Developing responsive to needs, efficient and sustainable long-term care systems for elderly becomes due to rising demographic pressures an urgent issue all over Europe. Czech Republic is among the countries that have redesigned long-term care system according the principles of accessibility, quality and fiscal tenacity in the past couple of years. The reform process was well rooted in the practice of local governments and social sector empowering institutions that existed before 2006, when the reform was introduced, but were insufficiently anchored in legal regulations. The newly established long term care system covers a wide spectrum of services, from cash benefits to dependent in need via different types of social services and institutional care. Still, similarly to other countries of the Central and Eastern Europe region long care is disintegrated between the social system and health care which also is responsible for some types of institutional establishments. The system is also not free from critique for the lack of formal definition of long term care, lack of integration of services, their shortage and poor quality. Thus despite state efforts, the care over elderly remains family responsibility and state support is not always sufficient.
Authored by: Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2010
In the field of social protection, Poland belongs to the EU group of countries with the familybased welfare model, what is extremely visible for the long-term care where family is the main care provider for elderly individuals with limitations in activities of daily living. At the same time the proportion of elderly in the coming decades is projected to be among the highest in the European Union, what raises questions on the design of the long-term care. For the moment the system is highly unregulated and disintegrated between social assistance and health care services. But it is the health sector that concentrates policy debate with a proposal of an introduction of nursing insurance. In the social sector, the significant changes that were favorable to LTC services development were introduced by the
law on the social assistance (2004) and family benefits (2003) widening the scope of care available at home and in adult day care centers. But still provision of services is insufficient and a market of private services, paid out-of-pocket rapidly develops. It seems that main problems of the long-term care development in the future will be raising demand against insufficient resources and diversified priorities of the health care system.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska
Published in 2010
Long-term care (LTC) in the new EU member states, which used to belong to the former socialist countries, is not yet a legally separated sector of social security. However, the ageing dynamics are more intensive in these states than in the old EU member states. This paper analyses the process of creating an LTC sector in the context of institutional reforms of social protection systems during the transition period. The authors explain LTC’s position straddling the health and social sectors, the underdevelopment of formal LTC, and the current policies regarding the risk of LTC dependency. The paper is based mainly on the analysis of information provided by country experts in the ANCIEN project.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska and Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2013
The aim of this paper is to identify patterns of utilization of formal and informal long term care (LTC) across European countries and discuss possible determinants of demand for different types of care. Specific research questions are of the volume of different types of care and conditions under which care is undertaken. The latter include demographic factors, especially ageing of the society, health status and limitations caused by poor health, family settings and social networking. The analysis indicates substantial differences in obtaining LTC across European countries depending on the tradition and social protection model that determine availability of institutional care and provision of informal care. In the Nordic-type countries with high state responsibility and high provision of institutional care, informal care is of less importance and - if received - it is mostly care provided from on irregular basis from outside the family. With growing needs for care, formal settings come in. Countries of the continental Europe are less unified with high share of people using formal settings of care, but also combining formal and informal care. In Mediterranean countries provision of informal care, including personal care, plays much greater role than formal LTC.
Authored by: Agnieszka Sowa, Izabela Styczynska
Published in 2011
The increasing life expectancy and the alarming growth in the incidence of chronic illness make long term care services in high demand and in dire need of change and innovation. As part of the ANCIEN initiative, which aims to comprise a database of European approaches for dealing with long term care, this document creates an overview of the health systems organized in Romania which target individuals with long term care needs. The method of governance, the people’s needs and the available services are presented herein.
For the most part, the services provided in this field are covered through the efforts of the family of those in need and are therefore difficult to quantify or analyze. Public services are either insufficient (in terms of quality or accessibility) and the moral stigma associated to using them prevents families from making this choice. However, due to a high demand and a low supply of high quality LTC services, the private market of nursing homes has exploded in the last few years, funded either privately, through NGOs or external donations. The quality and number of available services has greatly improved but the accessibility is still low.
At this moment, Romania still does not have an integrated long term care system neither from the legal or the organization of services being offered. There are social and medical services that are run, provided and legislated independently. The current national strategy is to coordinate these services and to create an integrated system with multidisciplinary teams which would include different types of medical specialists and nurses but still maintain and improve the services offered formally or informally as a home based care package.
Authored by: Daniela Popa
The social changes in Poland over the last two decades have had an impact on many dimensions of life, including on important elements of human capital, such as health and functional and instrumental daily activities. This article contains an overview of the available data and indicators on health status, morbidity and disability. It presents the changes in the level of functional and legal disability and aims to show the reasons for these trends. Functional disability is highlighted as one of the major challenges for social and health policy in the next few decades in the context of dynamic aging.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska and Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2012
Poland’s ranking in 15th place in The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Mental Health Integration Index reflects the country’s strengths in its official policies. A closer look, however, shows that its result is much less indicative of reality on the ground.
In the field of social protection, Poland belongs to the EU group of countries with the familybased welfare model, what is extremely visible for the long-term care where family is the main care provider for elderly individuals with limitations in activities of daily living. At the same time the proportion of elderly in the coming decades is projected to be among the highest in the European Union, what raises questions on the design of the long-term care. For the moment the system is highly unregulated and disintegrated between social assistance and health care services. But it is the health sector that concentrates policy debate with a proposal of an introduction of nursing insurance. In the social sector, the significant changes that were favorable to LTC services development were introduced by the
law on the social assistance (2004) and family benefits (2003) widening the scope of care available at home and in adult day care centers. But still provision of services is insufficient and a market of private services, paid out-of-pocket rapidly develops. It seems that main problems of the long-term care development in the future will be raising demand against insufficient resources and diversified priorities of the health care system.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska
Published in 2010
Long-term care (LTC) in the new EU member states, which used to belong to the former socialist countries, is not yet a legally separated sector of social security. However, the ageing dynamics are more intensive in these states than in the old EU member states. This paper analyses the process of creating an LTC sector in the context of institutional reforms of social protection systems during the transition period. The authors explain LTC’s position straddling the health and social sectors, the underdevelopment of formal LTC, and the current policies regarding the risk of LTC dependency. The paper is based mainly on the analysis of information provided by country experts in the ANCIEN project.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska and Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2013
The aim of this paper is to identify patterns of utilization of formal and informal long term care (LTC) across European countries and discuss possible determinants of demand for different types of care. Specific research questions are of the volume of different types of care and conditions under which care is undertaken. The latter include demographic factors, especially ageing of the society, health status and limitations caused by poor health, family settings and social networking. The analysis indicates substantial differences in obtaining LTC across European countries depending on the tradition and social protection model that determine availability of institutional care and provision of informal care. In the Nordic-type countries with high state responsibility and high provision of institutional care, informal care is of less importance and - if received - it is mostly care provided from on irregular basis from outside the family. With growing needs for care, formal settings come in. Countries of the continental Europe are less unified with high share of people using formal settings of care, but also combining formal and informal care. In Mediterranean countries provision of informal care, including personal care, plays much greater role than formal LTC.
Authored by: Agnieszka Sowa, Izabela Styczynska
Published in 2011
The increasing life expectancy and the alarming growth in the incidence of chronic illness make long term care services in high demand and in dire need of change and innovation. As part of the ANCIEN initiative, which aims to comprise a database of European approaches for dealing with long term care, this document creates an overview of the health systems organized in Romania which target individuals with long term care needs. The method of governance, the people’s needs and the available services are presented herein.
For the most part, the services provided in this field are covered through the efforts of the family of those in need and are therefore difficult to quantify or analyze. Public services are either insufficient (in terms of quality or accessibility) and the moral stigma associated to using them prevents families from making this choice. However, due to a high demand and a low supply of high quality LTC services, the private market of nursing homes has exploded in the last few years, funded either privately, through NGOs or external donations. The quality and number of available services has greatly improved but the accessibility is still low.
At this moment, Romania still does not have an integrated long term care system neither from the legal or the organization of services being offered. There are social and medical services that are run, provided and legislated independently. The current national strategy is to coordinate these services and to create an integrated system with multidisciplinary teams which would include different types of medical specialists and nurses but still maintain and improve the services offered formally or informally as a home based care package.
Authored by: Daniela Popa
The social changes in Poland over the last two decades have had an impact on many dimensions of life, including on important elements of human capital, such as health and functional and instrumental daily activities. This article contains an overview of the available data and indicators on health status, morbidity and disability. It presents the changes in the level of functional and legal disability and aims to show the reasons for these trends. Functional disability is highlighted as one of the major challenges for social and health policy in the next few decades in the context of dynamic aging.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska and Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2012
Poland’s ranking in 15th place in The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Mental Health Integration Index reflects the country’s strengths in its official policies. A closer look, however, shows that its result is much less indicative of reality on the ground.
When a person dies: guidance for professionals on developing bereavement services
The National End of Life Care Programme has supported the Bereavement Services Association and Primary Care Commissioning in the production of 'When a person dies: guidance for professionals on developing bereavement services.'
The manner in which professionals and volunteers respond to those who are bereaved can have a long term impact on how they grieve, their health and their memories of the individual who has died.
The publication covers the principles of bereavement services, along with bereavement care in the days preceding death, at the time of death and in the days following death. It also includes guidance on workforce and education and the commissioning and quality outcomes of bereavement care.
NHS Trusts, community providers and commissioners will wish to consider the guidance when developing policies and services relating to bereavement.
Minna Ylikännö: Ubi and ongoing social security reform. Presentation at seminar Reforming social security – What can we learn from basic income experiments? 17.12.2021.
Analysis on Optimization Selection of Nursing Service Delivery Mode in Long T...ijtsrd
Faced with the rapid increase in the demand for aged care services in the aging society, Germany and Japan have set a precedent for solving the problem of elderly care for by constructing long term care insurance. In the design of the nursing service delivery model, Japan adopts payment in kind, while Germany introduces cash payment. Based on the characteristics of the disabled or semi disabled elderly, this paper uses economic theory to analyze the applicability of cash and physical payment. Through the comparison and analysis of OECD data, this paper summarizes the impact of the choice of nursing service model in Germany and Japan. Besides, combined with background of the implementation of long term nursing insurance in China and different elderly groups, it's optimal to introduce the cash payment method in the selection of nursing service models. LI Xiaohui ""Analysis on Optimization Selection of Nursing Service Delivery Mode in Long-Term Nursing Insurance System"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23978.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/nursing/23978/analysis-on-optimization-selection-of-nursing-service-delivery-mode-in-long-term-nursing-insurance-system/li-xiaohui
Belak andrej health_system_limitations_of_roma_health_in_slovakia_isbn9788097...Marek Kmeť
In the publication, Charles University anthropologist Andrej Belák offers a pragmatic summary of his field research focused on how and why steep health disparities among Roma and non-Roma in the region might paradoxically be contributed by health-systems, too.
