea. To correct this error, locate descriptive phrases as
close as possible to the words they modify.
Example8: Misplaced modifier:
The largest desert in the world, Africa contains the Sahara desert. (This sentence incorrectly
makes it sound as if Africa is the desert.)
Corrected sentences:
Africa contains the Sahara desert, the largest desert in the world.
The Sahara desert, the largest desert in the world, is contained in Africa.
Try it. Rewrite each sentence below so that the descriptive modifier clearly describes the
correct word or idea.
1. Ninety percent gravel and boulders, sand actually covers a small portion of the Sahara
Desert. Sand actually covers a small portion of the Sahara Desert, which is 90 percent gravel
and boulders
2. In sandstone shelters, the Sahara contains carvings and paintings drawn by ancient
people.
What can I do to write clear sentences?
E. Make subjects and verbs agree
Subjects and verbs in each sentence you write must agree. That means a singular subject needs a
singular verb, and a plural subject needs a plural verb.
Single-word subjects:
A verb must agree with its subject in number.
 If a subject is singular, the verb must be singular, too.
Example: Brazil is the largest country in South America.
 If a subject is plural, the verb must be plural.

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Example: Most beaches in Brazil have beautiful white sand.
 If an indefinite pronoun is singular, its verb must be singular, too.
Example: Almost everyone in Brazil lives near the Atlantic coast.
 If an indefinite pronoun is plural, its verb must be plural also.
Example: Many of Brazil’s people speak Portuguese.
 A compound subjects connected by the word “and” usually needs a plural verb.
Example: Ecuador and Chile are the only South American countries that don’t touch Brazil’s
border.
 A compound subjects connected by the word “or” needs a verb that agrees in number
with the subject nearest to the verb.
Example: Either concerned citizens or the World Bank manages a new rain forest conservation
program. (World Bank, the subject nearer the verb, is singular, so the singular verb manages is
used.)
 Unusual word order
When the subject is separated from the verb by words or phrases, be sure that the verb agrees
with the subject.
Example: The Amazon River basin, which extends for more than 4,000 miles, is the largest river
basin in the world.
When the subject comes after the verb in a sentence, be sure that the verb agrees with the “true
subject.”
Example: There is more water carried by the Amazon than by the world’s 10 next largest rivers
combined. (the subject water and the verb is are both singular)
Feeding this great river are more than 1,000 tributaries. (the subject tributaries and the verb “are”
are both plural)
2.5 Punctuation and its Conventions
Punctuation marks are the “traffic signal” of a language. When correctly used, they guide the
reader through the text and makes comprehension easier. However, when incorrectly placed,
they can also change the meaning of a sentence. Punctuation is simply the logical presentation of
sounds or words usually made by the writer in the course of writing. It is simply about a series of
conventions that make it easier for readers to follow your train of thought. A complete sentence

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(one thought or idea) is indicated by a full stop (.) A pause in the flow of thought, which in turn
allows all the additional information, indicated by a comma (,) a semicolon (;) which is also used
to indicate a fuller pause than a comma, but not the final end of the sentence and thus, a colon (:)
which is used to indicate the beginning of a list.
2.5.1 Importance of Punctuation Marks
Punctuation marks play a very important role in giving intended meaning to the language of
journalistic writing. Use of wrong placement of punctuation marks can change the meaning of
the sentence completely and sometimes convert the interpretation of the sentence into something
different. Therefore, journalists must be very careful of how and where they place their
punctuation marks in the sentence so as to maintain the original meaning of the sentence as
contained in their report. Look at how Czar Alexander the third had once sentenced man to
certain death by writing on the Warrant-Pardon impossible, to be sent to Siberia. His wife,
Czarina Maria, save the life of this man, by changing position of comma which makes the
authorities to set the man free as demonstrated here.
Pardon Impossible, to be sent to Siberia.
Pardon, impossible to be sent to Siberia.
2.5.2 Basic Punctuation Rules
Below is a discussion on the uses of different punctuation marks such as the comma, apostrophe,
semicolon, colon, hyphen, quotation, and ellipses.
Uses of a Comma
The following uses of punctuation marks are established by Rosella, (2011) as follows:
1. In a List
The use of comma before “and” or “or” in a series of items.
Example: Ham, eggs, and chips
2. Before Dialogue
Example: Mark said, “Good morning!”
3. Mark out Additional Information
Example: The girl, who is wearing a pink shirt, is my sister.
4. Before a Conjunction (e.g. and, but, or, for, while, yet) introducing an independent
clause

