2. Topics covered
Professional software development
What is meant by software engineering.
Software engineering ethics
A brief introduction to ethical issues that affect software
engineering.
Case studies
An introduction to three examples that are used in later chapters
in the book.
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3. Software engineering
The economies of ALL developed nations are
dependent on software.
More and more systems are software controlled
Software engineering is concerned with theories,
methods and tools for professional software
development.
Expenditure on software represents a
significant fraction of GNP in all developed countries.
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4. Software costs
Software costs often dominate computer system costs.
The costs of software on a PC are often greater than the
hardware cost.
Software costs more to maintain than it does to develop.
For systems with a long life, maintenance costs may be
several times development costs.
Software engineering is concerned with cost-effective
software development.
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5. Software project failure
Increasing system complexity
As new software engineering techniques help us to build larger,
more complex systems, the demands change. Systems have to
be built and delivered more quickly; larger, even more complex
systems are required; systems have to have new capabilities
that were previously thought to be impossible.
Failure to use software engineering methods
It is fairly easy to write computer programs without using
software engineering methods and techniques. Many companies
have drifted into software development as their products and
services have evolved. They do not use software engineering
methods in their everyday work. Consequently, their software is
often more expensive and less reliable than it should be.
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7. Frequently asked questions about software
engineering
Question Answer
What is software? Computer programs and associated documentation.
Software products may be developed for a particular
customer or may be developed for a general market.
What are the attributes of good software? Good software should deliver the required functionality
and performance to the user and should be
maintainable, dependable and usable.
What is software engineering? Software engineering is an engineering discipline that is
concerned with all aspects of software production.
What are the fundamental software
engineering activities?
Software specification, software development, software
validation and software evolution.
What is the difference between software
engineering and computer science?
Computer science focuses on theory and fundamentals;
software engineering is concerned with the practicalities
of developing and delivering useful software.
What is the difference between software
engineering and system engineering?
System engineering is concerned with all aspects of
computer-based systems development including
hardware, software and process engineering. Software
engineering is part of this more general process.
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8. Frequently asked questions about software
engineering
Question Answer
What are the key challenges facing
software engineering?
Coping with increasing diversity, demands for reduced
delivery times and developing trustworthy software.
What are the costs of software
engineering?
Roughly 60% of software costs are development costs,
40% are testing costs. For custom software, evolution
costs often exceed development costs.
What are the best software engineering
techniques and methods?
While all software projects have to be professionally
managed and developed, different techniques are
appropriate for different types of system. For example,
games should always be developed using a series of
prototypes whereas safety critical control systems require
a complete and analyzable specification to be developed.
You can’t, therefore, say that one method is better than
another.
What differences has the web made to
software engineering?
The web has led to the availability of software services
and the possibility of developing highly distributed service-
based systems. Web-based systems development has led
to important advances in programming languages and
software reuse.
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9. Software products
Generic products
Stand-alone systems that are marketed and sold to any
customer who wishes to buy them.
Examples – PC software such as graphics programs, project
management tools; CAD software; software for specific markets
such as appointments systems for dentists.
Customized products
Software that is commissioned by a specific customer to meet
their own needs.
Examples – embedded control systems, air traffic control
software, traffic monitoring systems.
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10. Product specification
Generic products
The specification of what the software should do is owned by the
software developer and decisions on software change are made
by the developer.
Customized products
The specification of what the software should do is owned by the
customer for the software and they make decisions on software
changes that are required.
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11. Essential attributes of good software
Product characteristic Description
Maintainability Software should be written in such a way so that it can evolve to
meet the changing needs of customers. This is a critical attribute
because software change is an inevitable requirement of a
changing business environment.
Dependability and
security
Software dependability includes a range of characteristics
including reliability, security and safety. Dependable software
should not cause physical or economic damage in the event of
system failure. Malicious users should not be able to access or
damage the system.
Efficiency Software should not make wasteful use of system resources such
as memory and processor cycles. Efficiency therefore includes
responsiveness, processing time, memory utilisation, etc.
Acceptability Software must be acceptable to the type of users for which it is
designed. This means that it must be understandable, usable and
compatible with other systems that they use.
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12. Software engineering
Software engineering is an engineering discipline that is
concerned with all aspects of software production from
the early stages of system specification through to
maintaining the system after it has gone into use.
Engineering discipline
Using appropriate theories and methods to solve problems
bearing in mind organizational and financial constraints.
All aspects of software production
Not just technical process of development. Also project
management and the development of tools, methods etc. to
support software production.
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13. Importance of software engineering
More and more, individuals and society rely on advanced
software systems. We need to be able to produce
reliable and trustworthy systems economically and
quickly.
