This document summarizes a study that analyzed heat vulnerability in three Denver neighborhoods - Globeville, Elyria-Swansea, and Commerce City - using geographic information systems (GIS). The study found that these neighborhoods are disproportionately affected by extreme heat due to factors in the built environment like large urban heat islands, sparse tree canopy in residential areas, and a lack of weatherized homes. Recommendations include developing plans to address these issues in climate adaptation, emergency response, and community development plans.
Global climate change affects human health most notably by increasing the frequency and intensity of dangerous heat waves, wildfires and hurricanes. In addition to extreme weather events, climate change can also lead to a myriad of persistent environmental changes that impact public health. Health impact assessment refers to the analytic framework for evaluating how a policy or program affects population health. It is frequently applied in climate and public health research to quantify future health and economic burdens attributable to various consequences of climate change.
Performing health impact assessment entails the integration of various data. For projecting future climate-related health impacts, analyses require three sources of information: (1) health effects of environmental exposures, (2) projections of future exposures, and (3) distributions of exposures and effects in the future population. Each information source is subject to uncertainty because of data availability and assumptions made for the future. Climate research is highly interdisciplinary, bringing together tremendous amount of data, theory, and modeling efforts to provide timely knowledge for one of the most pressing issues of our time. Statistical modeling techniques and probabilistic reasoning can plan an important role in ensuring these findings are informative, accurate, and reproducible.
This presentation will discuss recent development in statistical methods for quantifying health impacts of climate change, as well as related open problems in environmental epidemiology and exposure assessment.
Evidence suggests that exposure to elevated concentrations of air pollution during pregnancy may increase risks of birth defects and other adverse birth outcomes. While current regulations put limits on total PM2.5 concentrations, there are many speciated pollutants within this size class that likely have distinct effects on perinatal health. However, due to correlations between these speciated pollutants it can be difficult to decipher their effects in a model for birth outcomes. To combat this difficulty we develop a new multivariate spatio-temporal Bayesian model for speciated particulate matter using dynamic spatial factors. These spatial factors can then be interpolated to the pregnant women’s homes to be used in a birth outcomes model. The model for birth outcomes allows the impact of pollutants to vary across different weeks of the pregnancy in order to identify susceptible periods. The proposed innovative methodology is implemented using pollutant monitoring data from the Environmental Protection Agency and birth records from the National Birth Defect Prevention Study.
Work in collaboration with Kimberly Kaufeld, Brian Reich, Amy Herring, Gary Shaw and Maria Terres.
This study focuses on exploring the relationship between experience of climate change (flooding) and response to climate change amongst farmers in Gloucestershire. Findings from a postal survey with farmers, and follow up interviews are discussed and conclusions offered.
Climate change could have far-reaching consequences for human health across the 21st century. At the same time, development choices will alter underlying vulnerability to these risks, affecting the magnitude and pattern of impacts. The current and projected human health risks of climate change are diverse and wide-ranging, potentially altering the burden of any health outcome sensitive to weather or climate. Climate variability and change can affect morbidity and mortality from extreme weather and climate events, and from changes in air quality arising from changing concentrations of ozone, particulate matter, or aeroallergens. Altering weather patterns and sea level rise also may facilitate changes in the geographic range, seasonality, and incidence of selected infectious diseases in some regions, such as malaria moving into highland areas in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Changes in water availability and agricultural productivity could affect undernutrition, particularly in parts of Asia and Africa. These risks are not independent, but will interact in complex ways with risks in other sectors. Policies and programs need to explicitly take climate change into account to facilitate sustainable and resilient societies that effectively prepare for, manage, and recover from climate-related hazards.
Global climate change affects human health most notably by increasing the frequency and intensity of dangerous heat waves, wildfires and hurricanes. In addition to extreme weather events, climate change can also lead to a myriad of persistent environmental changes that impact public health. Health impact assessment refers to the analytic framework for evaluating how a policy or program affects population health. It is frequently applied in climate and public health research to quantify future health and economic burdens attributable to various consequences of climate change.
