The document discusses the scientific foundations of psychology, emphasizing that psychology uses systematic empiricism to understand human behavior, distinguishing it from pseudoscience. Research in psychology is cyclical and conducted primarily by professionals with advanced degrees, often focusing on both basic and applied research to address various human behavior questions. It also highlights the critical role of skepticism and evidence in clinical practice, where empirically supported treatments are paramount for effective psychological interventions.

1. Research Methods In Psychology
Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology
Noora Rahmani

2. Some say women talk more than men because of their biology.
Women talk 20,000 words each day, whereas males only 7,000,
according to one estimate. Is this assertion true? Matias Mehl's
team of psychologists investigated. They checked if someone had
counted women's and men's daily words. Never. 369 female and
male college students wore audio recorders for this investigation.
Outcome? Women uttered 16,215 words each day, whereas males
spoke 15,669—a minor difference that could be due to chance. In
Science, these researchers concluded, "Based on existing
empirical evidence, the widespread and extensively publicized
stereotype regarding female talkativeness is erroneous."
Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology

3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Define science.
• Describe the three fundamental features of science.
• Explain why psychology is a science.
• Define pseudoscience and give some examples.
1.1 Understanding Science

4. Psychological science surprises some. They agree astronomy, biology, and chemistry are
sciences but ask what psychology has in common. Before answering, astronomy, biology,
and chemistry all have similarities'. Not their topic. Astronomers examine space. Biologists
examine living beings and chemists analyze materials. That not their equipment and
methods Biologists don't know Few chemists know how to track a radio telescope, for
example. Wild moose. Philosophers and Scientists have concluded that Sciences share an
approach to understanding nature. Psychology is a science since it uses this method to
comprehend. Human conduct is natural.
What Is Science?

5. The second characteristic of the scientific approach is its focus on empirical questions. These
questions about the world can be answered by systematically monitoring it. Women talk more
than men empirically. Observing how much women and men talk helps indicate whether
women talk more than men. Many fascinating and significant questions aren't testable by
science. Questions regarding values—whether things are good or terrible, just or unjust,
beautiful or ugly—and how the world should be. Science can assess if a stereotype is correct or
inaccurate, but it can't answer whether it's wrong to hold inaccurate stereotypes. Whether
criminal behavior is genetic is an empirical matter, but what to deal with criminals is not. This
distinction is crucial for psychologists.
Features of Science
The scientific method has three pillars (Stanovich, 2010). 2 First, systematized empiricism.
Scientists learn about the natural world through planning, making, documenting, and
interpreting observations. Logical thinking and inventiveness play vital roles in science, but
scientists are exceptional in their insistence on evaluating their theories against systematic
observations. Mehl and his colleagues didn't trust preconceptions or informal observations.
Instead, they documented, counted, and contrasted women's and men's word usage. When
their systematic observations contradicted stereotypes, they trusted them.

6. Science Versus
Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience refers to beliefs and activities that are claimed to be
scientific but lack one or more of the three features of science. It is
important to distinguish the scientific approach to understanding
human behavior from the many pseudoscientific approaches.

7. KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Science is a general way of understanding the
natural world. Its three fundamental features
are systematic empiricism, empirical questions,
and public knowledge.
• Psychology is a science because it takes the
scientific approach to understanding human
behavior.

8. EXERCISES
1. Discussion: People sometimes suggest that psychology cannot be a science
because either (a) human behavior cannot be predicted with perfect accuracy or
(b) much of its subject matter (e.g., thoughts and feelings) cannot be observed
directly. Do you agree or disagree with each of these ideas? Why?
2. Practice: List three empirical questions about human behavior. List three
nonempirical questions about human behavior.
3. Discussion: Consider the following psychological claim. “People’s choice of
spouse is strongly influenced by their perception of their own parents. Some
choose a spouse who is similar in some way to one of their parents. Others
choose a spouse who is different from one of their parents.” Is this claim
falsifiable? Why or why not?

9. Scientific Research in Psychology
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe a general model of scientific research in
psychology and give specific examples that fit the model.
2. Explain who conducts scientific research in psychology and
why they do it.
3. Distinguish between basic research and applied research.

10. Model of Scientific Research in
Psychology
Figure 1.1 depicts psychological research. The researcher (typically a small group) formulates a
research topic, conducts a study to answer it, analyzes the data, develops conclusions, and
publishes the results. Because research literature is a source of new research questions, this
process is cyclical. New study raises new questions, which spurs more research. Figure 1.1
shows that research questions might come from informal observations or practical concerns.
Even in these circumstances, the researcher would evaluate the study literature to determine if
the question has been answered and adjust it based on existing research.