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Example: The boys wanted to stay up until midnight, but they grew tired and fell asleep.
5. Enclose Parenthetic Expressions (additional information) between commas
Example: The best way to see a country, unless you’re pressed for time, to travel on foot.
Note: When in doubt over where to use a comma, try reading the sentence out loud and,
generally speaking, commas should be used where you pause for clarification or breath.
Uses of the Apostrophe
A. Indicates a Possessive in a Singular Noun
Example: the café’s menu
But when the possessor is a regular plural, the apostrophe follows the “s.”
Example: the cafes’ menu
B. indicate time or quantity
Examples: Two Week’s Notice
The Café will open in two month’s time.
C. Indicates the Omission of Figures in Dates
Example: Batch’08 is so excited to graduate.
D. Indicates the Omission of Letters
Examples: The training starts at 8 O’clock every day.
The Gov’t is set to battle the insurgents in Maiduguri.
E. Indicates the Plural of Words
Examples: The do’s and don’ts of speaking
She didn’t welcome his but’s and and’s.
Uses of Semicolon
i. Separate Two Related Sentences Where There is No Conjunction (such as “and” or
“but”), and Where Using Only a Comma would be Ungrammatical.
Example: She is a good writer; she has published several books.
ii. Organizes Syntax Thought Where Many Commas are Used

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Example: We bought dairy products like milk, butter, and cheese; vegetables such as carrots,
potatoes and spinach; and some fruits like bananas and mangoes.
iii. Linking Words Such as “however,” “nevertheless,” “also,” “consequently,” and “hence”
Require a Semicolon.
Example: He spent a lot for the campaign; however, the majority of the public saw through his
pretense and did not vote for him.
Uses of Colon:
1) Separates Statements “placed baldly in dramatic opposition”
a. Lawrence could not speak: he was drunk.
b. Man proposes: God disposes.
It is also used when the second statement reaffirms, explains or illustrates the first.
2) Starts lists
a. Please purchase the following: furniture, glassware, ingredients, and linen.
3) Sets Off Book and Film Subtitles from the Main Titles
a. Gandhi II: The Mahatma Strikes Back
4) Separates Dramatic Characters Forming a Dialogue:
Philip: How do you get to Cebu?
O Anne: You can go there by plane, by ship, or by bus.
Uses of the Hyphen
a) Use a Hyphen to Join Two or More Words Serving as a Single Adjective before a Noun:
Examples: a one-way street
Chocolate-covered peanuts
Well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
Examples: The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.

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b) Use a Hyphen with Compound Numbers:
Examples: forty-six
Sixty-three
Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.
c) Use a Hyphen to Avoid Confusion or an Awkward Combination of Letters:
Examples: re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
Semi-independent (but semiconscious)
Shell-like (but childlike)
d) Use a Hyphen with the Prefixes ex (meaning former), self, all; with the Suffix elect;
between a Prefix and a Capitalized Word; and with Figures or Letters:
Examples: ex-husband anti-American
Self-assured T-shirt
Mid-September Pre-Civil War
All-inclusive mid-1980s
Mayor-elect
e) use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only
between syllables:
Examples: Pref-er-ence
Sell-ing
In-di-vid-u-al-ist
f) For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:
Examples: mass- self-
Produced conscious
g) For line breaks in words ending in ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is
doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the
suffix itself:
Examples: plan-ning