Antropológ Andrej Belák z Karlovej univerzity v publikácii ponúka pragmatické zhrnutie svojho terénneho výskumu, zameraného na otázky ako a prečo k príkrym rozdielom v zdraví medzi Rómami a Nerómami v regióne môžu prispievať paradoxne i systémy zdravotníctva.
This study presents an overview of the health care systems in postcommunist countries with its resources and operations, in addition to proposing steps that should be taken in order to overcome the health crisis associated with transition and increase the effectiveness and efficiency of health care systems. At the beginning of the 90's, the crisis of transition had a significant impact on the low level of funding in health care, declining in proportion to the fall of GDP or even faster. The continued crisis and slow recovery also affect the low political preference for funding the health care sector during the GDP allocation process. There is excessive competition from other important socio-economic goals and health care frequently loses the battle.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska, Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2007
Personal Health Systems: State-of-the-ArtTotti Könnölä
This report takes stock on the wide range of initiatives in the area of PHS. We examine the PHS research, innovation and policy areas to attain deeper understanding of mismatches between the potential of, and need for, PHS, and current policy and innovation initiatives and framework conditions. As this report is to be considered a working document the findings and statements here have to be considered preliminary and subject for discussion between the European Commission, the PHS stakeholders and the PHS Foresight consortium.
Join the conversion in our website: www.phsforesight.eu and send us feedback to info(at)phsforesight.eu.
Italian Regions are the accountable entities for healthcare policies: their activity is not limited to
policymaking but includes also management and financing of the Healthcare Public Utilities and services. A
first step will be the creation of a dataset of revenues and expenditures of the Healthcare sector. Second, the cofinancing policy will be analyzed using comparative grids of in/out-flows of each Region. Third, it will be taken
into account the regional fiscal coverage of the balance deficit. The sample is composed by the Italian Regions.
Last the analysis between our theoretical approach based on law and the real economic balance. Furthermore it
will be analyzed the National and Regional Healthcare System financing (in)-stability, highlighting current cash
flows, sources and investments using the “separation” of the Healthcare accounting items in the Balance Sheet.
Through chi-square test analysis and method of OLS the group of study look a possible relation be-tween
balance and respect of lea without finding a relationship. Latter, it will be represented an analysis of the National
Health Fund allocation to the Regions. It will be also conducted a critical analysis of the current allocation
formula and it will be proposed a simplified criterion of allocation.
The health protection system is the object of constant
pressures and difficulties in mitigating them, and even
more so eliminating or at least reducing them. Changes
are undertaken under the influence of a one-sided
political assessment, the interests of various groups of
participants or the protests of successive groups of medical
staff. There is no professional and fully documented
diagnosis of the system, made by independent experts,
which could serve as the basis for a comprehensive
health protection reform plan, rather than individual,
incidental changes that disrupt the system’s already
very fragile balance. A well thought-out reform, properly
distributed over time, so that at no point does it cause
negative health effects. A reform agreed among stake-
holders and adopted with understanding of the need
for changes, so that it is supported by society. A reform
for which there will be funds, institutions and engaged
professionals – leaders in health protection. A reform
that won’t be criticized or changed when the government
changes. Such a reform is waiting to be presented and
debated. We begin this process by pointing out and
presenting the system’s main problems.
EU regulation of health services but what about public health?tamsin.rose
Highlights some of the issues with the planned approach by the EU to regulate healthcare services and social welfare services across Europe. Raises questions about public health and the importance of civil society (NGOs) as service providers and building social capital
In recent years, population ageing has attracted the attention of research and policy advisors in all European countries. Several policy actions have been directed toward ensuring optimal long-term care (LTC) for elderly people while maintaining fiscal rationality. LTC systems are very different across all European countries. Their design is characterized by diverse arrangements for the provision of care/organization and financing. Despite general concerns, the Polish LTC system is still at the bottom of the pile in terms of the organization and provision of care.
Authored by: Izabela Styczynska
Health Impact Assessment of E-Medicine and Norway's Healthcare Policy ReformWyiki Wyone
High Distinction for the Final Masters research thesis:
Heath Impact Assessment on Policy Reforms to improve the Norwegian healthcare system; and the benefits of telemedicine for equitable access to healthcare for geographically distant or vulnerable populations
When a person dies: guidance for professionals on developing bereavement services
The National End of Life Care Programme has supported the Bereavement Services Association and Primary Care Commissioning in the production of 'When a person dies: guidance for professionals on developing bereavement services.'
The manner in which professionals and volunteers respond to those who are bereaved can have a long term impact on how they grieve, their health and their memories of the individual who has died.
The publication covers the principles of bereavement services, along with bereavement care in the days preceding death, at the time of death and in the days following death. It also includes guidance on workforce and education and the commissioning and quality outcomes of bereavement care.
NHS Trusts, community providers and commissioners will wish to consider the guidance when developing policies and services relating to bereavement.
Minna Ylikännö: Ubi and ongoing social security reform. Presentation at seminar Reforming social security – What can we learn from basic income experiments? 17.12.2021.
Analysis on Optimization Selection of Nursing Service Delivery Mode in Long T...ijtsrd
Faced with the rapid increase in the demand for aged care services in the aging society, Germany and Japan have set a precedent for solving the problem of elderly care for by constructing long term care insurance. In the design of the nursing service delivery model, Japan adopts payment in kind, while Germany introduces cash payment. Based on the characteristics of the disabled or semi disabled elderly, this paper uses economic theory to analyze the applicability of cash and physical payment. Through the comparison and analysis of OECD data, this paper summarizes the impact of the choice of nursing service model in Germany and Japan. Besides, combined with background of the implementation of long term nursing insurance in China and different elderly groups, it's optimal to introduce the cash payment method in the selection of nursing service models. LI Xiaohui ""Analysis on Optimization Selection of Nursing Service Delivery Mode in Long-Term Nursing Insurance System"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23978.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/nursing/23978/analysis-on-optimization-selection-of-nursing-service-delivery-mode-in-long-term-nursing-insurance-system/li-xiaohui
Belak andrej health_system_limitations_of_roma_health_in_slovakia_isbn9788097...Marek Kmeť
In the publication, Charles University anthropologist Andrej Belák offers a pragmatic summary of his field research focused on how and why steep health disparities among Roma and non-Roma in the region might paradoxically be contributed by health-systems, too.
Antropológ Andrej Belák z Karlovej univerzity v publikácii ponúka pragmatické zhrnutie svojho terénneho výskumu, zameraného na otázky ako a prečo k príkrym rozdielom v zdraví medzi Rómami a Nerómami v regióne môžu prispievať paradoxne i systémy zdravotníctva.
This study presents an overview of the health care systems in postcommunist countries with its resources and operations, in addition to proposing steps that should be taken in order to overcome the health crisis associated with transition and increase the effectiveness and efficiency of health care systems. At the beginning of the 90's, the crisis of transition had a significant impact on the low level of funding in health care, declining in proportion to the fall of GDP or even faster. The continued crisis and slow recovery also affect the low political preference for funding the health care sector during the GDP allocation process. There is excessive competition from other important socio-economic goals and health care frequently loses the battle.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska, Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2007
Personal Health Systems: State-of-the-ArtTotti Könnölä
This report takes stock on the wide range of initiatives in the area of PHS. We examine the PHS research, innovation and policy areas to attain deeper understanding of mismatches between the potential of, and need for, PHS, and current policy and innovation initiatives and framework conditions. As this report is to be considered a working document the findings and statements here have to be considered preliminary and subject for discussion between the European Commission, the PHS stakeholders and the PHS Foresight consortium.
Join the conversion in our website: www.phsforesight.eu and send us feedback to info(at)phsforesight.eu.
Italian Regions are the accountable entities for healthcare policies: their activity is not limited to
policymaking but includes also management and financing of the Healthcare Public Utilities and services. A
first step will be the creation of a dataset of revenues and expenditures of the Healthcare sector. Second, the cofinancing policy will be analyzed using comparative grids of in/out-flows of each Region. Third, it will be taken
into account the regional fiscal coverage of the balance deficit. The sample is composed by the Italian Regions.
Last the analysis between our theoretical approach based on law and the real economic balance. Furthermore it
will be analyzed the National and Regional Healthcare System financing (in)-stability, highlighting current cash
flows, sources and investments using the “separation” of the Healthcare accounting items in the Balance Sheet.
Through chi-square test analysis and method of OLS the group of study look a possible relation be-tween
balance and respect of lea without finding a relationship. Latter, it will be represented an analysis of the National
Health Fund allocation to the Regions. It will be also conducted a critical analysis of the current allocation
formula and it will be proposed a simplified criterion of allocation.
The health protection system is the object of constant
pressures and difficulties in mitigating them, and even
more so eliminating or at least reducing them. Changes
are undertaken under the influence of a one-sided
political assessment, the interests of various groups of
participants or the protests of successive groups of medical
staff. There is no professional and fully documented
diagnosis of the system, made by independent experts,
which could serve as the basis for a comprehensive
health protection reform plan, rather than individual,
incidental changes that disrupt the system’s already
very fragile balance. A well thought-out reform, properly
distributed over time, so that at no point does it cause
negative health effects. A reform agreed among stake-
holders and adopted with understanding of the need
for changes, so that it is supported by society. A reform
for which there will be funds, institutions and engaged
professionals – leaders in health protection. A reform
that won’t be criticized or changed when the government
changes. Such a reform is waiting to be presented and
debated. We begin this process by pointing out and
presenting the system’s main problems.
EU regulation of health services but what about public health?tamsin.rose
Highlights some of the issues with the planned approach by the EU to regulate healthcare services and social welfare services across Europe. Raises questions about public health and the importance of civil society (NGOs) as service providers and building social capital
In recent years, population ageing has attracted the attention of research and policy advisors in all European countries. Several policy actions have been directed toward ensuring optimal long-term care (LTC) for elderly people while maintaining fiscal rationality. LTC systems are very different across all European countries. Their design is characterized by diverse arrangements for the provision of care/organization and financing. Despite general concerns, the Polish LTC system is still at the bottom of the pile in terms of the organization and provision of care.
