Biclce6 2015 presentation

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Copulative Perception Verbs with Sentential
Complements in American English:
A Corpus-based Survey
Fuminori NAKAMURA (Kitasato University)
19-23/8/2015
BICLCE6
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Fuminori NAKAMURA (Kitasato University) Copulative Perception Verbs with Sentential Complements in American English: A Corpus
19-23/8/2015BICLCE6 University of Wisconsi
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Organization
...1 Introduction
...2 Data and Methodology
...3 Results and Discussions
Quantative analysis
Qualitative analysis
...4 Summary
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...1 Introduction
...2 Data and Methodology
...3 Results and Discussions
...4 Summary
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Objects of research
Name: Copulative perception verbs with sentential complements
Form: {look/sound/seem/appear} {as if/as though/like} Sentence
Copy Raising: sometimes called the Copy Raising Construction
(Landau 2011, Asudeh and Toivonen 2012, Kim 2014:among
others)
(1) a. It seemed/appeared as if/as though/like he was trying to
hide his true identity.
b. It looked/sounded as if he was trying to hide his true
identity.
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Copulative Perception Verbs
Copulative Perception verbs (CPVs for short) are perception verbs which...
take the percept as the subject
imply that the perceiver (implicit or to-phrase)
require the complement
(2) a. John looks happy (to me).
b. The plan sounds reasonable (to us).
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Previous Studies: CPVs as verbs of seem
CPVs, in particular look and sound, are quite similar, though not identical,
to verbs of seeming, in particular when they are with sentential
complements.(Gisborne 2010, Matushansky 2002, Taniguchi 2005, Biber
et al. 1999)
(3) a. It seemed/appeared that / as if he was trying to hide his
true identity.
b. It looked/sounded as if he was trying to hide his true
identity.
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Previous Studies 2: Huddleston and Pullum (2002:962)
With seem and appear the content clause in what we are
analyzing as the impersonal construction can be replaced without
any perceptible change of meaning by a phrase introduced by as
if (or as though or like), a type of phrase also found with such
verbs as feel, look, smell, sound, – and be:
(4) a. It seemed that / as if he was trying to hide his true identity.
b. It appeared that / as if he was trying to hide his true
identity.
c. It looked/sounded as if he was trying to hide his true
identity.
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Expletives and Sentential Complements
Among CPVs, look and sound can take expletive subject it with
sentential complements introduced by as if (though) and like.
feel, smell and taste are unlikely to take expletive it.
CPVs cannot take that-clause. (Taniguchi 2005, Gisborne 2010)
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Like vs. as if/as though (Huddleston and Pullum
2002:1158)
In [59] like is in competition with as if/as though, and its
complement is structurally complete.
(5) a. It looked like the scheme would founder before it was
properly started.
b. You look like you need a drink.
c. She clasped it in her hand like it was precious stone.
d. It was like I had lost something valuable in a vault full of my
own money.
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Research Question (Synonymy Research)
How are CPVs and verbs of seeming similar and different in the
discourse?
How are like and textitas if/as though similar and different in the
discourse?
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SOAP corpus as the data source
Name Corpus of American Soap Operas
Compiler compiled by Mark Davies (Davies 2012–)
Register American soap opera (spoken, fiction)
Size approx. 100 million tokens
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Scope of research
verbs: look, sound, seem,appear
complementizers: like, as if, as though
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Data
as if as though like Total
look 147 (2.5%) 64 (1.1%) 5565 (96.3%) 5776 (100%)
seem 59 (4.1%) 76 (5.3%) 1297 (90.6%) 1432 (100%)
sound 87 (5.7%) 33 (2.2%) 1396 (92.1%) 1516 (100%)
appear 20 (52.6%) 15 (39.5%) 3 (7.9%) 38 (100%)
total 313 (3.6%) 188 (2.1%) 8261 (94.3%) 8762 (100%)
Table: Total occurrences in SOAP
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Data
look is predominent.
like is predominent.
appear is very infrequent.
appear prefers as if (though) to like.
