This document summarizes a research article that reviewed scientific studies on behavioral differences between dog breeds. The summary finds that while some studies have found behavioral differences, particularly in aggression, the research has been inconsistent and most breeds have not been sufficiently explored. More standardized and controlled experiments are needed to better understand breed behaviors and how genetics and environment impact traits like aggression. The research to date has limitations and cannot make definitive conclusions about behavioral stereotypes of breeds.
1. The study analyzed aggressive and submissive behaviors in female spotted hyenas to determine if submissiveness is an independent personality trait from aggressiveness. 2. It found no correlation between rates of aggression and submissiveness when hierarchy was not considered, but found a positive correlation when hierarchy was accounted for. 3. Rates of both aggressiveness and submissiveness were consistent over time, providing preliminary support for submissiveness being a quantifiable personality trait like aggressiveness. However, more research is needed to fully establish submissiveness as a personality trait.
This document discusses research into the evolutionary origins and causes of ADHD. It summarizes several hypotheses for how ADHD traits may have provided advantages in ancestral environments, including benefits to hunting, warfare, unpredictability in foraging, and responses to prenatal stress. A significant focus is placed on the DRD4 gene, which codes for dopamine receptors and has variants linked to ADHD and novelty-seeking behaviors. Studies find these variants were likely under positive selection in nomadic groups and influence social behaviors today. The conclusion is that ADHD traits increased fitness under certain stressful, competitive conditions and genetic factors like the DRD4 variants rose in frequency and prevalence due to natural selection in these environments.
This study evaluated aggression in 83 golden retrievers using a questionnaire completed by owners and an aggression test. The test involved exposing dogs to various stimuli to elicit aggressive behaviors, which were scored. Owner-reported aggressive dogs had significantly higher aggression scores than non-aggressive dogs. Total aggression scores best matched owner reports and showed the most variation between groups. While the study identified genetic influences on canine aggression, limitations included standardizing tests and accounting for environmental factors.
This document summarizes research on oxytocin and vasopressin in treating autism by comparing animal models to human studies. It reviews findings that oxytocin and vasopressin affect social bonding behaviors in animals like prairie voles and rats. Short-term oxytocin injections in animals increase non-specific social behaviors, while long-term injections can impair bonding abilities. Comparing these animal studies to human neuroimaging research helps explain the mechanisms and potential treatments for autism and other social disorders.
Research Project Power Point for Gender Roles in Societyafonderwhite
The document discusses a study examining gender stereotypes among teenagers. It finds that while male participants were more likely than females to label traits as stereotypically masculine or feminine, both genders labeled many traits as neutral. This suggests younger generations may be less rigid in their gender stereotypes than expected. The study could be improved by surveying a larger, more diverse sample and comparing responses across age groups.
The document discusses how research on the "gay gene" has been misrepresented in the media. It notes that twin studies and brain research do not prove homosexuality is genetically determined, as genes are often associated with but do not cause complex behaviors. The interactions between genes and environment are much more complicated than implied by media reports focusing on the possibility of single "gay genes." Most scientists believe multiple biological and social factors contribute to sexual orientation.
The document discusses "bad apples" in organizations and how to manage them. It defines bad apples as discontented, troublemaking, or dishonest employees who can negatively influence others. It examines how bad apples are formed, noting factors like environment, peer pressure, and defensive behaviors. It identifies traits of bad apples, such as an external locus of control, hostile attribution styles, aggression, absenteeism, and bullying. Finally, it stresses the importance of managers addressing bad apples directly to prevent them from damaging morale and productivity.