Performing health impact assessment entails the integration of various data. For projecting future climate-related health impacts, analyses require three sources of information: (1) health effects of environmental exposures, (2) projections of future exposures, and (3) distributions of exposures and effects in the future population. Each information source is subject to uncertainty because of data availability and assumptions made for the future. Climate research is highly interdisciplinary, bringing together tremendous amount of data, theory, and modeling efforts to provide timely knowledge for one of the most pressing issues of our time. Statistical modeling techniques and probabilistic reasoning can plan an important role in ensuring these findings are informative, accurate, and reproducible.
This presentation will discuss recent development in statistical methods for quantifying health impacts of climate change, as well as related open problems in environmental epidemiology and exposure assessment.
Evidence suggests that exposure to elevated concentrations of air pollution during pregnancy may increase risks of birth defects and other adverse birth outcomes. While current regulations put limits on total PM2.5 concentrations, there are many speciated pollutants within this size class that likely have distinct effects on perinatal health. However, due to correlations between these speciated pollutants it can be difficult to decipher their effects in a model for birth outcomes. To combat this difficulty we develop a new multivariate spatio-temporal Bayesian model for speciated particulate matter using dynamic spatial factors. These spatial factors can then be interpolated to the pregnant women’s homes to be used in a birth outcomes model. The model for birth outcomes allows the impact of pollutants to vary across different weeks of the pregnancy in order to identify susceptible periods. The proposed innovative methodology is implemented using pollutant monitoring data from the Environmental Protection Agency and birth records from the National Birth Defect Prevention Study.
Work in collaboration with Kimberly Kaufeld, Brian Reich, Amy Herring, Gary Shaw and Maria Terres.
This study focuses on exploring the relationship between experience of climate change (flooding) and response to climate change amongst farmers in Gloucestershire. Findings from a postal survey with farmers, and follow up interviews are discussed and conclusions offered.
Climate change could have far-reaching consequences for human health across the 21st century. At the same time, development choices will alter underlying vulnerability to these risks, affecting the magnitude and pattern of impacts. The current and projected human health risks of climate change are diverse and wide-ranging, potentially altering the burden of any health outcome sensitive to weather or climate. Climate variability and change can affect morbidity and mortality from extreme weather and climate events, and from changes in air quality arising from changing concentrations of ozone, particulate matter, or aeroallergens. Altering weather patterns and sea level rise also may facilitate changes in the geographic range, seasonality, and incidence of selected infectious diseases in some regions, such as malaria moving into highland areas in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Changes in water availability and agricultural productivity could affect undernutrition, particularly in parts of Asia and Africa. These risks are not independent, but will interact in complex ways with risks in other sectors. Policies and programs need to explicitly take climate change into account to facilitate sustainable and resilient societies that effectively prepare for, manage, and recover from climate-related hazards.
Unlocking the Climate Crisis: Explore urgent insights on climate change. Navigate through the latest data, impactful visuals, and innovative strategies to drive awareness and inspire positive change.
Behavioural Meetup: "Think global, act local? Public engagement with climate ...Prime Decision
Our spreaker for the February 2016 Behavioural Meetup in Bristol was Prof. Lorraine Whitemarsh from the University of Cardiff.
Despite scientific consensus about the reality and severity of climate change, the public appears to show relatively little concern about the issue and to be taking few actions to tackle it. In this talk, we will discuss what influences public perceptions and how they may be shaped by communication. Recent survey and interview data, and findings from psychological experiments will be used to expose the strong ideological and social influences on public attitudes to climate change. Research will also be presented on low-carbon lifestyles, along with insights into fostering behaviour change, including new research to achieve behavioural ‘spillover’ (i.e., when changing one behaviour leads to further behavioural changes).
Behavioural Meetup: Perceptions of and behavioural responses to climate change.Poppy Mulvaney PhD
Our February Behavioural Meetup featured Prof. Lorraine Whitmarsh from the University of Cardiff:
Despite scientific consensus about the reality and severity of climate change, the public appears to show relatively little concern about the issue and to be taking few actions to tackle it. In this talk, we will discuss what influences public perceptions and how they may be shaped by communication. Recent survey and interview data, and findings from psychological experiments will be used to expose the strong ideological and social influences on public attitudes to climate change. Research will also be presented on low-carbon lifestyles, along with insights into fostering behaviour change, including new research to achieve behavioural ‘spillover’ (i.e., when changing one behaviour leads to further behavioural changes).
City of Cambridge Climate Change Preparedness & Resilience Planning - A Model...JSI
APHA Presentation - Best Practices of Policy Initiatives at the Local & Community Level to Address Climate Impacts.