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Methodology: Behavioural Profiles (Berez and Gries 2008,
Gries and Otani 2010, Gries 2010)
...1 retrieving data with key words & getting rid of irrelevant cases
...2 manual (formal and semantic) coding
...3 make a table (relative frequency)
...4 statistic processing (cluster analysis)
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Manual Coding Tags
subject
matrix/subordinate clause subject
subject type (e.g. human, expletive)
subject person (i.e. 1st, 2nd, 3rd)
tense (i.e. present, past)
aspect (i.e. perfect, progressive)
voice (i.e. passive or not)
modal auxiliary verbs (e.g. will, can, should, must)
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Coding Sample
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Standardization Sample
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Cluster analysis
appear_like
look_like
seem_like
sound_like
appear_as_if
appear_as_though
seem_as_though
seem_as_if
sound_as_though
sound_as_if
look_as_though
look_as_if
0.00.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.6
Cluster Dendrogram
Height
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Cluster analysis 2: cluster verification
multistep-bootstrap resampling (Shimodaira 2004, Suzuki and Shimodaira
2006)
appear_like
look_like
seem_like
sound_like
appear_as_if
appear_as_though
seem_as_though
seem_as_if
sound_as_though
sound_as_if
look_as_though
look_as_if
0.00.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.6
Cluster dendrogram with AU/BP values (%)
Height
97 98
82
74
7199
99 98
96
92
au
95 94
65
64
4893
84 85
65
63
bp
1 2
3
4
56
7 8
9
10
edge #
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Interpretation of cluster dendrogram
Complementizers have a greater impact on clustering than verbs.
(like vs. as if (though))
seem like is more similar to look like than seem as if (though).
as if and as though behave in a very similar way.
seem and appear form a cluster (verbs of seeming)
look and sound form a cluster. (verbs of perception)
Since as if and as though are similar, they are put together for simplicity
and clarity.
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Matrix Subject
1st person 2nd person 3rd person total
look as if 5 (2.4%) 31 (14.7%) 175 (82.9%) 146 (100%)
look like 380 (6.8%) 266 (4.8%) 4917 (88.4%) 5565 (100%)
sound as if 4 (3.3%) 19 (15.8%) 97 (80.8%) 120 (100%)
sound like 65 (4.7%) 15 (1.1%) 1316 (100%) 1353 (100%)
seem as if 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 135 (100%) 135 (100%)
seem like 13 (1%) 0 (0%) 1284 (99%) 1297 (100%)
appear as if 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 35 (100%) 35 (100%)
appear like 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (100%) 3 (100%)
Table: Matrix subjects
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Matrix subject
Verbs of perception can be characterized by their 1st and 2nd person
subjects.
Verbs of seeming virtually DO NOT take 1st and 2nd person pronouns
as their subjects.
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1st subject (positive declarative)
This type is rather rare.
(6) a. I look like I’m in the middle of a Tim Burton film.
(SOAP 2009 GL)
b. I sound like I’m really depressed.
(SOAP 2009 GL)
c. Now, you see, now I sound like I’m paranoid when you probably
think that I’m the one that needs.
(SOAP 2012 GH)
d. Look, I know I seem like I got it all figured out all the time, but
I don’t.
(SOAP 2005 ATWT)
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1st subject (negative)
(7) a. I don’t want to look like I’m slacking.
(SOAP 2008 OLTL)
b. Mom, I don’t mean to sound like I’m judging you.
(SOAP 2009 ATWT)
c. I didn’t mean to sound like I’m against Michael weighing in on
company decisions.
(SOAP 2011 GH)
d. Well, we don’t want to seem like we’re anxious to sell this
thing we nurtured into a success to someone who
(SOAP 2009 YR)
e. I’m sorry – I don’t mean to seem like I’m kicking you out, but
I’m kicking you out.
(SOAP 2007 ATWT)
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1st subject (interrogative)
(8) a. Do I look like I’m joking?
(SOAP 2002 BB)
b. Do I look like I’m kidding?