11. The research by Mehl and his colleagues is described nicely by this model.
Their question—whether women are more talkative than men—was suggested
to them both by people’s stereotypes and by published claims about the
relative talkativeness of women and men. When they checked the research
literature, however, they found that this question had not been adequately
addressed in scientific studies. They conducted a careful empirical study,
analyzed the results (finding very little difference between women and men),
and published their work so that it became part of the research literature. The
publication of their article is not the end of the story, however, because their
work suggests many new questions (about the reliability of the result, about
potential cultural differences, etc.) that will likely be taken up by them and by
other researchers inspired by their work.

12. Who Conducts Scientific Research in Psychology?
Scientific research in psychology is generally undertaken by professionals with doctoral and
master's degrees in psychology and related subjects, often aided by research assistants with
bachelor's degrees or other relevant training. Some work for the government (NIMH),
nonprofits (ACS), or the business sector (e.g., in product development). Most are college and
university instructors who work with graduate and undergraduate students. Although some
researchers are qualified and licensed as clinicians, most are not. They specialize in behavioral
neuroscience, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, personality psychology, social
psychology, etc. Doctoral-level researchers may be engaged to perform research full-time or
part-time, like many college and university faculty members. Psychology researchers love the
intellectual and technological challenges and contribute to scientific knowledge of human
behavior. You may like the procedure. Your college or university may offer research assistant or
participant possibilities if so. You may find psychology research tedious. You'll grasp where
scientific information in psychology originates from, its strengths and limitations, and how it
might be utilized to solve practical problems in psychology and everyday life.

13. Scientific Psychology Blogs
A fun and easy way to follow current scientific research in psychology
is to read any of the many excellent blogs devoted to summarizing
and commenting on new findings. Among them are the following:
• Child-Psych, http://www.child-psych.org
• PsyBlog, http://www.spring.org.uk
• Research Digest, http://bps-research-digest.blogspot.com
• Social Psychology Eye, http://socialpsychologyeye.wordpress.com
• We’re Only Human, http://www.psychologicalscience.org/onlyhuman
You can also browse to http://www.researchblogging.org, select
psychology as your topic, and read entries from a wide variety of
blogs.

14. The Broader Purposes of Scientific Research in
Psychology
People have always been fascinated about nature and themselves. Probably why you're
studying psychology. Science grew from natural curiosity and is the finest means to gain
precise knowledge. Most psychological phenomena and hypotheses come from scientific
investigation. A typical introductory psychology textbook teaches about brain areas for
language and perception, classical and operant conditioning, reasoning and judgment
biases, and people's surprising desire to obey authority. And scientific inquiry persists
because we know so little. Basic or applied research is common. Basic research in
psychology aims to gain a better knowledge of human behavior without addressing any
practical issues. This is Mehl and coworkers' research. Applied research solves real
problems. Safety concerns motivated research on cell phone use while driving, which led to
laws limiting this activity. Basic vs. applied research isn't always clear-cut. Basic research on
sex variations in talkativeness could affect marriage counseling, while applied research on
mobile phone use while driving could shed light on perception, attention, and action.

15. KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Research in psychology can be described by a simple cyclical model. A research
question based on the research literature leads to an empirical study, the results
of which are published and become part of the research literature.
• Scientific research in psychology is conducted mainly by people with doctoral
degrees in psychology and related fields, most of whom are college and
university faculty members. They do so for professional and for personal
reasons, as well as to contribute to scientific knowledge about human behavior.
• Basic research is conducted to learn about human behavior for its own sake,
and applied research is conducted to solve some practical problem. Both are
valuable, and the distinction between the two is not always clear-cut.

16. EXERCISES
1. Practice: Find a description of an empirical study in a professional journal or
in one of the scientific psychology blogs. Then write a brief description of the
research in terms of the cyclical model presented here. One or two sentences
for each part of the cycle should suffice.
2. Practice: Based on your own experience or on things you have already
learned about psychology, list three basic research questions and three applied
research questions of interest to you.

17. Science and Common
Sense
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the limitations of common sense when it comes to
achieving a detailed and accurate understanding of human
behavior.
2. Give several examples of common sense or folk psychology that are
incorrect.
3. Define skepticism and its role in scientific psychology.

18. Can We Rely on Common Sense?
Some question whether psychology should be scientific. Can't common sense or intuition
lead to the same conclusions? Folk psychology is our intuitive understanding of people's
behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Some folk psychology is definitely accurate, but much of
it isn't. Most people believe anger may be "let out" by striking or screaming. This attitude,
however, makes people angrier, not less (Bushman, 2002). 6 Most people assume no one
would confess to a crime they didn't commit unless they were tortured. Extensive
research shows that false confessions are prevalent and occur for several reasons.