It is usually cheaper, in the long run, to use software
engineering methods and techniques for software
systems rather than just write the programs as if it was a
personal programming project. For most types of
system, the majority of costs are the costs of changing
the software after it has gone into use.
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14. Software process activities
Software specification, where customers and engineers
define the software that is to be produced and the
constraints on its operation.
Software development, where the software is designed
and programmed.
Software validation, where the software is checked to
ensure that it is what the customer requires.
Software evolution, where the software is modified to
reflect changing customer and market requirements.
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15. General issues that affect software
Heterogeneity
Increasingly, systems are required to operate as distributed
systems across networks that include different types of computer
and mobile devices.
Business and social change
Business and society are changing incredibly quickly as
emerging economies develop and new technologies become
available. They need to be able to change their existing software
and to rapidly develop new software.
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16. General issues that affect software
Security and trust
As software is intertwined with all aspects of our lives, it is
essential that we can trust that software.
Scale
Software has to be developed across a very wide range of
scales, from very small embedded systems in portable or
wearable devices through to Internet-scale, cloud-based
systems that serve a global community.
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17. Software engineering diversity
There are many different types of software system and
there is no universal set of software techniques that is
applicable to all of these.
The software engineering methods and tools used
depend on the type of application being developed, the
requirements of the customer and the background of the
development team.
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18. Application types
Stand-alone applications
These are application systems that run on a local computer,
such as a PC. They include all necessary functionality and do
not need to be connected to a network.
Interactive transaction-based applications
Applications that execute on a remote computer and are
accessed by users from their own PCs or terminals. These
include web applications such as e-commerce applications.
Embedded control systems
These are software control systems that control and manage
hardware devices. Numerically, there are probably more
embedded systems than any other type of system.
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19. Application types
Batch processing systems
These are business systems that are designed to process data
in large batches. They process large numbers of individual
inputs to create corresponding outputs.
Entertainment systems
These are systems that are primarily for personal use and which
are intended to entertain the user.
Systems for modeling and simulation
These are systems that are developed by scientists and
engineers to model physical processes or situations, which
include many, separate, interacting objects.
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20. Application types
Data collection systems
These are systems that collect data from their environment using
a set of sensors and send that data to other systems for
processing.
Systems of systems
These are systems that are composed of a number of other
software systems.
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21. Software engineering fundamentals
Some fundamental principles apply to all types of
software system, irrespective of the development
techniques used:
Systems should be developed using a managed and understood
development process. Of course, different processes are used
for different types of software.
Dependability and performance are important for all types of
system.
Understanding and managing the software specification and
requirements (what the software should do) are important.
Where appropriate, you should reuse software that has already
been developed rather than write new software.
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22. Internet software engineering
The Web is now a platform for running application and
organizations are increasingly developing web-based
systems rather than local systems.
Web services (discussed in Chapter 19) allow
application functionality to be accessed over the web.
Cloud computing is an approach to the provision of
computer services where applications run remotely on
the ‘cloud’.
Users do not buy software buy pay according to use.
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23. Web-based software engineering
Web-based systems are complex distributed systems
but the fundamental principles of software engineering
discussed previously are as applicable to them as they
are to any other types of system.
The fundamental ideas of software engineering apply to
web-based software in the same way that they apply to
other types of software system.
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24. Web software engineering
Software reuse
Software reuse is the dominant approach for constructing web-
based systems. When building these systems, you think about how
you can assemble them from pre-existing software components and
systems.
Incremental and agile development
Web-based systems should be developed and delivered
incrementally. It is now generally recognized that it is impractical to
specify all the requirements for such systems in advance.
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25. Web software engineering
Service-oriented systems
Software may be implemented using service-oriented software
engineering, where the software components are stand-alone
web services.
Rich interfaces
Interface development technologies such as AJAX and HTML5
have emerged that support the creation of rich interfaces within a
web browser.
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27. Software engineering ethics
Software engineering involves wider responsibilities than
simply the application of technical skills.
Software engineers must behave in an honest and
ethically responsible way if they are to be respected as
professionals.
Ethical behaviour is more than simply upholding the law
but involves following a set of principles that are morally
correct.
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28. Issues of professional responsibility
Confidentiality
Engineers should normally respect the confidentiality of their
employers or clients irrespective of whether or not a formal
confidentiality agreement has been signed.
Competence
Engineers should not misrepresent their level of competence.
They should not knowingly accept work which is outwith their
competence.
