The document discusses the influence of biological and social factors on human psychological functioning and development. It examines Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development and how it focuses on biological processes but neglects the importance of social environments. Research is presented showing that social interaction with peers is important for cognitive development and that both biological and social influences must be considered. A social constructionist perspective holds that meaning and identity are constructed through discourse and language. While biological evolution provided humans with the ability to use language, language also allows for social interaction, demonstrating the interdependence of biological and social influences on psychology.

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Evaluation of the contribution of biological and social influencestohuman psychological
functioning
Cognitive processes, attitudesand behaviourinrelationtoothersare all consideredformsof human
psychological functioning, indicatingitscomprehensiveness. InfluencedbyDarwin,the functionalist
perspective suggeststhatbehaviourschange aspartof an adaptive process therebyraisingthe
prospectof humansurvival (ascitedin Wood,Littleton&Oates,2007). Howeverasocial
constructionistapproach proposesthatrolesandbeliefs are constructed throughsocial interaction
(Cooper& Kaye,2007). By evaluatingdifferingperspectivesindevelopmentalpsychologyand
language,the aimisto showthat biological andsocial influencescannot notbe isolated intheir
impacton psychological behaviourandfunctioningandshouldbe consideredinterdependent.
To understand cognitive development, JeanPiagettookanorganismicapproachingenetic
epistemology,the examinationof intelligence asanadaptation tothe environment,toconstructa
stage theory (ascitedin Woodet al,2007). The four stagesare fixedaccordingtobiological
development,beginningwith the sensorymotorstage,inwhichthe infantdisplaysinnate
behaviourssuchas graspingand nursing (frombirthtotwo years) andhe intimatesthatcognitive
abilitymaturesby abstractreasoning,knownas formal operational thought ,established around
twelve years(Woodetal, 2007). Piagetfurtheralleges thatenvironmental influencesaffectthe
quickness of intellectual growthbutcannotchange the stagesor theirprogression (ascitedin Wood
et al, 2007). His theory,while toosimplisticin design,alsoappearstooverlookthe importance of
the social environment anddoesnotreveal how crucial relationshipsare to personal growth.
Anotherconcernisthat the theorysupposesthat logical,deliberative ‘formal‘thought isconsidered
ideal,therebyneglectingothertypesof knowledge,suchas subjective reasoning(Woodetal, 2007).
Conversely, Kincheloe andSteinbergsuggestthatpost-formal thoughtsuchas personal
contemplation, othercultural experiences and the contextof which knowledge occursare justas
vital andshouldbe classedas formal thought(ascitedin Woodet al, 2007). Piaget’s theory assumes
there isan endgoal of formal abstract thought achievedduringadolescence;howevermuch
researchhas shownthat intellectual capacityanddevelopmentcontinues intoadultlife (Woodetal,
2007). Namely, Hornand Cattell demonstrated thatolderpeople fare betteroncrystallized
intelligence abilitiessuchasvocabularyandgeneral knowledgethantheiryoungercounterparts(as
citedinWood etal, 2007). Thisimplies thatthe isolatingeffectof Piaget’s theory onbiological
processesincognitive developmentneglectsthe importance of contextual meaningandexperience
of the social environment. Clearly,his stage theoryfocusesonthe biological processeswhich,
admittedlydoactas a factorin development,butmuchislostby omittingthe effectof the social
environment,whichis essential tohealthyadvancement.
Social interactioninthe formof reciprocal horizontal relationshipswithpeersprovidesvaluable
contexttocognitive development. Aspeerinsightsare treatedwithequalbasis,resolution issought
whenconflictingideas occur,therebyforcingre-evaluationof personal thoughtsandintegrationof
newinformation, whichisknownassocio-cognitiveconflict(Woodetal, 2007). Studieshave shown
that childrenworkingonproblemsolvingtaskswithothers made considerableindividual
improvementthanthose who hadworkedalone (Doise &Mugny,Perret-Clermontascitedin Wood
et al, 2007) indicatingthe importance of exposure todifferingideasof peers. Thisindicatesthat
individualcognitive capabilitieswhile importantrelyonsocial interactiontodevelop. Further
research revealedthatvaryinglevelsof cognition directlyimpactprogress onatask withingroups