A collaborative project with the City of Cambridge, JSI Research & Training Institute, Inc. and Kleinfelder, Inc.
Already exacerbating conditions such as asthma and heat-related mortality, climate change is a growing threat to public health that each community must confront. The City of Cambridge, MA is among the first in the nation to comprehensively plan and prepare strategic public health responses, with a focus on equity to avert intensifying health disparities. This session will review the approach taken by the City that can be replicated, starting with having conducted a thorough 2015 Cambridge Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment. The Assessment identified inequities in flood-related risks, heat exposures, and access to critical resources that varied by neighborhood and demographic risk factors. Cohorts with greater physical or mental health vulnerability were identified by several parameters. Socioeconomically disadvantaged groups, the elderly (particularly the elderly living alone) and people with who reported speak English less than very well experience impacts of heat and flooding that can be two to four times greater than people without these characteristics.
A literature review highlighted potential risk mitigation strategies. These were reviewed to identify existing capacity and gaps by a Stakeholder Workgroup comprised of health/public health institutions, medical suppliers, emergency responders, utility representatives, and those representing or serving vulnerable populations including elder service agencies, low-income housing organizations, and environmental justice advocates. Prioritized actions were incorporated into a Climate Change Preparedness and Resiliency Plan. They include: 1) Addressing transportation/accessibility disruptions. 2) Protecting critical healthcare capacity and access, maintaining access to essential medications. 3) Limiting the consequences of utility service failures during extreme weather-related events such as extreme heat, extreme cold, and/or flooding from storm surges and/or intense precipitation events. 4) Reducing long-term flooding and heat islands risks; and protecting indoor environments (especially basement apartments and senior housing). Employing a social/ecological framework, of central importance is supporting resident leadership to build social cohesion and address social determinants for individual, family, and neighborhood preparedness, using participation and other process indicators to monitor and evaluate engagement and readiness over time. We will discuss progress on resident engagement and the cross-sectoral collaborative efforts that have been launched as a result.
Climate Change as an Entrepreneurial Challenge: A virtual talk for the St. L...Jonathan Koomey
In this talk I explain why climate change is the biggest challenge humanity has ever faced, and describe the lessons for entrepreneurs that follow from our scientific knowledge about climate change. It focuses on "working forward toward a goal", a business oriented framing of the problem that will be familiar to any executive whose organization has had to understand and tackle a big problem. I gave this talk via Skype on July 27, 2014. It's similar to this one: http://www.slideshare.net/jgkoomey/koomeys-talk-at-clean-tech-open-sf-event-m
ASPHER's ambition in climate change and health educationJohn Middleton
A presentation for the launch of the ASPHER Climate change and health education EU Health Policy Platform network 202207 ASPHER middletonj climate change and health long version.pptx
Unlocking the Climate Crisis: Explore urgent insights on climate change. Navigate through the latest data, impactful visuals, and innovative strategies to drive awareness and inspire positive change.
Behavioural Meetup: "Think global, act local? Public engagement with climate ...Prime Decision
Our spreaker for the February 2016 Behavioural Meetup in Bristol was Prof. Lorraine Whitemarsh from the University of Cardiff.
Despite scientific consensus about the reality and severity of climate change, the public appears to show relatively little concern about the issue and to be taking few actions to tackle it. In this talk, we will discuss what influences public perceptions and how they may be shaped by communication. Recent survey and interview data, and findings from psychological experiments will be used to expose the strong ideological and social influences on public attitudes to climate change. Research will also be presented on low-carbon lifestyles, along with insights into fostering behaviour change, including new research to achieve behavioural ‘spillover’ (i.e., when changing one behaviour leads to further behavioural changes).
Behavioural Meetup: Perceptions of and behavioural responses to climate change.Poppy Mulvaney PhD
Our February Behavioural Meetup featured Prof. Lorraine Whitmarsh from the University of Cardiff:
Despite scientific consensus about the reality and severity of climate change, the public appears to show relatively little concern about the issue and to be taking few actions to tackle it. In this talk, we will discuss what influences public perceptions and how they may be shaped by communication. Recent survey and interview data, and findings from psychological experiments will be used to expose the strong ideological and social influences on public attitudes to climate change. Research will also be presented on low-carbon lifestyles, along with insights into fostering behaviour change, including new research to achieve behavioural ‘spillover’ (i.e., when changing one behaviour leads to further behavioural changes).