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29. Issues of professional responsibility
Intellectual property rights
Engineers should be aware of local laws governing the use of
intellectual property such as patents, copyright, etc. They should
be careful to ensure that the intellectual property of employers
and clients is protected.
Computer misuse
Software engineers should not use their technical skills to
misuse other people’s computers. Computer misuse ranges from
relatively trivial (game playing on an employer’s machine, say) to
extremely serious (dissemination of viruses).
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30. ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics
The professional societies in the US have cooperated to
produce a code of ethical practice.
Members of these organisations sign up to the code of
practice when they join.
The Code contains eight Principles related to the
behaviour of and decisions made by professional
software engineers, including practitioners, educators,
managers, supervisors and policy makers, as well as
trainees and students of the profession.
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31. Rationale for the code of ethics
Computers have a central and growing role in commerce,
industry, government, medicine, education, entertainment and
society at large. Software engineers are those who contribute by
direct participation or by teaching, to the analysis, specification,
design, development, certification, maintenance and testing of
software systems.
Because of their roles in developing software systems, software
engineers have significant opportunities to do good or cause
harm, to enable others to do good or cause harm, or to influence
others to do good or cause harm. To ensure, as much as
possible, that their efforts will be used for good, software
engineers must commit themselves to making software
engineering a beneficial and respected profession.
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32. The ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics
Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice
ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Task Force on Software Engineering Ethics and Professional Practices
PREAMBLE
The short version of the code summarizes aspirations at a high level of the abstraction; the
clauses that are included in the full version give examples and details of how these
aspirations change the way we act as software engineering professionals. Without the
aspirations, the details can become legalistic and tedious; without the details, the
aspirations can become high sounding but empty; together, the aspirations and the details
form a cohesive code.
Software engineers shall commit themselves to making the analysis, specification, design,
development, testing and maintenance of software a beneficial and respected profession. In
accordance with their commitment to the health, safety and welfare of the public, software
engineers shall adhere to the following Eight Principles:
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33. Ethical principles
1. PUBLIC - Software engineers shall act consistently with the public interest.
2. CLIENT AND EMPLOYER - Software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the best
interests of their client and employer consistent with the public interest.
3. PRODUCT - Software engineers shall ensure that their products and related
modifications meet the highest professional standards possible.
4. JUDGMENT - Software engineers shall maintain integrity and independence in their
professional judgment.
5. MANAGEMENT - Software engineering managers and leaders shall subscribe to and
promote an ethical approach to the management of software development and
maintenance.
6. PROFESSION - Software engineers shall advance the integrity and reputation of the
profession consistent with the public interest.
7. COLLEAGUES - Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of their colleagues.
8. SELF - Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of
their profession and shall promote an ethical approach to the practice of the profession.
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35. Ethical dilemmas
Disagreement in principle with the policies of senior
management.
Your employer acts in an unethical way and releases a
safety-critical system without finishing the testing of the
system.
Participation in the development of military weapons
systems or nuclear systems.
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36. Case studies
A personal insulin pump
An embedded system in an insulin pump used by diabetics to
maintain blood glucose control.
A mental health case patient management system
Mentcare. A system used to maintain records of people receiving
care for mental health problems.
A wilderness weather station
A data collection system that collects data about weather
conditions in remote areas.
iLearn: a digital learning environment
A system to support learning in schools
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37. Insulin pump control system
Collects data from a blood sugar sensor and calculates
the amount of insulin required to be injected.
Calculation based on the rate of change of blood sugar
levels.
Sends signals to a micro-pump to deliver the correct
dose of insulin.
Safety-critical system as low blood sugars can lead to
brain malfunctioning, coma and death; high-blood sugar
levels have long-term consequences such as eye and
kidney damage.
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39. Activity model of the insulin pump
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40. Essential high-level requirements
The system shall be available to deliver insulin when
required.
The system shall perform reliably and deliver the correct
amount of insulin to counteract the current level of blood
sugar.
The system must therefore be designed and
implemented to ensure that the system always meets
these requirements.
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41. Mentcare: A patient information system for
mental health care
A patient information system to support mental health
care is a medical information system that maintains
information about patients suffering from mental health
problems and the treatments that they have received.
Most mental health patients do not require dedicated
hospital treatment but need to attend specialist clinics
regularly where they can meet a doctor who has detailed
knowledge of their problems.
To make it easier for patients to attend, these clinics are
not just run in hospitals. They may also be held in local
medical practices or community centres.
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42. Mentcare
Mentcare is an information system that is intended for
use in clinics.
It makes use of a centralized database of patient
information but has also been designed to run on a PC,
so that it may be accessed and used from sites that do
not have secure network connectivity.