19. Some Great Myths
In 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology, psychologist Scott Lilienfeldn and
colleagues discuss several widely held commonsense beliefs about human
behavior that scientific research has shown to be incorrect(Lilienfeld, Lynn,
Ruscio, & Beyerstein, 2010). Here is a short list:
• “People use only 10% of their brain power.”
• “Most people experience a midlife crisis in their 40’s or 50’s.”
• “Students learn best when teaching styles are matched to their learning styles.”
• “Low self-esteem is a major cause of psychological problems.”
• “Psychiatric admissions and crimes increase during full moons.”

20. How Could We Be So Wrong?
Why are so many basic views about human behavior wrong? This is a psychological question,
and psychologists have found various relevant elements (Gilovich, 1991). 9 One is that
creating thorough and accurate beliefs needs observation, memory, and analysis. It would be
difficult to determine the number of words women and men speak every day, average these
values for both groups, and compare them in our thoughts. We establish and sustain our
beliefs using mental shortcuts. If a widely held opinion makes intuitive sense and is widely
held, we tend to think it's true. We focus on situations that confirm our instinctive ideas and
ignore those that contradict them.
Researchers in psychology cultivate certain critical-thinking attitudes. One is
skepticism. They search for evidence and consider alternatives before accepting
a claim about human behavior as true.
Another is tolerance for uncertainty. They withhold judgment about whether a
claim is true or not when there is insufficient evidence to decide.

21. EXERCISE
1. Practice: For each of the following intuitive beliefs about human behavior, list
three reasons that it might be true and three reasons that it might not be true:
a. You cannot truly love another person unless you love yourself.
b. People who receive “crisis counseling” immediately after experiencing a
traumatic event are better able to cope with that trauma in the long term.
c. Studying is most effective when it is always done in the same location.

22. Science and Clinical Practice
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define the clinical practice of psychology and distinguish it from the science of
psychology.
2. Explain how science is relevant to clinical practice.
3. Define the concept of an empirically supported treatment and give some
examples.

23. Again, psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
But it is also the application of scientific research to “help people,
organizations, and communities function better” (American Psychological
Association, 2011). By far the most common and widely known application is
the clinical practice of psychology—the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorders and related problems.
Clinical practice refers to the work of clinical and counseling psychologists, school
psychologists, marital and family therapists, licensed clinical social workers, and others who
help people discover and solve psychological problems. Many students are interested in
clinical practice as a career or as a field of study. Psychological and behavioral abnormalities
are natural. This means their nature, causes, and effects may be scientifically tested and
studied. We can't rely on intuition or common sense to solve problems concerning human
behavior. Hundreds of books and websites suggest adult offspring of alcoholics experience
low self-esteem, powerlessness, and relationship issues. Research shows that adult offspring
of alcoholics are no more likely to experience these difficulties than anyone else (Lilienfeld et
al., 2010). 12 Similarly, scientific study can answer whether a treatment works. If a novel
psychotherapy is successful for depression, then rigorous observation should show that
depressed persons who receive it improve more than a similar group who do not (or who
receive an alternative treatment). These treatments are empirically supported.

24. Empirically Supported Treatments
An empirically supported treatment is one that has been studied scientifically and
shown to result in greater improvement than no treatment, a placebo, or some
alternative treatment. These include many forms of psychotherapy, which can be
as effective as standard drug therapies. Among the forms of psychotherapy with
strong empirical support are the following:
• Cognitivebehavioraltherapy.For depression, panic disorder, bulimia nervosa, and
posttraumatic stress disorder.
• Exposuretherapy.For posttraumatic stress disorder.
• Behavioraltherapy.For depression.
• Behavioralcouplestherapy.For alcoholism and substance abuse.
• Exposuretherapywithresponseprevention.For obsessivecompulsive
disorder.
• Familytherapy.For schizophrenia.
For a more complete list, see the following website, which is
maintained by Division 12 of the American
Psychological Association, the Society for Clinical Psychology:
http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/eklonsky-/division12.

25. KEY TAKEAWAYS
• The clinical practice of psychology—the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological problems—is one important application of the scientific discipline
of psychology.
• Scientific research is relevant to clinical practice because it provides detailed and
accurate knowledge about psychological problems and establishes whether
treatments are effective.

26. E X ER C IS ES
Discussion: Some clinicians argue that what they do is an “art form” based on
intuition and personal experience and therefore cannot be evaluated scientifically.
Write a paragraph about how satisfied you would be with such a clinician and why
from each of three perspectives:
a. a potential client of the clinician
b. a judge who must decide whether to allow the clinician to testify as an expert
witness in a child abuse case
c. an insurance company representative who must decide whether to reimburse
the clinician for his or her services
Practice: Create a short list of questions that a client could ask a clinician to
determine whether he or she pays sufficient attention to scientific research.