City of Cambridge Climate Change Preparedness & Resilience Planning - A Model...JSI
APHA Presentation - Best Practices of Policy Initiatives at the Local & Community Level to Address Climate Impacts.
A collaborative project with the City of Cambridge, JSI Research & Training Institute, Inc. and Kleinfelder, Inc.
Already exacerbating conditions such as asthma and heat-related mortality, climate change is a growing threat to public health that each community must confront. The City of Cambridge, MA is among the first in the nation to comprehensively plan and prepare strategic public health responses, with a focus on equity to avert intensifying health disparities. This session will review the approach taken by the City that can be replicated, starting with having conducted a thorough 2015 Cambridge Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment. The Assessment identified inequities in flood-related risks, heat exposures, and access to critical resources that varied by neighborhood and demographic risk factors. Cohorts with greater physical or mental health vulnerability were identified by several parameters. Socioeconomically disadvantaged groups, the elderly (particularly the elderly living alone) and people with who reported speak English less than very well experience impacts of heat and flooding that can be two to four times greater than people without these characteristics.
A literature review highlighted potential risk mitigation strategies. These were reviewed to identify existing capacity and gaps by a Stakeholder Workgroup comprised of health/public health institutions, medical suppliers, emergency responders, utility representatives, and those representing or serving vulnerable populations including elder service agencies, low-income housing organizations, and environmental justice advocates. Prioritized actions were incorporated into a Climate Change Preparedness and Resiliency Plan. They include: 1) Addressing transportation/accessibility disruptions. 2) Protecting critical healthcare capacity and access, maintaining access to essential medications. 3) Limiting the consequences of utility service failures during extreme weather-related events such as extreme heat, extreme cold, and/or flooding from storm surges and/or intense precipitation events. 4) Reducing long-term flooding and heat islands risks; and protecting indoor environments (especially basement apartments and senior housing). Employing a social/ecological framework, of central importance is supporting resident leadership to build social cohesion and address social determinants for individual, family, and neighborhood preparedness, using participation and other process indicators to monitor and evaluate engagement and readiness over time. We will discuss progress on resident engagement and the cross-sectoral collaborative efforts that have been launched as a result.
Climate Change as an Entrepreneurial Challenge: A virtual talk for the St. L...Jonathan Koomey
In this talk I explain why climate change is the biggest challenge humanity has ever faced, and describe the lessons for entrepreneurs that follow from our scientific knowledge about climate change. It focuses on "working forward toward a goal", a business oriented framing of the problem that will be familiar to any executive whose organization has had to understand and tackle a big problem. I gave this talk via Skype on July 27, 2014. It's similar to this one: http://www.slideshare.net/jgkoomey/koomeys-talk-at-clean-tech-open-sf-event-m
ASPHER's ambition in climate change and health educationJohn Middleton
A presentation for the launch of the ASPHER Climate change and health education EU Health Policy Platform network 202207 ASPHER middletonj climate change and health long version.pptx
1. Exploring the Impacts of Climate Change on
Public Health: AHeat VulnerabilityAnalysis of
Globeville, Elyria-Swansea, and Commerce City using
Geographic Information Systems
Katherine C. Vega
Master of Public Health, Colorado State University
1
3. Climate Change
• Extreme weather events more frequent and/or severe
around the world.
• From 2011 to 2013, the U.S. experienced 32 weather
events that each caused at least $1 billion in damages.
NOAA, 2013
3
6. Health Impacts of Extreme Heat
6
Worsened Asthma
Fainting
Heat Stroke
Headaches
7. Heat and the Built Environment
• Urban heat island effect
High pop.
density
Building
material that
retains heat
High rates of
heat related
morbidity and
mortality
Karl et al., 2010
8
9. Mission:
To bring about the sustained improvement of the physical
environment and promote health and well-being through
community-based partnerships and action.
Services Include:
• Installing attic insulation
• Tree plantings
• Bike Give-Aways
GWD, 2016
10
10. Project Objective
• Assess vulnerabilities to extreme heat events by
exploring factors in the built environment using
geographic information system (GIS) and key informant
interviews.