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Run-ning
Driv-ing
Call-ing
h) Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put
two letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:
Examples: lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
Eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial
eat the end of a line.)
Uses of the Dash
Usually, the dash separates words in the middle or at the end of a sentence. In the middle of a
sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words or make them stands out from the
rest of the sentence. At the end of a sentence, a dash separates information from the rest of the
sentence. Thus, when you type two hyphens together (--), most word processors automatically
combine them into a single dash. The dash (or emdash) should be used for a specific reason, and
not be overused in academic writing.
Uses of Quotations
The following are some general rules on the use of quotations as given in the Purdue Online
Writing (2011) as viz:
a). Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end
of the quoted material.
Example: Martha replied, “ I will try to be there before noon.”
b). Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a
complete sentence
Example: Mr. Aondover, who was working in his field that morning,
Said, “The a lien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes.”
c). Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the
original material’s complete sentence.
Example: Although Mr. Aondover has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the
spaceship “certainly takes the cake” when it comes to unexplainable activity.

21. 21
d). If a direct quotation is interrupted mid sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the
quotation.
Example: I didn’t see an actual alien being,” Mr. Aondover said, “but I sure wish I had.”
e). Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short. Too
many quotations in a news stories, editorial writing and opinion articles will get you accused of
not producing original thought or material.
2.6 The necessity of correct spelling
Some Basic Rules
Correct spelling with mnemonics (by means of association) will forever fix that correct spelling
in your memory.
1. Stationary: This is a word meaning paper (notice the _er in paper).
Stationery: This word means standing (notice the _a in stand).
2. All right: Two words (remember it is the opposite of all wrong).
3. Coolly: Spell cool and add the adverbial ly.
4. Supersede: The only word in the language ending in _sede.
5. Succeed, proceed, exceed: The only three words in the entire language ending in _ceed. The
initial letters of the three words form the beginning of speed.
6. Cede, precede, secede, etc: All other words with a similar sounding final syllable end in
_cede.
7. Separate, comparative: Look for a rat in both words.
8. Ecstasy: to sy with ecstasy.
9. Repetition: The first four letters are the same as its root word repeat.
10.Irritable, inimitable: Think of allied forms irritate and imitate.
11.Absence: Word formed absent, so don’t go spelling abscence.
12.Superintendent: The superintendent in an apartment house collects the rent.
13. Conscience:Science + prefix con.
14. Anoint: Think of an ointment, hence no double nt.

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15. Ridiculous: Word from ridicule, so don’t write ridiculous.
16. Despair:Don’t get desperate, don’t despair.
17. Indispensable:able people are indispensable.
2.7 Grammar and the Radio Copy
Radio remains an essential medium of effective mass communication in Africa. Its simplicity,
immediacy, low cost of transmission and operation as well as efficient reach to the large,
heterogeneous and amorphous audience are some of the relative advantages it has over other
media of mass communication.
Corresponding professional techniques are developed to ensure compliance with the grammatical
conventions by radio copy writers and other broadcast journalists. These techniques include:
 Simplicity
 Short sentences
 Short paragraphs
 Precision
 Informality
 Peculiarity of Numbers
2.8 Paragraph development
2.8.1 Definition:
A paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one major idea. It
usually begins with an indentation, and its length varies according to the complexity of the main
idea to be developed. A typical paragraph quite often has about one hundred to hundred fifty
words and seven to ten sentences in which every point in the paragraph having a useful role to
play in fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph. Generally, a paragraph is a group of sentences
that form a distinct unit developing one main idea or point. N.B A good paragraph is well
organized, properly linked and fully developed
2.8.2 Organic Elements of a Paragraph (parts of a paragraph)
A paragraph, despite its length, should include the following parts:
A. Introduction B. Body C. Conclusion
Note: A: The topic sentences introduce the main idea of a paragraph. B: The supporting
sentences develop the paragraph.
C: The concluding (terminating) sentences end the paragraph.