(SOAP 2006 PASS)
c. Do I sound like I believe her, Jen?
(SOAP 2005 DAYS)
d. Do I sound like I’m joking?
(SOAP 2009 GH)
e. Do I sound like I’m kidding?
(SOAP 2002 AMC)
f. So do I seem like I’m back to my old self?
(SOAP 2011 DAYS)
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1st subject (with make)
(9) a. In fact, she makes me look like I’m in slow motion.
(SOAP 2001 DAYS)
b. You made me look like I was as smart as you were.
(SOAP 2008 DAYS)
c. You’re making us sound like we were some nightmare.
(SOAP 2004 GH)
d. Then it makes me seem like I’m the jealous wife, which I’m not.
(SOAP 2010 GH)
e. Don’t make me seem like I’m some pathetic ” stand by your
man ” wife.
(SOAP 2004 GL)
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1st subject (with clause)
(10) a. , and we figured we would fit in more with everyone else if we
looked like we were a couple.
(SOAP 2008 GL)
b. If I sounded like I was embarrassed to be with you, I’m not.
(SOAP 2007 GH)
c. Even if I seem like I’m me, I just can’t let Tess out.
(SOAP 2005 OLTL)
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2nd person subject (normal)
(11) a. You look like I just asked you to jump off a building.
(SOAP 2010 OLTL)
b. You sound as though you’re convicted and sentenced even
before jury’s heard the case.
(SOAP 2007 BB)
c. You sound like we’re already divorced.
(SOAP 2008 DAYS)
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2nd person subject (negative)
(12) a. You don’t look like you’re sleeping well either.
(SOAP 2007 YR)
b. You know, you do not look like you’ve been studying.
(SOAP 2007 GL)
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2nd person subject (interrogative)
(13) a. So then why do you look like you just lost your best friend?
(SOAP 2011 DAYS)
b. Yes, Jack. I mean, how else are you going to look like you’re
convincingly turned on?
(SOAP 2001 DAYS)
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2nd subject with make
(14) a. I made you look like you practically invented rock’ n’ roll.
(SOAP 2003 PC)
b. No offense, but your profile picture makes you look like you’re
10.
(SOAP 2012 GH)
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Matrix Subject Category
Table: Subject category in ascending order according to expletive subject
expletive Human Omitted there thing total
appear like 33.3% 66.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
look like 46.3% 22.4% 29.7% 0.0% 1.6% 100.0%
sound like 52.7% 15.4% 28.9% 0.0% 2.9% 100.0%
look as if 67.8% 21.9% 5.5% 0.0% 4.8% 100.0%
seem like 67.9% 18.8% 12.0% 0.0% 1.2% 100.0%
look as though 73.4% 10.9% 12.5% 0.0% 3.1% 100.0%
sound as if 74.7% 20.7% 2.3% 0.0% 2.3% 100.0%
sound as though 75.8% 24.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
seem as if 81.4% 1.7% 15.3% 0.0% 1.7% 100.0%
seem as though 85.5% 0.0% 14.5% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
appear as though 86.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 13.3% 100.0%
appear as if 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
total 52.3% 20.3% 25.7% 0.0% 1.8% 100.0%
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Interpretation
The choice of the subject is more closely related to complementizers.
like tends to take human subjects.
as if (though) prefers expletive it.
Omitted subjects are more closely related to individual patterns
These factors have an effect on formalness.