Brain and behaviour newspaper article: Ethar BashirSalfordPsych
Reporter: Ethar Bashir
Title: The Jewels of Fatherhood
Module: final year Brain and Behaviour
Directorate of Psychology and Public Health, University of Salford, UK
1. The study analyzed aggressive and submissive behaviors in female spotted hyenas to determine if submissiveness is an independent personality trait from aggressiveness. 2. It found no correlation between rates of aggression and submissiveness when hierarchy was not considered, but found a positive correlation when hierarchy was accounted for. 3. Rates of both aggressiveness and submissiveness were consistent over time, providing preliminary support for submissiveness being a quantifiable personality trait like aggressiveness. However, more research is needed to fully establish submissiveness as a personality trait.
This document discusses research into the evolutionary origins and causes of ADHD. It summarizes several hypotheses for how ADHD traits may have provided advantages in ancestral environments, including benefits to hunting, warfare, unpredictability in foraging, and responses to prenatal stress. A significant focus is placed on the DRD4 gene, which codes for dopamine receptors and has variants linked to ADHD and novelty-seeking behaviors. Studies find these variants were likely under positive selection in nomadic groups and influence social behaviors today. The conclusion is that ADHD traits increased fitness under certain stressful, competitive conditions and genetic factors like the DRD4 variants rose in frequency and prevalence due to natural selection in these environments.
This study evaluated aggression in 83 golden retrievers using a questionnaire completed by owners and an aggression test. The test involved exposing dogs to various stimuli to elicit aggressive behaviors, which were scored. Owner-reported aggressive dogs had significantly higher aggression scores than non-aggressive dogs. Total aggression scores best matched owner reports and showed the most variation between groups. While the study identified genetic influences on canine aggression, limitations included standardizing tests and accounting for environmental factors.
This document summarizes research on oxytocin and vasopressin in treating autism by comparing animal models to human studies. It reviews findings that oxytocin and vasopressin affect social bonding behaviors in animals like prairie voles and rats. Short-term oxytocin injections in animals increase non-specific social behaviors, while long-term injections can impair bonding abilities. Comparing these animal studies to human neuroimaging research helps explain the mechanisms and potential treatments for autism and other social disorders.
Research Project Power Point for Gender Roles in Societyafonderwhite
The document discusses a study examining gender stereotypes among teenagers. It finds that while male participants were more likely than females to label traits as stereotypically masculine or feminine, both genders labeled many traits as neutral. This suggests younger generations may be less rigid in their gender stereotypes than expected. The study could be improved by surveying a larger, more diverse sample and comparing responses across age groups.
The document discusses how research on the "gay gene" has been misrepresented in the media. It notes that twin studies and brain research do not prove homosexuality is genetically determined, as genes are often associated with but do not cause complex behaviors. The interactions between genes and environment are much more complicated than implied by media reports focusing on the possibility of single "gay genes." Most scientists believe multiple biological and social factors contribute to sexual orientation.
The document discusses "bad apples" in organizations and how to manage them. It defines bad apples as discontented, troublemaking, or dishonest employees who can negatively influence others. It examines how bad apples are formed, noting factors like environment, peer pressure, and defensive behaviors. It identifies traits of bad apples, such as an external locus of control, hostile attribution styles, aggression, absenteeism, and bullying. Finally, it stresses the importance of managers addressing bad apples directly to prevent them from damaging morale and productivity.
Brain and behaviour newspaper article: Ethar BashirSalfordPsych
Reporter: Ethar Bashir
Title: The Jewels of Fatherhood
Module: final year Brain and Behaviour
Directorate of Psychology and Public Health, University of Salford, UK
The NOVA program discusses how dogs evolved from wolves through two competing theories:
1) Wolves were adopted by Stone Age humans and selectively bred for tameness. 2) Wolves essentially domesticated themselves by foraging near human dumps, where tameness was advantageous. The program explores how traits like tails and ears differ from wolves, considers experiments showing how selection for tameness produced dog-like traits, and proposes theories on how diversity and adaptation abilities arose in dogs. It also reviews problems with genetic diseases in purebred dogs.
This document provides an overview and teaching guide for the NOVA program "Dogs and More Dogs". The program discusses:
- The evolution of dogs from wolves and the diversity of dog breeds today.