Authored by: Izabela Styczynska
Health Impact Assessment of E-Medicine and Norway's Healthcare Policy ReformWyiki Wyone
High Distinction for the Final Masters research thesis:
Heath Impact Assessment on Policy Reforms to improve the Norwegian healthcare system; and the benefits of telemedicine for equitable access to healthcare for geographically distant or vulnerable populations
Advances in therapeutic communities. Reflections on British and Italian exper...Raffaele Barone
Advances in therapeutic communities. Reflections on British and Italian experiences
9th May 2015, Anna Freud Centre, London
Abstract for morning session: Barone & Bruschetta
The therapeutic community in the local community: the limits, resources of partnership and democracy
The projection examines impact of demographic changes and changes in health status on future (up to 2050) health expenditures. Next to it, future changes in the labour market participation and their imact on the health care system revenues are examined. Results indicate that due to demographic pressures health expenditures will increase in the next 40 years and health care systems in the NMS will face deficit. Moreover, health revenues, expenditures and deficit/surplus are slightly sensitive to possible labour market changes. Health care system reforms are required in order to balance the disequilibrium of revenues and expenditures caused by external factors (demographic and economic), and decrease the premium needed to cover expenditures. Such reforms should lead, on the one hand, to the rationing of medical services covered by public resources, and on the other, to more effective governance and management of the sector and within the sector.
Authored by: Stanislawa Golinowska, Ewa Kocot, Agnieszka Sowa
Published in 2008
The report examines the social and economic drivers and impact of circular migration between Belarus and Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic. The core question the authors sought to address was how managing circular migration could, in the long term, help to optimise labour resources in both the country of origin and the destination countries. In the pages that follow, the authors of the report present the current and forecasted labour market and demographic situation in their respective countries as well as the dynamics and characteristics of short-term labour migration flows between Belarus and Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, concentrating on the period since 2010. They also outline and discuss related policy responses and evaluate prospects for cooperation on circular migration.
Podręcznik został opracowany w celu przekazania trenerom i nauczycielom podstawowej wiedzy, która może być przydatna w prowadzeniu szkoleń promujących pracę rejestrowaną. Prezentuje on z jednej strony korzyści z pracy rejestrowanej, z drugiej – potencjalne koszty związane z pracą nierejestrowaną. W pierwszej kolejności informacje te przedstawiono w odniesieniu do pracowników najemnych (rozdział 2), podkreślając w sposób szczególny to, że negatywne konsekwencje pracy nierejestrowanej są ponoszone przez całe życie. Ze względu na specyficzną sytuację cudzoziemców pracujących w Polsce konsekwencje ponoszone przez tę grupę opisano oddzielnie (rozdział 3). Ponadto zaprezentowano skutki dotyczące pracodawców z szarej strefy z wyodrębnieniem tych, którzy zatrudniają cudzoziemców (rozdział 4). Uzupełnieniem przedstawionych informacji jest opis działań podejmowanych przez państwo w celu ograniczenia zjawiska pracy nierejestrowanej w Polsce (rozdział 5) oraz prowadzonych w Wielkiej Brytanii, czyli w kraju będącym liderem w walce z szarą strefą (rozdział 6).
European countries face a challenge related to the economic and social consequences of their societies’ aging. Specifically, pension systems must adjust to the coming changes, maintaining both financial stability, connected with equalizing inflows from premiums and spending on pensions, and simultaneously the sufficiency of benefits, protecting retirees against poverty and smoothing consumption over their lives, i.e. ensuring the ability to pay for consumption needs at each stage of life, regardless of income from labor.
One of the key instruments applied toward these goals is the retirement age. Formally it is a legally established boundary: once people have crossed it – on average – they significantly lose their ability to perform work (the so-called old-age risk). But since the 1970s, in many developed countries the retirement age has become an instrument of social and labor-market policy. Specifically, in the 1970s and ‘80s, an early retirement age was perceived as a solution allowing a reduction in the supply of labor, particularly among people with relatively low competencies who were approaching retirement age, which is called the lump of labor fallacy. It was often believed that people taking early retirement freed up jobs for the young. But a range of economic evidence shows that the number of jobs is not fixed, and those who retire don’t in fact free up jobs. On the contrary, because of higher spending by pension systems, labor costs rise, which limits the supply of jobs. In general, a good situation on the labor market supports employment of both the youngest and the oldest labor force participants. Additionally, a lower retirement age for women was maintained, which resulted to a high degree from cultural conditions and norms that are typical for traditional societies.
Until now, the banking sector has been one of the strong points of Poland’s economy. In contrast to banks in the U.S. and leading Western European economies, lenders in Poland came through the 2008 global financial crisis without a scratch, without needing state financial support. But in recent years the industry’s problems have been growing, creating a threat to economic growth and gains in living standards.
For an economy’s productivity to increase, funds can’t go to all companies evenly, and definitely shouldn’t go to those that are most lacking in funds, but to those that will use them most efficiently. This is true of total external financing, and thus funding both from the banking sector and from parabanks, the capital market and funds from public institutions. In Poland, in light of the relatively modest scale of the capital market, banks play a clearly dominant role in external financing of companies. This is why the author of this text focuses on the bank credit allocation efficiency.
The author points out that in the very near future, conditions will emerge in Poland which – as the experience of other countries shows – create a risk of reduced efficiency of credit allocation to business. Additionally, in Poland today, bank lending to companies is to a high degree being replaced by funds from state aid, which reduces the efficiency of allocation of external funds to companies (both loans and subsidies), as allocation of government subsidies is not usually based on efficiency. This decline in external financing allocation efficiency may slow, halt or even reverse the process, that has been uninterrupted for 28 years, of Poland’s convergence, i.e. the narrowing of the gap in living standards between Poland and the West.
The economic characteristics of the COVID-19 crisis differ from those of previous crises. It is a combination of demand- and supply-side constraints which led to the formation of a monetary overhang that will be unfrozen once the pandemic ends. Monetary policy must take this effect into consideration, along with other pro-inflationary factors, in the post-pandemic era. It must also think in advance about how to avoid a policy trap coming from fiscal dominance.
This paper is organized as follows: Chapter 2 deals with the economic characteristics of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on the effectiveness of the monetary policy response measures undertaken. In Chapter 3, we analyse the monetary policy decisions of the ECB (and other major CBs for comparison) and their effectiveness in achieving the declared policy goals in the short term. Chapter 4 is devoted to an analysis of the policy challenges which may be faced by the ECB and other major CBs once the pandemic emergency comes to its end. Chapter 5 contains a summary and the conclusions of our analysis.
Purpose: This paper tries to identify the wage gap between informal and formal workers and tests for the two-tier structure of the informal labour market in Poland.
Design/methodology/approach: I employ the propensity score matching (PSM) technique and use data from the Polish Labour Force Survey (LFS) for the period 2009–2017 to estimate the wage gap between informal and formal workers, both at the means and along the wage distribution. I use two definitions of informal employment: a) employment without a written agreement and b) employment while officially registered as unemployed at a labour office. In order to reduce the bias resulting from the non-random selection of
individuals into informal employment, I use a rich set of control variables representing several individual characteristics.
Findings: After controlling for observed heterogeneity, I find that on average informal workers earn less than formal workers, both in terms of monthly earnings and hourly wage. This result is not sensitive to the definition of informal employment used and is
stable over the analysed time period (2009–2017). However, the wage penalty to informal employment is substantially higher for individuals at the bottom of the wage distribution, which supports the hypothesis of the two-tier structure of the informal labour market in Poland.
Originality/value: The main contribution of this study is that it identifies the two-tier structure of the informal labour market in Poland: informal workers in the first quartile of the wage distribution and those above the first quartile appear to be in two partially different segments of the labour market.
The rule of law, by securing civil and economic rights, directly contributes to social prosperity and is one of our societies’ greatest achievements. In the European Union (EU), the rule of law is enshrined in the Treaties of its founding and is recognised not just as a necessary condition of a liberal democratic society, but also as an important requirement for a stable, effective, and sustainable market economy. In fact, it was the stability and equality of opportunity provided by the rule of law that enabled the post-war Wirtschaftswunder in Germany and the post-Communist resuscitation of the economy in Poland.
But the rule of law is a living concept that is constantly evolving – both in its formal, de jure dimension, embodied in legislation, and its de facto dimension, or its reception by society. In Poland, in particular, according to the EU, the rule of law has been heavily challenged by government since 2015 and has evolved amid continued pressure exerted on the institutions which execute laws. More recently, the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic transformed the perception of the rule of law and its boundaries throughout the EU and beyond (Marzocchi, 2020).
This Study contains Value Added Tax (VAT) Gap estimates for 2018, fast estimates using a simplified methodology for 2019, the year immediately preceding the analysis, and includes revised estimates for 2014-2017. It also includes the updated and extended results of the econometric analysis of VAT Gap determinants initiated and initially reported in the 2018 Report (Poniatowski et al., 2018). As a novelty, the econometric analysis to forecast potential impacts of the coronavirus crisis and resulting recession on the evolution of the VAT Gap in 2020 is reported.
In 2018, most European Union (EU) Member States (MS) saw a slight decrease in the pace of gross domestic product (GDP) growth, but the economic conditions for increasing tax compliance remained favourable. We estimate that the VAT total tax liability (VTTL) in 2018 increased by 3.6 percent whereas VAT revenue increased by 4.2 percent, leading to a decline in the VAT Gap in both relative and nominal terms. In relative terms, the EU-wide Gap dropped to 11 percent and EUR 140 billion. Fast estimates show that the VAT Gap will likely continue to decline in 2019.
Of the EU-28, the smallest Gaps were observed in Sweden (0.7 percent), Croatia (3.5 percent), and Finland (3.6 percent), the largest – in Romania (33.8 percent), Greece (30.1 percent), and Lithuania (25.9 percent). Overall, half of the EU-28 MS recorded a Gap above 9.2 percent. In nominal terms, the largest Gaps were recorded in Italy (EUR 35.4 billion), the United Kingdom (EUR 23.5 billion), and Germany (EUR 22 billion).
The euro is the second most important global currency after the US dollar. However, its international role has not increased since its inception in 1999. The private sector prefers using the US dollar rather than the euro because the financial market for US dollar-denominated assets is larger and deeper; network externalities and inertia also play a role. Increasing the attractiveness of the euro outside the euro area requires, among others, a proactive role for the European Central Bank and completing the Banking Union and Capital Market Union.