23. 23
Example:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has
an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable
price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well–trained
teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada‟s cites are clean
and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As
a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
2.8.3 Types of paragraphs
There are four types of paragraphs; these are Descriptive, Argumentative, Narrative and
Expository
2.9 What is an Essay?
An essay is an extended writing with a focused subject of discussion. It is a relatively
short, but longer than a paragraph , prose composition on a limited topic. It is longer than a
paragraph in a sense that it gives an opportunity to treat the subject of discussion in a more
detailed fashion. Most essays consist five-hundred or five paragraphs. It usually consists of
introduction (introductory paragraph), body (developing paragraphs) and conclusion (terminating
paragraph).
2.9.1 Basic Essay Structure
Thesis Statement for Essay
Effective essay centers around a thesis , or main point that a writer wishes .to express. This thesis
statement is usually presented in an essay’s introductory part. A good thesis statement does two
things: First , it tells readers an essay’s topic. Second it presents the writers attitude ,opinion,
idea, or point about the topic. The main task of the thesis statement of any essay is to show
the reader the author’s position on the discussed topic. It is the argument of the highest
priority for the essay due to the fact that it is the thesis statement that is to be proven
throughout the paper. In the thesis statement the author makes his own point in the context
of the essay topic and delivers it to the reader by means of a logical chain. It is usually
presented in one single sentence.
Example: Owning a pet has several important benefits.
In this thesis statement, the topic is owning a pet; the writers main point is pet has several
important benefits.
How to Write a Good Thesis Statement
In order to create a strong thesis statement it is necessary to keep in mind its specific
features:

24. 24
1. Avoid statements that are too broad and too narrow
To start writing essay, you need a topic that is neither too broad nor too narrow. Suppose that
you are asked to write an essay on marriage. What you need to do is that narrow it down until
you have a thesis that you can deal with a specifically in about five hundred words.
General subject limited subject Thesis
Marriage Honeymoon A honeymoon is the worst way to begin a marriage.
The following statements are also too broad to manage in essay.
 Disease has shaped history.
 Men and women are very different.
In the above example ,each statement is too broad to be supported adequately in an essay. The
statements would require more than a five –hundred-words, there are many books written on the
exact the same topic. Revised thesis statements based on the topics in the above sentences could
be as follows;
 In the mid -1980s AIDS changed people’s attitude about dating.
 Men and women are often treated very differently in the workplace.
Having too narrow statements is also defect in essay writing. Here are statements which are too
narrow.
 The speed limit near my home is sixty-five miles per hour.
 A hurricane hit southern Florida last summer.
In this examples there is no room for support to be given. The statements does not require any
support .Such are called dead-end statements. The statements should be revised as:
 The speed limit near my home should be lowered to fifty-five miles per hour for several
reasons.
 Federal officials made a number of mistakes in their response to the recent Florida
hurricanes.
2. Make sure that statements develop only one idea
Statements should be limited to develop single key idea. For instance, “Teachers have played
important role in my life ,but they were not as important as my parents” . This Statement has two
separate ideas ( “Teachers have played an important role in my life ” ,but “they were not as
important as my parents ”). Here the reader is asked to focus on two separate points.
3. It does not make an announcement but asserts a definite point of view.
One main mistake in writing thesis statement is simply announce the subject rather than state a
true thesis.