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(Mugny & Doise,1978). Within three levelsof cognitiveability; low,intermediate andadvanced,
participants were grouped togethertoexaminethe influence of the interaction. Ingroupsinwhich
participantsof lowandintermediateabilityinteracted,theybothprogressedmore sothanthose
groupedof advancedandlowability(Mugny& Doise,1978). This couldsuggestsome socio-
cognitive conflictismore complex than originally thought,andcollaborationbetweenlearnersneeds
propersupport. The researchalsodenotesthatthe biological factorof individual intelligence was
accounted forand had a directeffectwithinthe study. Itappearsthatthe study design lacksthe
contextof social and cultural impactuponpeerrelationships. However, there isevidence that
demonstrates the diversity inrelationshipswithin differentcultures(Schafferascitedin Wood etal,
2007). Itcould be arguedthat to account forthisissue wouldbe difficult,butrevealsthatfurther
investigation iswarranted. Significantly,the researchshowsthe interactionof bothbiological and
social influencesincognitive development.
A methodologyof the social constructionist perspective, discursive psychology,assertsthatmeaning
isconstructed throughdiscourse and influences the waypeoplereflectandunderstandtheir
environmentandtheirplace withinit(Cooper& Kaye,2007). Further,individualscreate meaning
and identity byestablishingdiscoursesinwhichthey seek tobe viewedinaparticularposition,for
example ‘agoodstudent’, whichis knownassubjectpositioning. Thiseffectof subjectpositioning
was proposed byEdwardsandPotterin a review of anattributiontheory study originallyanalysed
froma cognitive perspective (ascitedinCooper& Kaye,2007). In a conversationinwhichtwo
teachingassistants considerfactorswhichledtoa student’sfailure,ratherthansuggestingthatthey
weighconsistencyandconsensus,the teachingassistants wereassessingtheiraccountability inthe
situation. Indoingso,theyuse subjectpositioningbyplacing responsibility withthe student(asan
‘incompetentstudent’), ratherthanthemselves, therefore,positioningthe teachingassistantina
beneficial way (Cooper&Kaye,2007). It couldbe consideredthattheydone soto remove
accountabilitydue topotential socialinfluence. Thisimpliesthatindividuals use discourse tonot
onlycreate meaningbutto also negotiate various situationsthroughaprocess of moral reasoning.
Thisis beneficial asitprovidesinsight intohow people explore theirthoughtsandbehavioursand
that theydo thisinrelationtoothers. It isalso noteworthy thatthe constructive nature of language
doesnotemphasize apparentcognitive processes;simplyput,discourse isusedtoreproduce the
environmentforthe purposesof the individual andtounderstandbehaviour(Cooper&Kaye,2007).
A potential concern withthistype of analysis,however, isthatitis subjective;therefore meaning
couldbe establisheddifferentlywithinanotherperspective. Althoughthe social constructionist
paradigmdoesnottake intoaccount biological influencesonhumanbehaviour,itcertainly
emphasisesthe importance of the social environmentinunderstandinghow language creates the
humanworld.
Evolutionhasledtothe developmentof language,whichisnecessaryforhumanstointeractwithin
the social environment,therefore, demonstratingthe effectof humanbiologicalnature ona species
level. AccordingtoPinker,humanshave evolvedthe use of language throughnatural selection to
garneran advantage enabling themtosurvive the environment(ascitedin Cooper&Kaye,2007).
These adaptive traits have costs, implyingthatthe abilityto speak came withsetbackssuchas the
potential tochoke,yetinorderforlanguage to evolve the benefitshave tooutweigh the costs
(Cooper& Kaye,2007). Humanbrainsare differentfromotherprimatesinthatthere isan
irregularity inthe planumtemporale,apartof cortex that is associatedwithlanguage;inwhich
Wernike’s areaaidsinunderstandinglanguage andBroca’sareais involved ingeneratingspeech(as

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citedinCooper& Kaye,2007). This indicatesthatlanguage couldhave evolvedasa benefitfor
humansto thrive withintheirphysical environment.However,Sperberclaimedthatthe capacityto
use metarepresentations,arepresentationof anotherindividual’srepresentation,forexample,‘I
thinkthat myfriendbelieveshercatunderstandsEnglish ‘,grantsan evolutionaryadvantage,and
thisability influencedthe growthof language (ascitedinCooper&Kaye,2007). Thisintimatesthat
eitherthe evolutionof language wasanadaptational advantage orthatthe capabilityfor
metarepresentation andanalytical thinkingcreatedlanguage.The formersuggeststhatlanguage
adaptedso thatpeople couldcommunicate witheachotherandthe latteroffersthatlanguage isa
biological development. Interestinglythisissue is debatable;howeveritseemsthatinorderfor
humanbeingstointeract withinthe worldbiological processes mustestablish growthandactivity,
therefore,impactinguponthe environment,whetherit isinternal orexternal.
In conclusion,biological processesare anintegral partof beinghuman,they initiate humananatomy
and affecthow people communicate andinteractwithinthe social world.The environmentisa vital
part of human existenceinwhich social communication helpsindividualsandgroupsmake sense of
the worldand eachother.Whenlookingathuman behaviourandpsychological elementsof life both
biological andsocial influencesneedtobe accountedforand a balance struck;rememberingthat
humanbeingscannothave one withoutthe other.
Cooper,T & Kaye,H. (2007) Language and meaning.InT Cooper& I Roth(Eds.), Challenging
PsychologicalIssues (2nded.,pp). MiltonKeynes:The OpenUniversity.
Mugny,G & Doise,W. (1978). Socio-cognitive conflictandstructure of individual andcollective
performances. EuropeanJournalOf SocialPsychology,8(2),181-192
Wood,C., Littleton,K.&Oates,J. (2007) Lifespandevelopment.InTCooper& I Roth (Eds.),
Challenging PsychologicalIssues(2nded.,pp14-59). MiltonKeynes:The OpenUniversity.