Forecasting during a strong shock is burdened with exceptionally high uncertainty. This gives rise to the temptation to formulate alarmist forecasts. Experiences from earlier pandemics, particularly those from the 20th century, for which we have the most data, don’t provide a basis for this. The mildest of them weakened growth by less than 1 percentage point, and the worst, the Spanish Flu, by 6 percentage points. Still, even the Spanish Flu never caused losses on the order of 20% of GDP – not even where it turned out to be a humanitarian disaster, costing the lives of 3-5% of the population. History suggests that if pandemics lead to such deep losses at all, it’s only in particular quarters and not over a whole year, as economic activity rebounds. The strength of that rebound is largely determined by economic policy. The purpose of this work is to describe possible scenarios for a rebound in Polish economic growth after the epidemic.
A separate issue, no less important, is what world will emerge from the current crisis. In the face of the 2008 financial crisis, White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel said: “You never want a serious crisis to go to waste. And what I mean by that is an opportunity to do things that you think you could not do before.” Such changes can make the economy and society function better than before the crisis. Unfortunately, the opportunities created by the global financial crisis were squandered. Today’s task is more difficult; the scale of various problems has expanded even more. Without deep structural and institutional changes, the world will be facing enduring social and economic problems, accompanied by long-term stagnation.
"Many brilliant prophecies have appeared for the future of the EU and our entire planet. I believe that Europe, in its own style, will draw pragmatic conclusions from the crisis, not revolutionary ones; conclusions that will allow us to continue enjoying a Europe without borders. Brussels will demonstrate its usefulness; it will react ably and flexibly. First of all, contrary to the deceitful statements of members of the Polish government, the EU warned of the threats already in 2021. Secondly, already in mid-March EU assistance programs were ready, i.e. earlier than the PiS government’s “shield” program. The conclusion from the crisis will be a strengthening of all the preventive mechanisms that allow us to recognize threats and react in time of need. Research programs will be more strongly directed toward diagnosing and treating infectious diseases. Europe will gain greater self-sufficiency in the area of medical equipment and drugs, and the EU – greater competencies in the area of the health service, thus far entrusted to the member states. The 2021-27 budget must be reconstructed, to supplement the priority of the Green Deal with economic stimulus programs. In this way structural funds, which have the greatest multiplier effect for investment and the labor market, may return to favor. So once again: an addition, as a conclusion from the crisis, and not a reinvention of the EU," writes Dr. Janusz Lewandowski the author of the 162nd mBank-CASE seminar Proceeding.
Dla wielu rodaków europejskość Polski jest oczywista, trudno jest im nawet wyobrazić sobie, jak kształtowałyby się losy naszego kraju bez uczestnictwa w integracji europejskiej. Szczególnie młode pokolenie traktuje osiągnięty przez nas dzięki uczestnictwie w Unii ogromny postęp cywilizacyjny jako coś danego i naturalnego. Jednak świadomość tego, jaki był nasz punkt wyjścia, jaką przeszliśmy drogę i jak przyczyniły się do tego unijne działania oraz jakie wynikały z tego korzyści powinna nam stale towarzyszyć. Bez tej świadomości, starannego weryfikowania faktów i docenienia naszych osiągnięć grozi nam uleganie niesprawdzonym argumentom przeciwników integracji europejskiej i popełnienie nieodwracalnych błędów. Dla tych, którzy chcą poznać te fakty, przygotowany został raport "Nasza Europa. 15 lat Polski w Unii Europejskiej". Podjęto w nim ocenę 15 lat członkostwa Polski z perspektywy doświadczeń procesu integracji, z jego barierami i sukcesami, a także wyzwaniami przyszłości.
Raport jest wynikiem pracy zbiorowej licznych ekspertów z różnych dziedzin, od wielu lat analizujących wielowymiarowe efekty działania instytucji UE oraz współpracy z krajami członkowskimi na podstawie europejskich wartości i mechanizmów. Autorzy podsumowują korzyści członkostwa Polski w Unii Europejskiej na podstawie faktów, nie stroniąc jednakże od własnych ocen i refleksji.
This report is the result of the joint work of a number of experts from various fields who have been - for many years – analysing the multidimensional effects of EU institutions and cooperation with Member States pursuant to European values and mechanisms. The authors summarise the benefits of Poland’s membership in the EU based on facts; however, they do not hide their own views and reflections. They also demonstrate the barriers and challenges to further European integration.
This report was prepared by CASE, one of the oldest independent think tanks in Central and Eastern Europe, utilising its nearly 30 years of experience in providing objective analyses and recommendations with respect to socioeconomic topics. It is both an expression of concern about Poland’s future in the EU, as well as the authors’ contribution to the debate on further European integration.
Poland’s new Employee Capital Plans (PPK) scheme, which is mandatory for employers, started to be implemented in July 2019. The article looks at the systemic solutions applied in the programme from the perspective of the concept of the simultaneous reconstruction of the retirement pension system. The aim is to present arguments for and against the project from the point of view of various actors, and to assess the chances of success for the new system. The article offers a detailed study of legal solutions, an analysis of the literature on the subject, and reports of institutions that supervise pension funds. The results of this analysis point to the lack of cohesion between certain solutions of the 1999 pension reform and expose a lack of consistency in how the reform was carried out, which led to the eventual removal of the capital part of the pension system. The study shows that additional saving for old age is advisable in the country’s current demographic situation and necessary for both economic and social reasons. However, the systemic solutions offered by the government appear to be chiefly designated to serve short-term state interests and do not create sufficient incentives for pension plan participants to join the programme.
Belarus was among the few post-communist countries to resign from comprehensive market reforms and attempt to improve the efficiency of the economy through administrative means, leaving market mechanisms only an auxiliary role. Since its inception, the ‘Belarusian economic model’ has undergone several revisions of a de-statisation and de-regulation kind, but still the Belarusian economy remains dominated by the state. This paper analyses the characteristic features of the Belarusian economic system – especially those related to the public sector – as well as its evolution over time during the period following its independence. The paper concludes that during the post-Soviet period, the Belarusian economy evolved from a quasi-Soviet system based on state property, state planning, support to inefficient enterprises and the massive redistribution of funds to a more flexible hybrid model where the public sector still remains the core of the economy. The case of Belarus shows that presently there is no appropriate theoretical perspective which, in an unmodified form, could be applied to study this type of economic system. Therefore, a new perspective based on an already existing but updated approach or a multidisciplinary approach that incorporates the duality of the Belarusian economy is required.
Belarusian economy has been stagnating in 2011-2015 after 15 years of a high annual average growth rate. In 2015, after four years of stagnation, the Belarusian economy slid into a recession, its first since 1996, and experienced both cyclical and structural recessions. Since 2015, the Belarusian government and the National Bank of Belarus have been giving economic reforms a good chance thanks to gradual but consistent actions aimed at maintaining macroeconomic stability and economic liberalization. It seems that the economic authorities have sustained more transformation efforts during 2015-2018 than in the previous 24 years since 1991.
As the relative welfare level in Belarus is currently 64% compared to the Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) countries average, Belarus needs to build stronger fundaments of sustainable growth by continuing and accelerating the implementation of institutional transformation, primarily by fostering elimination of existing administrative mechanisms of inefficient resource allocation. Based on the experience of the CEE countries’ economic transformation, we highlight five lessons for the purpose of the economic reforms that Belarus still faces today: keeping macroeconomic stability, restructuring and improving the governance of state-owned enterprises, developing the financial market, increasing taxation efficiency, and deepening fiscal decentralization.
Inflation in advanced economies is low by historical standards but there is no threat of deflation. Slower economic growth is caused by supply-side constraints rather than low inflation. Below-the-target inflation does not damage the reputation of central banks. Thus, central banks should not try to bring inflation back to the targeted level of 2%. Rather, they should revise the inflation target downwards and publicly explain the rationale for such a move. Risks to the independence of central banks come from their additional mandates (beyond price stability) and populist politics.
Estonia has Europe’s most transparent tax system (while Poland is second-to-last, in 35th place), and is also known for its pioneering approach to taxation of legal persons’ income. Since 2000, payers of Estonian corporate tax don’t pay tax on their profits as long as they don’t realize them. In principle, this approach should make access to capital easier, spark investment by companies and contribute to faster economic growth. Are these and other positive effects really noticeable in Estonia? Have other countries followed in this country’s footsteps? Would deferment of income tax be possible and beneficial for Poland? How would this affect revenue from tax on corporate profits? Would investors come to see Poland as a tax haven? Does the Estonian system limit tax avoidance and evasion, or actually the opposite? Is such a system fair? Are intermediate solutions possible, which would combine the strengths or limit the weaknesses of the classical and Estonian models of profit tax? These questions are discussed in the mBank-CASE seminar Proceeding no. 163, written by Dmitri Jegorov, deputy general secretary of the Estonian Finance Ministry, who directs the country’s tax and customs policy, Dr. Anna Leszczyłowska of the Poznań University of Economics and Business and Aleksander Łożykowski of the Warsaw School of Economics.
The trade war between the U.S. and China began in March 2018. The American side raised import duties on aluminum and steel from China, which were later extended to other countries, including Canada, Mexico and the EU member states. This drew a negative reaction from those countries and bilateral negotiations with the U.S. In June 2018 America, referring to Section 301 of its 1974 Trade Act, raised tariffs to 25% on 818 groups of products imported from China, arguing that the tariff increase was a response to years of theft of American intellectual property and dishonest trade practices, which has caused the U.S. trade deficit.
Will this trade war mean the collapse of the multilateral trading system and a transition to bilateral relationships? What are the possibilities for increasing tariffs in light of World Trade Organization rules? Can the conflict be resolved using the WTO dispute-resolution mechanism? What are the consequences of the trade war for American consumers and producers, and for suppliers from other countries? How high will tariffs climb as a result of a global trade war? How far can trade volumes and GDP fall if the worst-case scenario comes to pass? Professor Jan J. Michałek and Dr. Przemysław Woźniak give answers to these questions in the mBank-CASE Seminar Proceeding No. 161.
This Report has been prepared for the European Commission, DG TAXUD under contract TAXUD/2017/DE/329, “Study and Reports on the VAT Gap in the EU-28 Member States” and serves as a follow-up to the six reports published between 2013 and 2018.
This Study contains new estimates of the Value Added Tax (VAT) Gap for 2017, as well as updated estimates for 2013-2016. As a novelty in this series of reports, so called “fast VAT Gap estimates” are also presented the year immediately preceding the analysis, namely for 2018. In addition, the study reports the results of the econometric analysis of VAT Gap determinants initiated and initially reported in the 2018 Report (Poniatowski et al., 2018). It also scrutinises the Policy Gap in 2017 as well as the contribution that reduced rates and exemptions made to the theoretical VAT revenue losses.