25. 25
 The subject of this paper will be my parents.
 I want talk about the crime wave in our country.
The sentences above are not thesis statements but just announcements of a topic. For instance,
“The subject of this paper will be my parents” does not make a point about the parents but
merely tells ,in a weak and unimaginative way , the writer’s general subject.
4. It does not ask a question but asserts a definite point of view. A good thesis statement is
always an affirmation.
It should always reveal a plan of development in its contents; reveal what concrete arguments
will be analyzed in the paper.
5. A thesis statement does not present the author’s point as a subjective position but as an
argument to prove.
2.9.2 Parts of an essay
An essay has three parts: introduction, body, and conclusion.
2.9.3 Types of Essay
a) Expository Essay b) Descriptive Essay c) Argumentative Essay d) Narrative
Essay
These types of essays, listed above, have no difference with the ones explained in the paragraph
types; therefore, for details of them you can refer basic writing course material.

26. 26
Chapter 3: Language of Broadcasting and Print Media
Introduction
When writing a script for the media, you should always bear one thing in mind, you are writing
either for listeners, or for readers. Therefore, understanding the differences between reading and
listening is very crucial.
.
3.1 Differences between reading and listening
Reading Listening
Reading is a primary activity. When we read,
we do not do anything else at the same time.
We only concentrate on the text.
Listening to the radio is frequently a secondary
activity. We often do something else
simultaneously (drive a car, prepare a meal,
etc). We do not concentrate 100% on what is
being said.
Readers can read an article at any time they
like.
Listening to the radio depends on the broadcast
times.
Readers can re-read information they do not
understand.
Listeners only hear information once.
Readers can determine how fast they read and
when to take a break.
Listeners have to follow the speed of the
speaker or radio journalist. If they stop
listening for a moment, they miss pieces of
information.
Readers see how long an article is and can
decide whether they want to read the whole
text. While reading, they always know how
much more there is.
Listeners cannot tell how long a piece on the
radio will be. They never know what comes
next in the report.
Broadcast and print
While the news is fundamentally the same in any medium-newspapers, radio or television-yet the
presentation of news differs in all the three media owing to special characteristics.
 Stories for the broadcast media generally are shorter than those for the print.
 Time is to radio/television what space is to a newspaper.
 The newspaper's space is expandable, but broadcast time is-not.
 The length of a news broadcast severely restricts the number of news items that can be
incorporated into the broadcast bulletin.
 Time limitations force broadcast persons to be highly selective in the stories meant for
inclusion in news bulletins. That is why news for broadcast media is covered with
extreme brevity as compared with the newspaper coverage.
 The broadcast stories must be concise and intelligible because the listener/viewer has
only one chance to grasp the meaning. He or she cannot go back to the story the way a
newspaper reader can. Therefore, stories written for broadcast must be conversational and
easy to comprehend. Good broadcast copy must be easy on the ears. The rule is: write

27. 27
like you are telling a friend. This evolution from the newspaper style to conversational
broadcast style has been a natural transition.
 The old newspaper rule of including five Ws and one H in the first paragraph of a story
does not necessarily apply to broadcast news. To write clear news copy for broadcast you
must remember to determine what is important in the story. Does the story lie in what
happened? Or is it who it happened to? Or, perhaps how it happened? Or, is it what is
happening or who will become involved? These questions must be answered in your
mind before you can write a broadcast news story.
3.2 Writing for Radio
3.2.1 Challenges of the Medium
Some of the challenges of radio script writing are:
 Most of the radio listeners are engaged in some other simultaneous activities.
 There is no scope for difficult words, long sentences, unknown references etc.
 The wide diversity of listeners
3.2.2 Basic Elements of Radio
the basic elements which create the ‘language of radio are:
1. Spoken words
2. Sound effects
3. Music
4. Pause or Silence
3.2.3 Radio Writing for Different Radio Formats
Just as poetry, short story, novels, drama, essays, travelogues etc. are different
formats of literature, similarly there are many formats of radio programmes and
these formats are created by combinations of the four elements of radio.
 If we take only spoken words (no sound effect, no music), we get the following formats:
1. Radio Talk
2. Dialogue
3. Interview
4. Discussion
5. News Bulletin
 If we combine spoken words with sound effects we have the following formats:
1. Quiz
2. Radio Report
3. Live Commentary
 If we combine spoken words, sound effects and music, then we have:
1. Radio Feature/Documentary
2. Radio Drama
3. Radio Spots (Advertisements/commercials)
4. Radio Serial
5. Docudrama
6. Newsreel
N.B:- Pause is a compulsory element for all the formats.
3.2.4 Basic rules of a Radio script:
A. Use simple words: Easier simple and common words should be used. A list of a few
radio appropriate words in english is provided below.