• Mixed-methods study
Focus Populations:
Globeville
Elyria-Swansea
Commerce City
11
11. Methods
Data Collection
• GIS Maps
• Variables:
Tree Canopy
Urban Heat Island Effect
Housing Stock
Median Household Income
% Below Poverty
Age Distribution
Crime Rates
12
16. Data Source: Tree Canopy Assessment 2013 – Block Groups
City Total Land
Cover Area
minus
Industrial
Land (sq.
km)
% Tree
Canopy of
Total Land
Cover minus
Industrial
Land
%
Grass
(of
Total
land
Cover)
% Bare
Soil (of
Total
land
Cover)
% Buildings
(of Total
land Cover)
% Impervious
Surfaces (of
Total Land
Cover)
% Roads
(of Total
Land
Cover)
% Water
(of Total
Land
Cover)
Globeville 5.12 10% 9% 4% 13% 46% 19% 0%
Elyria Swansea 3.07 17% 13% 4% 10% 40% 20% 2%
Cory-Merrill 3.95 29% 18% 2% 12% 25% 14% 0%
Commerce City 1.969 22% 20% 9% 10% 25% 16% 0%
Westwood 3.79 20% 21% 4% 10% 29% 17% 0%
Skyland 2.168 19% 41% 2% 7% 18% 13% 4%
Land Use Percentages
18
18. Conclusions
• Focus populations are disproportionately
affected by extreme heat events due to built
environment factors.
• Large areas of urban heat islands
• Sparse tree canopy in residential areas
• Lack of weatherized homes (Globeville and
Elyria-Swansea)
21
19. Next Steps
• Develop a Plan of Action to influence:
• Denver Climate Adaptation Plan
• Emergency Management Plans
• Hazard Mitigation Plans
• Comprehensive Plans
22
20. Limitations
• GIS data availability
• Incorrect data uploaded
• GIS software compatibility
• Unable to pilot test survey
23
22. References
• NOAA (2013). Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center.
• NOAA. (2015). State Annual and Seasonal Time Series. Retrieved April 25, 2016, from http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/temp-and-precip/state-temps/
• NOAA (2016). State of the Climate: Global Analysis for February 2016, published online March 2016, retrieved on April 25, 2016 from
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/gobal/201602
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015). Extreme Heat Prevention Guide. Retrieved from
http://www.bt.cdc.gov.hslezproxy.ucdenver.edu/disasters/extremeheat/heat_guide.asp.
• Champion V.L., & Skinner C.S. (2008). The Health Belief Model. In Health behavior and health education theory, research, and practice (4th ed., pp. 45-65).
San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
• Choudhary, E., & Vaidyanathan, A. (2014). Heat Stress Illness Hospitalizations-Environmental Public Health Tracking Program, 20 States, 2001–2010.
MMWR Surveillance Summaries 2014; 63(13), 1-10.
• Chowdhury, P.D., C. E. Haque & S.M. Driedger (2012) Public versus expert knowledge and perception of climate change-induced heat wave risk: a modified
mental model approach. Journal of Risk Research, 15:2, 149-168, DOI: 10.1080/13669877.2011.601319
• Merrill, C.T. (Thomson Reuters), Miller, M (Student), and Steiner, C. (AHRQ). (2008). Hospital Stays Resulting from Excessive Heat and Cold Exposure Due
to Weather Conditions in U.S. Community Hospitals, 2005. HCUP Statistical Brief #55. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD.
http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb55.pdf
• Karl, T.R., Melillo, J.M., and Peterson, T.C. (eds.) (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. Cambridge University Press, New York.
• McGeehin, M.A., & Mirabelli M. (2001). The potential impacts of climate variability and change on temperature-related morbidity and mortality in the United
States. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(Suppl 2), 185-189.
• Groundwork Denver. (2016). Mision and History. Retrieved April 25, 2016 from http://groundworkcolorado.org/about/mission-and-history/
• Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 330-349.