More from CASE Center for Social and Economic Research (20)
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how to sell pi coins at high rate quickly.DOT TECH
Where can I sell my pi coins at a high rate.
Pi is not launched yet on any exchange. But one can easily sell his or her pi coins to investors who want to hold pi till mainnet launch.
This means crypto whales want to hold pi. And you can get a good rate for selling pi to them. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor below.
A vendor is someone who buys from a miner and resell it to a holder or crypto whale.
Here is the telegram contact of my vendor:
@Pi_vendor_247
Introduction to Indian Financial System ()Avanish Goel
The financial system of a country is an important tool for economic development of the country, as it helps in creation of wealth by linking savings with investments.
It facilitates the flow of funds form the households (savers) to business firms (investors) to aid in wealth creation and development of both the parties
Resume
• Real GDP growth slowed down due to problems with access to electricity caused by the destruction of manoeuvrable electricity generation by Russian drones and missiles.
• Exports and imports continued growing due to better logistics through the Ukrainian sea corridor and road. Polish farmers and drivers stopped blocking borders at the end of April.
• In April, both the Tax and Customs Services over-executed the revenue plan. Moreover, the NBU transferred twice the planned profit to the budget.
• The European side approved the Ukraine Plan, which the government adopted to determine indicators for the Ukraine Facility. That approval will allow Ukraine to receive a EUR 1.9 bn loan from the EU in May. At the same time, the EU provided Ukraine with a EUR 1.5 bn loan in April, as the government fulfilled five indicators under the Ukraine Plan.
• The USA has finally approved an aid package for Ukraine, which includes USD 7.8 bn of budget support; however, the conditions and timing of the assistance are still unknown.
• As in March, annual consumer inflation amounted to 3.2% yoy in April.
• At the April monetary policy meeting, the NBU again reduced the key policy rate from 14.5% to 13.5% per annum.
• Over the past four weeks, the hryvnia exchange rate has stabilized in the UAH 39-40 per USD range.
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
how can I sell pi coins after successfully completing KYCDOT TECH
Pi coins is not launched yet in any exchange 💱 this means it's not swappable, the current pi displaying on coin market cap is the iou version of pi. And you can learn all about that on my previous post.
RIGHT NOW THE ONLY WAY you can sell pi coins is through verified pi merchants. A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges and crypto whales. Looking forward to hold massive quantities of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale or ico offerings, the only way to get my coins is from buying from miners. So a merchant facilitates the transactions between the miners and these exchanges holding pi.
I and my friends has sold more than 6000 pi coins successfully with this method. I will be happy to share the contact of my personal pi merchant. The one i trade with, if you have your own merchant you can trade with them. For those who are new.
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram.
I wouldn't advise you selling all percentage of the pi coins. Leave at least a before so its a win win during open mainnet. Have a nice day pioneers ♥️
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how to sell pi coins on Bitmart crypto exchangeDOT TECH
Yes. Pi network coins can be exchanged but not on bitmart exchange. Because pi network is still in the enclosed mainnet. The only way pioneers are able to trade pi coins is by reselling the pi coins to pi verified merchants.
A verified merchant is someone who buys pi network coins and resell it to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
Latino Buying Power - May 2024 Presentation for Latino CaucusDanay Escanaverino
Unlock the potential of Latino Buying Power with this in-depth SlideShare presentation. Explore how the Latino consumer market is transforming the American economy, driven by their significant buying power, entrepreneurial contributions, and growing influence across various sectors.
**Key Sections Covered:**
1. **Economic Impact:** Understand the profound economic impact of Latino consumers on the U.S. economy. Discover how their increasing purchasing power is fueling growth in key industries and contributing to national economic prosperity.
2. **Buying Power:** Dive into detailed analyses of Latino buying power, including its growth trends, key drivers, and projections for the future. Learn how this influential group’s spending habits are shaping market dynamics and creating opportunities for businesses.
3. **Entrepreneurial Contributions:** Explore the entrepreneurial spirit within the Latino community. Examine how Latino-owned businesses are thriving and contributing to job creation, innovation, and economic diversification.
4. **Workforce Statistics:** Gain insights into the role of Latino workers in the American labor market. Review statistics on employment rates, occupational distribution, and the economic contributions of Latino professionals across various industries.
5. **Media Consumption:** Understand the media consumption habits of Latino audiences. Discover their preferences for digital platforms, television, radio, and social media. Learn how these consumption patterns are influencing advertising strategies and media content.
6. **Education:** Examine the educational achievements and challenges within the Latino community. Review statistics on enrollment, graduation rates, and fields of study. Understand the implications of education on economic mobility and workforce readiness.
7. **Home Ownership:** Explore trends in Latino home ownership. Understand the factors driving home buying decisions, the challenges faced by Latino homeowners, and the impact of home ownership on community stability and economic growth.
This SlideShare provides valuable insights for marketers, business owners, policymakers, and anyone interested in the economic influence of the Latino community. By understanding the various facets of Latino buying power, you can effectively engage with this dynamic and growing market segment.
Equip yourself with the knowledge to leverage Latino buying power, tap into their entrepreneurial spirit, and connect with their unique cultural and consumer preferences. Drive your business success by embracing the economic potential of Latino consumers.
**Keywords:** Latino buying power, economic impact, entrepreneurial contributions, workforce statistics, media consumption, education, home ownership, Latino market, Hispanic buying power, Latino purchasing power.
The secret way to sell pi coins effortlessly.DOT TECH
Well as we all know pi isn't launched yet. But you can still sell your pi coins effortlessly because some whales in China are interested in holding massive pi coins. And they are willing to pay good money for it. If you are interested in selling I will leave a contact for you. Just telegram this number below. I sold about 3000 pi coins to him and he paid me immediately.
Telegram: @Pi_vendor_247
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview.pptxmarketing367770
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview
If you're dreaming of owning a home in California's rural or suburban areas, a USDA loan might be the perfect solution. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) offers these loans to help low-to-moderate-income individuals and families achieve homeownership.
Key Features of USDA Loans:
Zero Down Payment: USDA loans require no down payment, making homeownership more accessible.
Competitive Interest Rates: These loans often come with lower interest rates compared to conventional loans.
Flexible Credit Requirements: USDA loans have more lenient credit score requirements, helping those with less-than-perfect credit.
Guaranteed Loan Program: The USDA guarantees a portion of the loan, reducing risk for lenders and expanding borrowing options.
Eligibility Criteria:
Location: The property must be located in a USDA-designated rural or suburban area. Many areas in California qualify.
Income Limits: Applicants must meet income guidelines, which vary by region and household size.
Primary Residence: The home must be used as the borrower's primary residence.
Application Process:
Find a USDA-Approved Lender: Not all lenders offer USDA loans, so it's essential to choose one approved by the USDA.
Pre-Qualification: Determine your eligibility and the amount you can borrow.
Property Search: Look for properties in eligible rural or suburban areas.
Loan Application: Submit your application, including financial and personal information.
Processing and Approval: The lender and USDA will review your application. If approved, you can proceed to closing.
USDA loans are an excellent option for those looking to buy a home in California's rural and suburban areas. With no down payment and flexible requirements, these loans make homeownership more attainable for many families. Explore your eligibility today and take the first step toward owning your dream home.
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
What price will pi network be listed on exchangesDOT TECH
The rate at which pi will be listed is practically unknown. But due to speculations surrounding it the predicted rate is tends to be from 30$ — 50$.
So if you are interested in selling your pi network coins at a high rate tho. Or you can't wait till the mainnet launch in 2026. You can easily trade your pi coins with a merchant.
A merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold massive quantities till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
how can i use my minded pi coins I need some funds.DOT TECH
If you are interested in selling your pi coins, i have a verified pi merchant, who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
Because the core team has announced that pi network will not be doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges like huobi, bitmart and hotbit can get pi is by buying from miners.
Now a merchant stands in between these exchanges and the miners. As a link to make transactions smooth. Because right now in the enclosed mainnet you can't sell pi coins your self. You need the help of a merchant,
i will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant below. 👇 I and my friends has traded more than 3000pi coins with him successfully.
@Pi_vendor_247
Even tho Pi network is not listed on any exchange yet.
Buying/Selling or investing in pi network coins is highly possible through the help of vendors. You can buy from vendors[ buy directly from the pi network miners and resell it]. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal vendor.
@Pi_vendor_247
3. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
2
Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 4
1. The system of LTC in the Czech Republic................................................................... 5
1.1. Overview (summary) of the system........................................................................5
1.2. Assessment of needs ..............................................................................................7
1.3. Available LTC services ............................................................................................8
1.4. Management and organization..............................................................................10
1.5. Integration of LTC..................................................................................................12
2. Funding.........................................................................................................................13
3. Demand and supply .....................................................................................................14
3.1. The need for LTC (including demographic characteristics) ...............................14
3.2. The role of informal and formal care in the LTC system (including the role of
cash benefits)..........................................................................................................15
3.3. Demand and supply of informal care ...................................................................15
3.4. Demand and supply of formal care.......................................................................16
3.4.1. Introduction .....................................................................................................16
3.4.2. Institutional care..............................................................................................16
3.4.3. Home care........................................................................................................18
3.4.4. Semi-institutional care ....................................................................................19
4. LTC policy....................................................................................................................................20
4.1. Policy goals............................................................................................................20
4.2. Integration policy ...................................................................................................20
4.3. Recent reforms and the current debate................................................................21
4.4. Critical appraisal of the LTC system ....................................................................22
References .........................................................................................................................................23
4. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
Agnieszka Sowa is a researcher at CASE, holds MA in the field of public policy from the
Warsaw University, Department of Sociology and MSc in the field of Social Protection
Financing from the Maastricht University, Department of Economics and Business
Administration. She has also been a scholar at the Pittsburgh University, where she
completed Public Policy course (1998). She started her professional career as Junior
Researcher evaluating the World Bank EPSP program; since 2001 she has been a
Researcher at CASE. Her experience includes involvement in the analysis of the health care
system, research on labour market, poverty and social exclusion in Poland and other
countries of the region. Currently, in cooperation with the Maastricht Graduate School of
Governance, she is about to finish her PhD dissertation on inequalities in health and medical
services utilization Poland.