28. 28
Written Spoken
Adequate Enough
Anticipate Expect
Commence Begin, start
Conclude End
Manufacture Make
Purchase Buy
Underprivileged Poor
B. Use short sentences: Sentences should avoid conjunctions as much as possible. The
sentences should ideally be of a length appropriate for talking. Remember, unlike print
we cannot go back to the sentence and rehear it.
C. One idea per sentence: One sentence should carry one idea. Never clutter one sentence
with too many ideas.
D. Avoid sound clashes: Read your copy aloud for awkward sounds. Be sparing in the use
of ‘s’ ‘th’ and ‘ing’ sounds. Avoid words like ‘thrust’,’ wrists’ and ‘frisked’ all of which
are difficult to pronounce.
E. Use present tense: For conveying the immediacy and to drive home the urgency of
news, use of present tense is a cardinal rule. For example:
 The Monsoon Session has commenced (commences)
 We have responsibility for quality….. (are responsible)
 The Prime Minister has inaugurated the project (inaugurates)
F. Use active voice: Scripts should be written in active voice, for example:
 A new governor was appointed by the President.... (President appointed)
 Ten shops were destroyed by a fire ... (A fire destroyed)
G. Avoid stock phrases, superfluous words and clichés.
Stock Phrases:
 “Lead from the front” – Where else?
 “Follow in x’s foot steps”- just follow
 “Ground rules”- just rules
Superfluous words:
 Set a new record
 Died in a fatal accident
 Holiday period
 Future plans
 It is a true fact
 In a week’s time
 First priority
 Past History
3.3 Writing for television
3.3.1 Basic rules of television
The following rules must be remembered in writing the news for television.
A. Clarity: The first rule of TV news is that the story must be clear at once. Unlike the
reader, the viewer has no second chance to go over the material.

29. 29
B. Brevity: Every sentence that you write for broadcast should be short, simple and easy to
understand.
C. Conversational: TV news writers use everyday words: the language of conversation. TV
journalists use a vocabulary that corresponds to the one used in daily conversation.
The following is the partial list of words that are generally too formal for TV news, with
conversational alternatives:
Formal Conversational
Slate schedule
passed away died
Bar prevent
Reside live
residence home
Nab catch
altercation argument
prior to before
indisposed sick, ill
Most of the words in the "formal" column also take longer to say, thereby wasting time. On the
other hand, conversational words are short, commonly-used words and therefore communicate
easily. 'words that we might succeed in deciphering in a newspaper or book are much more
difficult to comprehend when we listen to them.
D. Time Reference-Present Tense: The element of immediacy is one of the biggest assets
of the TV
medium in reporting news. Every effort should be made to include up-to-date reports and to
write copy in a manner that sounds fresh and timely. With this in view, the present tense is
encouraged. For example:
 Police were searching for clue. (unacceptable)
 Police are searching for clues. (acceptable)
The present tense is the most engaging tense in the language. It indicates that the action is still
going on, It conveys currency of the news. It is more appropriate to phrase a sentence as, "There
is a huge fire in the old city", than, "there was a huge fire in the old city".
There are many situations, nevertheless, where the present tense does not work:
 The bridge collapses
Or
 Two people are being shot (both are unacceptable)
Actions that belong to moments in the recent past cannot be forcibly dragged into the present-
that bridge is not collapsing now. However, (the present perfect tense) maintains an air of
immediacy while describing actions that have ended.
 The bridge has collapsed
 Two people have been shot (both are acceptable)
The present perfect is less dated than the past tense and is used in situations in which the present
tense is unacceptable:
 A constable has been arrested for impersonating as a magistrate.
There can be situations in which neither the present nor the present perfect tense
are acceptable:

30. 30
i) Few people have shown up at the meeting, so it broke up early.
ii) Two people have been shot earlier today (both are unacceptable even when; written in present
perfect tense)
In these situations, it is necessary to fall back on the past tense.
i) Few people showed up at the meeting, so it broke up early.
or
ii) Two people were shot earlier today. (both are acceptable)
E. Active Voice
Avoid the passive voice; it is the voice in which the subject is acted upon. Use instead the active
voice where the subject acts upon the object.
 Passive voice: An airliner was hit by a private plane.
 Active voice: A private plane crashed into an airliner.
Active voice is clearer, packs more punch and uses fewer words.
 Weak: The' policeman suddenly took away the gun.
 Better: The policeman snatched the gun.
It is important to keep the action in the verb. The active voice (the subject of the sentence does
the acting) is stronger than the passive voice (the subject of the sentence is being acted upon).
 Weak: The building was destroyed by the fire.
 Better: The fire destroyed the building.
3.3.2 Basic News Scripts in TV
In addition, TV news should contain some extra qualities to give it a distinct flavor to suit the
medium. These qualities/technical terms are:
a) Talking Heads: The most skeletal news story is a 'reader', or 'liner'. This is a story read on
camera by one of the newscasters with no visual appearing on the screen. True stories not
supported by visuals generally have no place in the television medium. Such a story could have
been written for radio. The only difference is that, on television, you see the face of a newscaster.
Still, this story may find its way into the news bulletin because there are occasions when no
visuals are available especially on out-of-town stories, or in the case of a story that broke late,
making it impossible to get relevant footage on the air. Also, some particularly complex stories
may be better understood without the added distraction of visuals.
b) Super: 'Supers' too are also important elements to every story with video in it. 'Supers' are
names or other bits of information superimposed on the TV screen. Also called IDS, they
identify or explain a person, thing, place or picture. For instance, they are used to identify the
newscasters by supering their names on their images.
c) Voice-over (VO): Visually, the step ahead of lack lustre 'talking head' presentation is to have
a talking head plus a visual. A visual may be a photograph, chart, map or graph. It is used to
illustrate a story, identify a place, or simplify a complex economic news items say with the use
of a graph. The narration continues over the visuals. Apart from static visuals like graphics,
illustrations, etc., the voiceover is also carried on video footage of for example a plane crash on a
mountain summit, or riot-hit areas. Shortly after the newscaster begins a story on camera, video
coverage appears on the screen while the newscaster continues to read.
d) Sound-bite: A sound bite, or 'cold bite', is a type of story that includes no interview with
someone knowledgeable about the story. The newscaster begins on camera and reads upto a
certain point in the script; then the expert interviewed on the subject appears on videotape,

31. 31
making a comment related to the story. At the end of the sound bite, the anchor-person reappears
so as to tag the story before moving on to another news item.
e) Stand-up: It is a story assembled by a staff correspondent/reporter. Like the sound bite, in this
story too, the newscaster begins on-camera and reads upto a certain point and then introduces the
reporter. The latter then speaks from the location. These types of stories are considered to be the
backbone of a newscast. Reporters prefer to read the stand-up while looking straight into the
camera.
f) Package: The treatment is the same as in the case of stand-up except that the story may consist
of an interview with an expert eyewitness apart from the reporter's footage. It is sound-bite plus
stand-up. The newscaster begins a news item with a brief mention of the highlights of the story
and follows it up by introduce the reporter on location. The reporter then states the main points
of the news and gives details in a concise style, the report may be interspersed with interviews of
the persons in the news. These comments not only fill the gaps in the report but also lend an air
of credibility to the reporter's inferences.