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Modal auxiliaries verbs in the subordinate clauses
may be about to be going to can could have to
look as if 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 12 (8.2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
look as though 2 (3.1%) 0 (0%) 4 (6.3%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
look like 27 (0.5%) 64 (1.2%) 582 (10.5%) 65 (1.2%) 104 (1.9%) 0 (0%)
seem as if 0 (0%) 1 (1.1%) 2 (2.3%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
seem as though 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
seem like 4 (0.3%) 8 (0.6%) 58 (4.2%) 6 (0.4%) 14 (1%) 0 (0%)
sound as if 0 (0%) 1 (1.7%) 2 (3.4%) 0 (0%) 2 (3.4%) 0 (0%)
sound as though 1 (1.3%) 0 (0%) 1 (1.3%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (1.3%)
sound like 1 (0.1%) 2 (0.2%) 28 (2.2%) 25 (1.9%) 16 (1.2%) 2 (0.2%)
appear as if 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (5%) 1 (5%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
appear as though 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
appear like 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
might need to should used to will would total
3 (2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.7%) 0 (0%) 147 (100%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 64 (100%)
82 (1.5%) 13 (0.2%) 18 (0.3%) 0 (0%) 146 (2.6%) 26 (0.5%) 5565 (100%)
0 (0%) 1 (1.1%) 1 (1.1%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (2.3%) 87 (100%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 33 (100%)
17 (1.2%) 10 (0.7%) 10 (0.7%) 1 (0.1%) 21 (1.5%) 18 (1.3%) 1396 (100%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (1.7%) 0 (0%) 59 (100%)
1 (1.3%) 0 (0%) 1 (1.3%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 76 (100%)
14 (1.1%) 1 (0.1%) 10 (0.8%) 1 (0.1%) 3 (0.2%) 18 (1.4%) 1297 (100%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 20 (100%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 15 (100%)
0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (100%)
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Interpretation
By and large, like-clause contains more modal auxiliary verbs than as
if/though-clause.
look (like) tends to take future modal auxiliary verbs such as be going
to and will.
Expressing Speaker’s prediction
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Summary
Verbs can be classified without PERCEPTION tags. (cluster analysis)
The combination with complementizers (cluster)
Perception verbs are used to talk about concrete things (matrix
subject)
like is used to talk about future. (subordinate modal verbs)
as if and as though are used to describe some situation. (subject
category)
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Bibliography I
Asudeh, Ash, and Ida Toivonen. 2012. Copy raising and perception. Natural Language and
Linguistic Theory 30:321–380.
Berez, Andrea L., and Stefan Th. Gries. 2008. In defense of corpus-based methods: A behavioral
profile analysis of polysemous get in english. In Proceedings of the 24th NWLC, 157–166.
Seattle, WA.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. 1999.
Longman grammar of spoken and written English. London: Longman.
Davies, Mark. 2012–. The corpus of american soap operas: 100 million words, 2001-2012.
Available online at http://corpus2.byu.edu/soap/.
Gisborne, Nikolas. 2010. The event structure of perception verbs. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Gries, Stephan. 2010. Behavioral profiles: a fine-grained and quantitative approach in
corpus-based lexical semantics. The Mental Lexicon 5:323–346.
Gries, Stephan, and Naoki Otani. 2010. Behavioral profiles: A corpus-based perspective on
synonymy and antonymy. ICAME Journal 34:121–150.
Huddleston, Rodney, and Geoffrey K. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge grammar of the English
language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Bibliography II
Kim, Jing-Bok. 2014. English copy raising constructions: Argument realization and
characterization. Linguistics 52:167–203. URL http://web.khu.ac.kr/~jongbok/research/
2014paper/Linguistics%2052%281%29,%202014.pdf.
Landau, Idan. 2011. Predication vs. aboutness in copy raising. Natural Language and Linguistic
Theory 29:779–813.
Matushansky, Ora. 2002. Tipping the scales: The syntax of scalarity in the complement of
textitSeem. Syntax 5:219–276.
Shimodaira, Hidetoshi. 2004. Approximately unbiased tests of regions using multistep-multiscale
bootstrap resampling. Annals of Statistics 32:2616–2641.
Suzuki, Ryota, and Hidetoshi Shimodaira. 2006. pvclust: an R package for assesing the
uncertainty in hierarchical clustering. Bioinformatics 22.
Taniguchi, Kazumi. 2005. Jitai-gainen-no kigouka-ni kansuru ninchi-gengogaku-teki-kenkyu [a
cognitive linguistic approach to symbolization of event conception]. Tokyo: Hitsuzi Shobo.
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