3
5. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
4
Abstract
Developing responsive to needs, efficient and sustainable long-term care systems for elderly
becomes due to rising demographic pressures an urgent issue all over Europe. Czech
Republic is among the countries that have redesigned long-term care system according the
principles of accessibility, quality and fiscal tenacity in the past couple of years. The reform
process was well rooted in the practice of local governments and social sector empowering
institutions that existed before 2006, when the reform was introduced, but were insufficiently
anchored in legal regulations. The newly established long term care system covers a wide
spectrum of services, from cash benefits to dependent in need via different types of social
services and institutional care. Still, similarly to other countries of the Central and Eastern
Europe region long care is disintegrated between the social system and health care which
also is responsible for some types of institutional establishments. The system is also not free
from critique for the lack of formal definition of long term care, lack of integration of services,
their shortage and poor quality. Thus despite state efforts, the care over elderly remains
family responsibility and state support is not always sufficient.
6. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
1. The system of LTC in the Czech Republic
1.1. Overview (summary) of the system
The system of long term care (LTC) in the Czech Republic, as in other countries of Central
and Eastern Europe, is not considered a specific sector of the social security system. Rather,
services are provided within the medical and social sectors, and are not regulated by a
unified legal arrangement nor administered by one central and/or regional institution. They
covers a wide range of supportive health and social services provided to people who are not
self-sufficient. The latter category includes not only the elderly, but individuals who need
assistance for reasons other than age, such as long term illness, physical and mental
disabilities and to persons in vulnerable groups (drug abusers, people in mental crisis).
Despite the fact that LTC is not unified as a separate sector, an operational definition of LTC
can be found in the document of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs - the Preliminary
National Report on Health and Long-term Care in the Czech Republic. LTC is referred to as
“(…) a wide range of health and social activities to people who are no more self-sufficient –
either because of their age, disability or for any other serious reason – and thus require
constant assistance with self-service, personal hygiene, housework and providing links to
social environment” (MoLSA 2005). The philosophy of the LTC system is to provide care
within the family in a natural, home environment. The principles behind the design of LTC are
expressed as “accessibility”, “quality”, and “fiscal tenacity” and express EU policy in the field
(Potůček et al. 2006). This attitude is also underlined in the National Programme of
Preparation for Ageing 2008 – 2012, which is the most important strategic document
expressing the direction of the LTC policy. Family care is supported by the state in the form
of home care and home nursing care. As a result, the LTC system is targeted towards the
social activation of the elderly and disabled. Nowadays, it is estimated that approximately
80% of care to the elderly in need is provided by the family, mostly by children, but also
spouses (MoLSA 2005). Informal care within the family is estimated to last 4 to 5 years on
average. The results of the Eurobarometer survey show that the Czech population believes
that support by the family is the best way to provide assistance to the elderly who need
support due to poor physical or mental condition. 66% of the survey respondents indicated
that the elderly should be provided with help by a family member who either lives in the same
household or visits the person in need and provides care on a regular basis (European
Commission 2007). Another important aspect of the LTC provision is institutional care, which
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is partly provided within the health care system (in hospital departments or aftercare,
rehabilitation and LTC departments) and partly within the social services system (in
pensioners’ homes).
It should be underlined that while some steps towards integrating care have been taken, the
provision and funding of LTC is still separated into two sectors: health care, which is under
the supervision of the Ministry of Health (MoH), and social services, which is supervised by
the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (MoLSA). The most important legal regulations with
respect to the provision and funding of LTC services, either institutional or home-based,
include:
6
· In the health sector:
- The General Health Insurance Act (1991, last amendment 1997), the
Act on the General Health Insurance Funds (1992) and the Act on
Departmental, Professional, Corporate, and Other Health Insurance
Funds (1992) introducing health insurance for health services,
including aftercare and LTC provided within the health sector,
- The Law on private health care facilities (1992) that provides
regulations for the existence of hospitals, out-patient, LTC and home
health care services,
· In the social sector:
- The Law on Social Services (2006) that regulates provision of home
care, access to cash benefits for individuals with limitations in activities
of daily living (ADL) and different types of residential care, including
care for seniors. The new regulations were introduced in January
2007, while the provision of social services was previously regulated
by the law of 1988. The new legal regulations anchored in law the
services that had been in practice since 2001 (Potůček et al. 2006).
Additionally, the responsibilities of regional and local governments with respect to LTC are
regulated by the law on the decentralization of public administration which was introduced in
2003. According to the law, regional and local governments are responsible for the
ownership of emergency units, institutions of LTC and approximately half of hospitals
(Bryndová et al. 2009).
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1.2. Assessment of needs
Czech citizens have a right to services in the case of poor health and limitations in their daily
activities. The right is guaranteed by the state and available in the health care system as well
as in the social services system.
Health care services are available for all citizens and eligibility is based on their health
insurance coverage. The provision of care is conditional on the need and severity of the
illness, as assessed by the medical doctor. Medical services include long term institutional
services for the severely ill who need constant medical supervision and treatment as well as
home health services, which are recommended and supervised by a primary care doctor.
Eligibility for social services is based on citizenship while the need for social services is
assessed by a social worker. This holds for institutional care provided in pensioners’ homes
and daily and weekly care centers as well as for home based services. The only exception is
cash benefits, which are provided to individuals with limitations in ADL that have been
confirmed by a medical doctor’s examination. The care allowance is granted to any person
who is not self-sufficient and is dependent on the assistance of another person in the area of
personal care and basic social activities. Specifically, eligibility criteria for cash allowances
for an individual in need of personal care (often family care) are based on the concept of the
limitation in ADL. The Social Services Act of March 14th 2006 (Act No 108/2006 Coll. on
Social Services) links the admittance of a benefit and benefit level with the level of
dependency, which is a result of limitations in ADL. Four levels of dependency are
distinguished:
· (1) light dependency on assistance in ADL performance - not being able to perform
12 activities from the list of 36 for adults over 18 years of age, and not being able to
perform 5 activities of daily living for children below 18 years of age,
· (2) medium dependency on assistance in ADL performance – not being able to
perform 18 activities from the list of 36 for adults over 18 years of age, and not being
able to perform 10 activities of daily living for children below 18 years of age,
· (3) heavy dependency on assistance in ADL performance – not being able to perform
24 activities from the list of 36 for adults over 18 years of age, and not being able to
perform 15 activities of daily living for children below 18 years of age,
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· (4) very heavy dependency on assistance in ADL performance – not being able to
perform 30 activities from the list of 36 for adults over 19 years of age, and not being
able to perform 20 activities of daily living for children below 18 years of age.
In order to be eligible for cash assistance, the person in need should submit an application
for a care allowance, which includes all the compulsory information (i.e. personal data,
information on the care provider, and the manner in which allowance should be paid). The
degree of dependency is assessed by a social worker together with a social investigation into
the social environment of the applicant. This is later confirmed by the labour office’s medical
doctor. Finally, a municipal authority decides if the applicant should be granted a care
allowance (MoLSA 2009). It should be noted that before the introduction of the new legal
regulations in 2007, the benefit in cash, called social welfare allowance, was provided to
persons taking care of the dependent in need (typically a family member) (Act no. 100/1988
Coll. on Social Security as amended).
1.3. Available LTC services
LTC services are provided within two parts of the social security system: the health care
system and the social services system. The first one concentrates on the LTC services for
the disabled and long term ill and the second one concentrates on services provided to
dependant and vulnerable people, among whom are also the elderly.
Table 1. Organization of institutional and home based care
Type of social security Home based care
8
system
Institutional care settings
In cash In kind
Health care system Aftercare (rehabilitation and
nursing) in the hospital
departments’
LTC homes (LDN)
-- Home nursing
care
Social services Pensioners’ homes
Day/week care centers
Benefits in
cash to the
individual in
need of
assistance due
to reduced self-sufficiency
Personal
assistance and
community care
at home (meals,
shopping,
washing, etc.).
Source: own compilation
The health care system provides institutional LTC facilities in the form of aftercare in
hospital departments and specialized medical institutions (after care covers nursing and
10. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
rehabilitation services) and in LTC facilities (so called LTC homes – LDN) which are located
by the public hospitals or managed by private institutions. Still, expensive hospital services
were believed to be overused by clients with LTC illnesses, in response to which per diem
fees were introduced in 2008 (of 2.40 euro). The goal of the policy was to move LTC patients
from hospitals to LTC institutions that typically provide nursing and rehabilitation to the
disabled and to individuals with serious long term illnesses.
Another form of residential services, settled within the social system, are pensioners’
homes, which provide care to the elderly who having suffered a permanent change in their
health condition and cannot be self-sufficient and require comprehensive care. This type of
care is intended for individuals whose capabilities are limited, particularly in the areas of
personal and household care and for whom home care, either formal (home-based) or
informal, cannot be provided or is not sufficient. Still, the health status of the pensioners
admitted to pensioners’ homes is relatively better than patients in the LTC homes. The
services of pensioners homes are not restricted in time.
In addition to residential care in pensioners homes, the system of social services includes
daily and weekly care centres. This type of care is also intended for individuals with limited
capabilities in the area of personal and household care and who cannot live without
assistance on a daily basis. The Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs plans to develop and
promote this type of institutional care.
Home based care is provided by nursing staff in the health care system and in cooperation
with the primary care doctor as well as within the system of social services covering services
in kind and cash benefits.
Services in-kind include personal assistance and community care to individuals whose
capabilities are limited due to age, disability or chronic illness. Personal assistance is
provided to the clients of social services in their home environments and includes shopping,
meal preparation, washing, paying bills, taking medicines, etc. The service is provided
without a time limitation and depends upon individual requests. Community care services are
a very similar field-based type of care, though they are provided within a given timeframe.
Benefits in cash are granted to individuals who are provided with personal, full time care by
a close person, typically a family member. As mentioned above, prior to 2007, benefits were
provided to the persons who provided assistance. After the social services reform of 2006,
the individual in need became the one who receives the allowance. Despite the fact that the
benefit is not targeted towards the elderly, 67% of recipients of benefits in cash are aged 65+
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11. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
(Wija 2008) while 57% constitute older seniors (75+) (MoLSA 2009). The allowance takes the
form of a personal budget benefit and can be used to cover the costs of arranging assistance
for the dependent, to pay for care provided within social services, or to pay costs incurred by
the caretaker. It is also possible that all the costs are combined at the individual level. A care
allowance is not treated as income for tax purposes or other social benefit system purposes.