When the local systems have secure network access,
they use patient information in the database but they can
download and use local copies of patient records when
they are disconnected.
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43. Mentcare goals
To generate management information that allows health
service managers to assess performance against local
and government targets.
To provide medical staff with timely information to
support the treatment of patients.
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44. The organization of the Mentcare system
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45. Key features of the Mentcare system
Individual care management
Clinicians can create records for patients, edit the information in
the system, view patient history, etc. The system supports data
summaries so that doctors can quickly learn about the key
problems and treatments that have been prescribed.
Patient monitoring
The system monitors the records of patients that are involved in
treatment and issues warnings if possible problems are detected.
Administrative reporting
The system generates monthly management reports showing the
number of patients treated at each clinic, the number of patients
who have entered and left the care system, number of patients
sectioned, the drugs prescribed and their costs, etc.
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46. Mentcare system concerns
Privacy
It is essential that patient information is confidential and is never
disclosed to anyone apart from authorised medical staff and the
patient themselves.
Safety
Some mental illnesses cause patients to become suicidal or a
danger to other people. Wherever possible, the system should
warn medical staff about potentially suicidal or dangerous
patients.
The system must be available when needed otherwise safety
may be compromised and it may be impossible to prescribe the
correct medication to patients.
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47. Wilderness weather station
The government of a country with large areas of
wilderness decides to deploy several hundred weather
stations in remote areas.
Weather stations collect data from a set of instruments
that measure temperature and pressure, sunshine,
rainfall, wind speed and wind direction.
The weather station includes a number of instruments that
measure weather parameters such as the wind speed and
direction, the ground and air temperatures, the barometric
pressure and the rainfall over a 24-hour period. Each of these
instruments is controlled by a software system that takes
parameter readings periodically and manages the data collected
from the instruments.
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49. Weather information system
The weather station system
This is responsible for collecting weather data, carrying out some
initial data processing and transmitting it to the data management
system.
The data management and archiving system
This system collects the data from all of the wilderness weather
stations, carries out data processing and analysis and archives the
data.
The station maintenance system
This system can communicate by satellite with all wilderness
weather stations to monitor the health of these systems and provide
reports of problems.
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50. Additional software functionality
Monitor the instruments, power and communication
hardware and report faults to the management system.
Manage the system power, ensuring that batteries are
charged whenever the environmental conditions permit
but also that generators are shut down in potentially
damaging weather conditions, such as high wind.
Support dynamic reconfiguration where parts of the
software are replaced with new versions and where
backup instruments are switched into the system in the
event of system failure.
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51. iLearn: A digital learning environment
A digital learning environment is a framework in which a
set of general-purpose and specially designed tools for
learning may be embedded plus a set of applications
that are geared to the needs of the learners using the
system.
The tools included in each version of the environment
are chosen by teachers and learners to suit their specific
needs.
These can be general applications such as spreadsheets,
learning management applications such as a Virtual Learning
Environment (VLE) to manage homework submission and
assessment, games and simulations.
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52. Service-oriented systems
The system is a service-oriented system with all system
components considered to be a replaceable service.
This allows the system to be updated incrementally as
new services become available.
It also makes it possible to rapidly configure the system
to create versions of the environment for different groups
such as very young children who cannot read, senior
students, etc.
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53. iLearn services
Utility services that provide basic application-
independent functionality and which may be used by
other services in the system.
Application services that provide specific applications
such as email, conferencing, photo sharing etc. and
access to specific educational content such as scientific
films or historical resources.
Configuration services that are used to adapt the
environment with a specific set of application services
and do define how services are shared between
students, teachers and their parents.
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55. iLearn service integration
Integrated services are services which offer an API
(application programming interface) and which can be
accessed by other services through that API. Direct
service-to-service communication is therefore possible.
Independent services are services which are simply
accessed through a browser interface and which operate
independently of other services. Information can only be
shared with other services through explicit user actions
such as copy and paste; re-authentication may be
required for each independent service.
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56. Key points
Software engineering is an engineering discipline that is
concerned with all aspects of software production.
Essential software product attributes are maintainability,
dependability and security, efficiency and acceptability.
The high-level activities of specification, development,
validation and evolution are part of all software
processes.
The fundamental notions of software engineering are
universally applicable to all types of system
development.
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57. Key points
There are many different types of system and each
requires appropriate software engineering tools and
techniques for their development.
The fundamental ideas of software engineering are
applicable to all types of software system.
Software engineers have responsibilities to the
engineering profession and society. They should not
simply be concerned with technical issues.
Professional societies publish codes of conduct which
set out the standards of behaviour expected of their
members.
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