Images and Graphs
• https://www.sitstayread.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/denver.jpg
• http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110907/images/weathers450.jpg
• http://www.sciencecare.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Heat-Stroke.jpg
• https://www.doomandbloom.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/heat-stroke-1.jpg
• http://medicalxpress.com/news/2016-04-extreme-precipitation-linked-severe-asthma.html
• http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-common-causes-of-headache-and-weakness.htm#
• http://images.wisegeek.com/old-man.jpg
• https://casemed.case.edu/fammed/img/family_131902826.jpg
• http://cdn.grid.fotosearch.com/corbis/DGT096/42-18054184.jpg
• http://littlepeanutmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/SLP_PotteryBarnKids_SummerParty3.jpg
• https://www.thinglink.com/scene/756099807562432512
25
The winter global temperature was 2.03°F above the 20th century average. This was the hottest winter on record
The globally-averaged temperature across land surfaces was also the highest on record for December–February, 3.47°F above the 20th century average.
From 2011-2014, the U.S. has experienced increases in mean temperature of up to 2-4°F (NOAA, 2015)
This map shows average temp increase over a decade
- As you can see some states have experienced a 2-4 °F increase from the century average
In the U.S., extreme Heat is the is the most common cause of weather related human mortality (CDC, 2015).
Extreme heat caused 7,415 heat-related deaths in the United States from 1999 to 2010, killing more people than hurricanes, floods, tornadoes and lightning combined (CDC, 2015).
According to the Environ Public Health Tracking Reporting System, from 2001-2010, there were an est. 28,000 hospitalizations in 20 U.S. states (Choudhary & Vaidyanathan, 2014).
Heat-related morbidities include heat exhaustion, headaches, fainting, heat stroke, aggravated asthma/respiratory symptoms caused by sunlight and heat mixing with air pollutants to create harmful ozone.
In 2005 alone, hospitalizations cost $38.7 million with half of these costs billed to Medicare/Medicaid (Merrill et al., 2008).
LOWESS (locally weighted scatterplot smoothing)
Cities can be up to 10 degrees warmer than surrounding rural areas and can maintain warmer temperatures throughout the night.
Tall buildings reduce potentially cooling air flows.
Urban environments often lack trees and other vegetation that provide shade and increase cooling through evaporation.
(http://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/pubs/ClimateChangeandExtremeHeatEvents.pdf)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v532/n7599/full/nature17441.html
Cities less adapted to high temperatures and thus less prepared (McGeehin & Mirabelli, 2001).
Socially vulnerable populations
Lack access to resources
Do not speak English
Persons from lower SES
Physically vulnerable
Elderly experience a decline in cardiac output and capacity to redistribute blood to the skin thereby reducing the efficiency which heat can be dissipated.
These neighborhoods are the focus because they are exposed to diesel particulate emissions from the transportation corridors (I-25 and I-70) and 32% of residents live below the federal poverty level.
Predominately Spanish- speaking
Comparison neighborhoods were included to contrast with the high risk area.
Commerce Census tracts 08001008705, …06
A GIS incorporates data capturing hardware and software based on various geographic projections and coordinate systems.
GIS lets us visualize, question, analyze, and interpret data to understand relationships, patterns, and trends. This helps us to better understand situations and tell a story about the area we are mapping.
Mapping data also allows us to test new hypotheses that might not have been evident from just looking at data tables.
Public surveys have found that people mention greater susceptibility of family members instead of themselves to extreme heat risks (Chowdury et al., 2012).
Furthermore, individuals were found to only adjust their activities for 1-2 days because their perceived threat began to decrease as an extreme heat event continued (Luber & McGeehin, 2008)
Perceived barrier high cost of running an A/C or not having one at all (Luber & McGeehin, 2008)
Self-efficacy the perceived ability to perform a behaviors to get the intended results (Champion & Skinner, 2008)
Response-efficacy the extent to which people believe precautionary measures can prevent a health threat (In this case heat stroke or other heat-related morbidities and mortalities) (Witte, 1992 1994).
UHI Map created using ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) and MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro radiometer)
satellite data widely used to record LST because of their high spatial and spectral resolution.
Data were collected with the same satellite (i.e., NASA’s Terra mission) for September 25, 2007.
Terra is the flagship satellite of NASA's Earth observing systems. Terra is the first EOS (Earth Observing System) platform and provides global data on the state of the atmosphere, land, and oceans, as well as their interactions with solar radiation and with one another.
Housing built before 1970…poor insulation
CO changed its energy code in 1978 but nation-wide the new energy code (Energy Conservation and Production Act) went into effect 1976
- Authorizing weatherization for low-income homes (insulation, caulking and weather stripping, replacement A/Cs…)