Overall, it is estimated that the total cost of care allowances is approximately 650 million euro
annually (i.e. 0.5 % of the GDP) (MoLSA 2009).
1.4. Management and organization
Residential LTC homes are within the competencies of hospitals, their managers, regional
and local governments and finally the Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Health, together with
the health insurance institutions, is responsible for control over the quality of services as well
as long term policy in the sector.
The organization of the system of social services, both institutional and home care, lies within
the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, however the services
themselves are provided at the local level. With respect to social services, the Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs is responsible for policy decisions, budgetary negotiations,
monitoring and control of system performance, introduction of the information system and
data collection. Additionally, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs manages five
specialized social care institutions, however these are not targeted towards assistance to
elderly, but the long term ill, mentally handicapped, physically disabled and children.
Regional and local governments play a major role in the organization and provision of cash
benefits and social services. They are responsible for the process of assessment of needs,
monitoring and control, and provision of services or contracting out social services to service
providers.
Table 2. Division of responsibilities between the Ministries and local self-governments
10
Ministry of Health and Ministry of Labour and
Social Affairs
Regional and local self-governments
Legislative initiative and policy disposal Assessment of needs
Assurance of funding (in case of the LDN homes,
funding is provided by the health insurance)
Contracting and providing services
License, accreditation, quality standards Monitoring and control
Source: own compilation
Important providers of social services are non-governmental and non-profit organizations
(see figure below), which sign service contracts with local governments on the one hand and
social service clients on the other hand. The participation of the non-profit sector in the
12. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
provision of services is anchored in the new law (Act No 108/2006 Coll. on Social Services).
Still, problems related to the operation of NGOs in the field of social services are reported
with respect to funding procedures. Services provided by NGOs are contracted and funded
on an annual basis, which means that NGOs are obliged to compete for contracts every
year. Moreover, delays in transfers of contracted funds have been reported (Holmerová
2004).
11
Figure 1. Providers of social services
Reg.authority
NGO
38%
19%
Private
3%
Municipality
40%
Source: Wija 2008
The quality of services is supervised within the health care system and social services
systems separately. Provision of health care services reimbursed from the health insurance
fund is monitored and controlled by the respective health insurance company. Also hospitals
and LTC homes receive accreditation from the Ministry of Health stating that they fulfill
quality standards.
The system of monitoring and control of social services (National Quality Standards of Social
Services), although anchored in the social services law and supported by the Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs, is not highly regulated. The provision of high quality social
services can be monitored by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, regional
governments, municipalities and labour offices as stated in the Social Services Act of 2006.
Ministry of Labour and Social Services has indeed proposed social care quality standards,
however they are rather general recommendations for the social care providers. They should
be further transformed into more specific quality standards by the providers themselves. Still,
this is a vague procedure. According to the Ministerial standards, the main institutions
13. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
responsible for the monitoring and control are municipalities and regional governments as
they are legally responsible for the creation of a system of social care services and assuring
funding (Holmerová 2004). MoLSA has also prepared a Report on Social Quality Standards,
concentrating on two core activities: training quality control officers in the field of social
services, and training guides in best practices (Potůček et al. 2006). It also provides
examples of good practices that can serve as benchmarks in provision of high quality social
services.
Still, the media often provide examples of under provision of care and claim there is a need
for stricter regulation with respect to quality control in the entire LTC system.
1.5. Integration of LTC
12
Within the LTC system
The level of integration of LTC services from the clients’ perspective was low before the
introduction of the Social Services Act of 2006 (Bryndová et al. 2009). Before 2007, as
eligibility criteria as well as financing procedures for institutional and home based care were
different, there were no benefits which clients of both systems could be eligible for
simultaneously. The reform introduced the possibility of combining financing of both systems,
i.e. giving a cash benefit to the client for the usage of services and he/she can decide
independently. Thus the benefit can be used for the provision of medical or rehabilitative
services or long term institutional care. At the same time, home care agencies, which
typically employ nurses, can contract the provision of home health services with health
insurance funds. As a result, comprehensive home care for some medical services
(rehabilitation, nursing) are provided in the home environment and at the pensioners’ homes,
though the system suffers from a lack of adequately educated staff.
Between the health care and social services sector
As mentioned in the summary above, the system is not united between the health care
system and social services. This is apparent when the administration and funding of LTC
services are considered: part of the system is within the competencies and management of
the Ministry of Health and part is within the competencies and management of the Ministry of
Labour and Social affairs. The problem holds especially for institutional care, monitoring and
control of the system as well as planning and LTC strategy. Each of the Ministries develops
different measures for long term policy. Additionally, professional societies (i.e. Gerontology
14. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
Centre) have their own LTC policy proposals. Thus a discussion between different
stakeholders in the LTC is a necessity.
Another problem is the data collection on the LTC. Since the system is not integrated, data, if
it is collected, is also dispersed. Integrated financial data on the LTC system are available
only in the structure of the National Health Accounts. Public data on the volume of services
cover social services, especially pensioners’ homes, while other types of data are difficult to
gather.
13
2. Funding
There are two types of funding, which are separate for the LTC homes (LDN) and separate
for social services (which includes pensioners’ homes).
Medical services provided in the hospitals and LTC homes for individuals with advanced
illnesses (LDN) are financed from the health insurance funds. Until 2008, when co-payments
for the medical services in outpatient and hospital care were introduced, any type of out of
pocket payment for services was illegal.
The LTC services organized by the social services sector are funded from general taxes, and
further administered from the social budgets of regions and municipalities, client
contributions, territorial self-governing authorities and the funds from the public health
insurance. Regions, after receiving state contributions for social services, decide
autonomously on the allocation of resources which typically includes decisions on the
allocation of costs per bed in the residential care and total costs of home based social
services. Still, the main sources of funding are client contributions (35% of the total costs of
social services), followed by the state budget (30% of total costs), and local authorities
(25%). Health insurance only plays a minor role (3%) (MoLSA 2009). Clients of social
services are obliged to participate in the costs of the service in the form of co-payment. The
ceiling for the co-payment for home care services was set by the Social Services Act of 2006
which states that the amount of co-payment should not exceed 85% of the individual’s
income. Specific costs of services are decided in the contract with the service provider. This
regulation holds for home care as well as residential and day care.
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3. Demand and supply
3.1. The need for LTC (including demographic characteristics)
Evaluations done by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Health or the
Czech Statistical Office do not specify the need for LTC. However, the necessity of
assessing the needs of the elderly has been stated by policy makers, which resulted in the
establishment of the Governmental Council for Older Persons and Population Ageing in
2006. The objective of the Council is to recognize the needs of an ageing population and
prepare an adequate policy response to ageing. The Council consists of 28 representatives
of the Ministries, health insurance companies, NGOs, social partners and experts. Current
estimates of the potential need are based either on survey data or demographic data and
projection.
Results of the Eurobarometer survey indicated that approximately 24% of the Czech
population reported being severely limited in the activities they normally perform within the
period of 6 months preceding the survey. They attributed these limitations to either poor
physical or mental condition (European Commission 2007).
Another estimation of the potential need for LTC is possible thanks to the demographic data
and projections. In 2007, elderly above 65 years of age constituted 14.4% of the total
population. Naturally, the proportion of elderly in the population was significantly higher for
women than for men (17.10% compared to 11.6%), which reflects the demographic
composition of the elderly cohorts and mortality. It is foreseen that the proportion of elderly in
the total population will more than double in 50 years time, while the share of the very old
(80+) will increase by over 3 times.
Table 3. Projections of selected demographic indicators, 2008-2060
2007/2008 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060
Life expectancy at
age 65, males
14.7 15.0 16.2 17.4 18.6 19.7 20.8
Life expectancy at
age 65, females
18.1 18.3 19.5 20.7 21.9 23.0 24.1
Population 65+ as
a share of the total
population
14.4 15.4 20.2 22.9 26.3 30.9 33.4
Population 80+ as
a share of the total
population
3.3 3.8 4.1 6.6 8.4 9.3 13.4
Old are
dependency ratio
20.0 22.0 31.0 36.0 43.0 55.0 61.0
Source: European Commission, 2009 Ageing report
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The old age dependency ratio1, which is a significant indicator of demographic pressures
reflecting the future possibilities of financing of pensions and LTC, was 22.2% in 2007.
According to the Eurostat estimations, it is foreseen to grow to the level of 35.7% by 2030.
By 2060, the indicator of the elderly to the labour market active population is projected to be
higher than 60%.
3.2. The role of informal and formal care in the LTC system
(including the role of cash benefits)
Overall, the system of LTC is targeted towards community based services. Similarly to other
countries in the region, the provision of family care is very high. According to the Ministry of
Labour and Social Affairs estimates, approximately 80% of care is provided at home by the
spouse or children of a person in need. Also both the reform of 2006 and the National
Programme of Preparation for Ageing 2008-2012 promote community based care, which
implies supporting active ageing on the one hand and informal family care on the other.
Home care and cash benefits are viewed as a crucial means for support of family care.
3.3. Demand and supply of informal care
According to the results of the Eurofamcare project, there is no systematic research on the
demand and supply of informal care for the elderly and chronically ill in the Czech Republic
(Holmerová 2004). It is estimated that approximately 80% of care is provided by the family,
mainly spouses, children and other relatives. This translates into approximately 100,000
elderly who need assistance in basic activities of daily living and 300,000 elderly who are not
able to perform instrumental activities of daily living. Assuming that every elderly person is
provided with help by at least one person means that there are about 400 – 500,000 informal
care providers in the Czech Republic. These are mostly women (63%) of working age, most
of whom (80%) have a regular full time job. There is no research that would allow for stating
the source of income of the care providers, and it should be also assumed that the type and
level of income depends on the severity of need for assistance in daily living. However,
caretakers were eligible for the caretaker’s allowance, which, after the reform of 2006, was
transformed into a benefit provided to the elderly in need (with limited ADL).
Results of the Eurobarometer survey confirm that informal care is perceived as the most
important type of care. 36% of respondents asked about the type of care they think would be
the best option for care of their elderly pointed that dependent elderly should live with one of
1 Which is estimated as a ratio of elderly (65+) to the labour market active population (20-64 years of age).
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17. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
their children while only 13% claimed that the elderly should be taken care of at an LTC
institution (European Commission 2007).
3.4. Demand and supply of formal care
16
3.4.1. Introduction
The demand for LTC depends on demographic pressures (which are foreseen to grow over
the next decades), labour market activity, and the possibilities of combining care provision
and traditions in a given country. On the other hand, the supply of formal care is strongly
dependent on political objectives and funding opportunities.
3.4.2. Institutional care
Residential care, as provided in the health and social sector separately, is also presented
separately based on the statistical data of the health sector and the Ministry of Labour and
Social Affairs.
The number of LTC institutions for severely ill has been stable over the last decade, with a
peak of 80 institutions all over the country in 2002, dropping to 70 in 2008. Despite
stabilization in the number of facilities, the number of beds grew by 16%. Additionally, the
number of staff working at LTC homes increased by 77% for doctors and 20% for
paramedical employees.
Table 4. LTC homes (LDN) 1996 – 2008
Items 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
LTC homes 71 74 75 80 73 74 70
Beds 6151 5996 6713 7438 7272 7462 7194
Physicians
212 207 229 265 282 329 375
(FTE)
Professionally
qualified
paramedical
workers
(FTE)
1681 1700 1918 2242 2978 2098 2010
Source: Czech Health Statistics Yearbooks 1996 - 2008
The number of residential homes for pensioners within the social services system is much
higher. According to the Czech Statistical Office, at the end of 2006 there were 390
18. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
pensioners’ homes, with an average occupancy rate of 97.1%2. It should be noted however,
that already in 2005, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs pointed out that the number of
facilities was insufficient and that waiting times for the pensioners’ homes differed between
regions from several months to several years (MoLSA 2005). Studies have also found that
the supply of care is unequal between urban and rural areas, and access to care is easier in
urban settings (Potůček 2006). The data from the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs gives
a good picture of the scale of the problem – in 2003 there were 378 pensioners’ homes with
39,331 beds while 50,192 applications were rejected (MoLSA 2005). Another problem
mentioned by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs is the quality of services, especially
the lack of adequate nursing and rehabilitation services and the need for the modernization
of outdated facilities. Developing daily and weekly care centers has been identified as a
measure to cope with the above problems.
Despite the fact that the number of full-time elderly homes has been increasing over the last
decade, it is still highly insufficient resulting in long waitlists. Also the demand for institutional
care for people who do not have long term illnesses and are not in terminal conditions is
increasing much faster than the number of beds in the pensioners’ homes. In 2003, the
number of individuals whose applications for a place in retirement homes were rejected was
128% of the number of available beds.
Table 5. Pensioners’ homes facilities 1996- 2006
Pensioners’ homes 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Number of facilities 303 320* 343** 360*** 376 390
Number of beds 33779 35218 36662 37686 37867 38672
Number of rejected applicants 21609 25431 28784 33222 - -
* 4 facilities combining the pensioners’ home and boarding home are included
** 5 facilities combining the pensioners’ home and boarding home are included
*** 6 facilities combining the pensioners’ home and boarding home are included
Source: MoLSA 2005, Czech Statistical Yearbooks 2005, 2007
2 http://www.czso.cz/csu/2007edicniplan.nsf/engt/FE003FE442/$File/0001072414.xls
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3.4.3. Home care
There are two types of care provided to the elderly in need in the home environment: home
care and home nursing care. Home care includes personal assistance services and
community care in daily activities, such as clothing, washing, shopping, transport or meals on
wheels. Home nursing care, which is an integrated form of home health and assistance
provided in the home, was introduced in the Czech Republic in the 1990s. (Rokosová, Havá
2005). It is an element of outpatient care and takes the form of nursing or rehabilitation3
provided with the consultancy and cooperation of a primary care doctor. Both types of care
are typically integrated in the one provider institution as they are provided by the home care
agencies, the number of which increased throughout the 1990s (from 27 in 1991 to 484 in
1998). Typically the staff of the home care and home nursing care are nurses and volunteers
(Potůček at el. 2006). Most of the home care agencies are private or non-profit organizations
(Holmerová 2004). It is estimated that 58% of home care agencies also provide care during
nights and weekends, 22% during weekends and 20% in the afternoons. Still, some
problems are reported with respect to cooperation with general practitioners. Another
problem is caused by the unequal regional distribution of home health care agencies (Wija
2008).
Table 6. Basic home care statistics 2000 – 2007
Items 2000 2004 2005 2006 2007*
Persons who received home care
services 113 528 109 475 112 927 105 088 95 520
Home care service workers 4 793 4 355 4 265 4 106 4 491
Professional
nurses 4 139 3 700 including 3 585 3 511 3 810
Others 654 655 680 595 681
Home care service volunteers 967 652 556 450 304
*Preliminary
Source: Czech Statistical Yearbook 2008
It is estimated that a total of 7,000 clients received personal care from the social services
centers in 2008 at the total cost of 15 million euro (out of which 3 million were paid by the
clients). Further, approximately 115,000 clients received community care in 2008 at a total
3 Typical activities provided by home care agencies include taking blood, measuring blood pressure, and
assistance in taking medicines.
20. CASE Network Studies & Analyses No. 415 – The System of Long-Term Care in the Czech…
cost of 70 million euro (out of which 16 million were paid by the clients) (MoLSA 2009). The
data cover not only elderly, but the whole population of care recipients; however, it is
estimated that the elderly constitute about 75% of the home care recipients’ population.
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3.4.4. Semi-institutional care
Semi institutional care is provided at the daily and weekly care homes, which were legally
approved as part of social services with the Social Services Act of 2006, although they
existed earlier as boarding homes for the elderly. Still, daily and weekly centres for seniors
operate only in a few communities thus their number is considered to be insufficient. They
provide day care or care during the week, which mainly consists of the provision of meals
and involving the elderly in specific programmes stimulating social participation. According to
the Social Security Act, daily and weekly care centers should also provide care when the
person who typically takes care of the elderly person is away for several days. Overall, these
centers are thought to be an important source of support for informal care providers, though
they are criticized for not always being able to provide adequate care or a sufficient number
of activities. In recent years, several additional centers for individuals with dementia were
opened, offering assistance and in some cases also transport.
Typically, the centers are open for more than 8 hours a day. Nevertheless, the supply of part
time care is insufficient. Although the number of day care centers increased by 16% between
1995 and 2003, the number of rejected applicants more than doubled. In fact, the number of
rejected applicants was more than twice the number of available beds in the day care
centers in 2003 (Table 8).
Table 7. Boarding homes for pensioners 1995-2003
Boarding homes for pensioners 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Number of facilities 124 146 148 150 144
Number of beds 11549 12593 12126 12432 11487
Number of rejected applicants 12364 17612 19678 22148 25389
Source: MoLSA 2005
The latest data (2008) show that the services at the day care centers were provided to
36,000 clients, while a further 1,300 clients used the services of weekly care centers. The
cost of the services was 26.5 million euro for the day care centers and 9.3 million euro for the
weekly care centers. Client contributions were 3.5 million and 2.2 million, respectively
(MoLSA 2009).
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4. LTC policy
4.1. Policy goals
The LTC system in the Czech Republic is oriented towards shifting from an institutional care
system to ageing in a home-like-environment. Thus the policy puts pressure on the
development of easily accessible social services at the local level, especially non-residential
services and provides incentives and support (care allowance) for families to take care of
their elderly close ones. The strategy is in line with the fact that most of the care for the
elderly is provided at home. However, most informal care providers work (according to the
MoLSA, 80% of them have a full-time job). Thus a decision upon informal care is strongly
dependent on the flexibility of a caretaker’s job. Some survey research show that the Czech
expect the state to provide appropriate care for the elderly, which is the second priority of the
population, after the provision of adequate health care.
The long term policy of the Czech government towards ageing and, partially, LTC is reflected
in the National Programme of Preparation for Ageing 2008-2012. It was prepared and
approved by the government in January 2008 and is monitored by the Governmental Council
for Older Persons and Population Ageing. Strategic priorities set up in the document include
the promotion of active ageing in a friendly community environment, improving the health of
older persons, improving available social services, supporting family and caretakers,
supporting social inclusion of the elderly and protecting their human rights (Wija 2008).
4.2. Integration policy
At the current moment, no administrative integration policy between facilities located in the
health care system and home care is foreseen either by the Ministry of Labour and Social
Affairs or by the Ministry of Health. However some policy proposals made by professional
organizations, such as the Geriatric society, concentrate on the creation of an integrated
system of institutional care for the elderly and long term ill, covering appropriate nursing and
rehabilitation. At the central administration level, integration is assured by the introduction of
the Governmental Council for the Elderly. The Council was created in order to enable
discussion on the issues related to assuring care for the increasing numbers of elderly
among all the stakeholders (Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Ministry of Health, NGOs,
other social organizations and professional associations).
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4.3. Recent reforms and the current debate
The last reform of the social system, which included LTC services, was conducted in 2006
and took social services into consideration. The need for reform was pronounced by experts
who found previous legal regulations of 1988 inadequate to the changing social situation.
Still, most of the services targeted towards assistance to the elderly that are provided in the
new social services system were also provided before the reform. These include personal
and nursing services, pensioners’ houses, and day care centers (previously also called
boarding houses for pensioners). The reform introduced a care allowance provided to the
individual in need while previously it was provided to the care provider. The social services
system also strongly encourages the involvement of non-governmental organizations in the
services’ provision. The problems that the system faces currently and that are under public
discussion (also by media) include:
- lack of legal definition of the LTC, regulation of types of services,
- lack of adequate quality control by the ministries, regional governments, local
governments and health insurance funds, especially of privately run LTC facilities,
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- low levels of LTC funding,
- insufficient number of qualified staff, especially nurses,
- low salaries of nurses, rehabilitants and other qualified staff,
- waiting times for LTC homes (estimated as up to 1 month) and pensioners’ homes
(up to several years).
LTC goals identified by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs include the reduction of
chronic diseases and other factors that impact functional health status, increased availability
of rehabilitative services and community health care, more support for social mobility and
social participation of the elderly, deinstitutionalization of social services and improved
integration of health care and social services (Wija 2008).
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4.4. Critical appraisal of the LTC system
Although the importance of the LTC system is growing, which is reflected in the vivid public
discussion on the provision of services and the problems that the system faces, it is still
disintegrated on the side of the health care system and social security. The most important
problem seems to be the lack of an integrated national strategy of LTC and, as a result of
statement above, no common definition of LTC. The structure of the institutional arrangement
is not transparent, with some of the LTC institutions located in the health care system and
some in social services. The pressure on home based care, which is often expressed in the
documents of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, will not be successful without
appropriate labour market measures such as employment flexibility, especially when most of
the informal care givers are active members of the labor market, who work full time.
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