- Two competing theories for how dogs were domesticated from wolves.
- Experiments showing how selection for tameness in foxes produced dog-like traits.
- How humans used food rewards to breed dogs for specific behaviors over thousands of years.
- Genetic factors contributing to traits unique to dogs and disease issues from extensive inbreeding.
The teaching guide provides background information, discussion questions, and a classroom activity to simulate how selective pressures can influence evolution using a card game representing wolf temperament genes
We often define people as a dog or cat person. Several studies have sought to identify a correlation between a pet and their owner's personality traits.
A presentation as a webinar for the Winn Feline Foundation that focuses on recent findings related to the signatures of selection in the domestic cat genome
This research studied personality judgments of both dogs and their human owners using parallel procedures to directly compare the two species. Owners provided personality ratings of their dogs and themselves, and another familiar judge ("peer") also rated both. Results showed that personality judgments of dogs were as accurate as those of humans based on three criteria: internal consistency, consensus between raters, and predicting independent behavioral observations. This provides evidence that personality differences exist and can be measured in non-human animals like dogs, consistent with evolutionary continuity between species. The study demonstrated a new cross-species comparative approach for systematically evaluating personality judgments in animals.
This document outlines a proposed case study comparing attitudes towards treatment and cruelty of dogs and cats in the US and Vietnam. It hypothesizes that a country's socioeconomic status correlates with its attitudes. The study would use surveys to collect data on attitudes and tendencies towards cruelty in urban and rural areas of both countries. It would analyze the data and compare results to the hypotheses and explore correlations between attitudes and demographic variables. The goal is to better understand differences globally and inform animal welfare programs.
This study experimentally evaluated attachment behaviors in owned cats using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test. 28 cats of different ages, body types, sexes, and reproductive statuses underwent the test. The cats spent more time exploring when with their owner compared to alone or with a stranger. They exhibited alert behaviors more frequently with a stranger. The cats were less active when alone. The results were consistent with attachment behaviors found in children, suggesting cats can form attachments to their owners. Further research is needed to study separation anxiety in cats.
This chapter discusses the choice of animal subjects for behavioral analysis research. It focuses on the laboratory rat and its origins from wild Norway rats. The albino laboratory rat became a widely used research subject due to its docility compared to wild rats. Various strains of rats have been developed for research purposes, with different strains exhibiting distinct behavioral characteristics. Selection of the appropriate rat strain is important depending on the specifics of the research being conducted. The chapter also briefly discusses mice and non-human primates as other common research subjects.
Animals are widely used in biomedical research due to their biological similarities to humans. Mice, rats, fish and birds account for over 90% of animals in research and are used to study health conditions like cancer, diabetes and heart disease. They allow researchers to understand disease processes and test potential treatments over an animal's full lifespan and across generations. While animal models have limitations, research with animals has contributed to advances in treating diseases for over 2000 years. Commonly used animal models include mice, rats, rabbits, zebrafish, frogs and chickens. However, more than half of adults oppose animal testing due to concerns about translating results to humans and potential harms to animals. Alternative research methods are being explored.
This study investigated whether cooperation during predator inspection forms a behavioral syndrome with traits like exploration, boldness, activity, and sociability in guppies. The researcher predicted these behaviors would form a syndrome and that more cooperative individuals would be more explorative, bold, active, and affiliative. The results partially supported this, suggesting bolder individuals are more likely to cooperate during predator inspection. Possible explanations in terms of life history strategies and behavioral mechanisms are discussed, with considerations for ecological and evolutionary effects.
Spaying and neutering companion animals is crucial for both individual health and population health. Studies have shown that sterilized dogs live 1.5 years longer on average than intact dogs due to lower risks of cancers, infectious diseases, and trauma. Spaying and neutering is also crucial to reduce pet overpopulation and the millions of animals euthanized in shelters annually. The high number of unwanted animals stems from accidental and intentional breeding by pet owners and commercial breeders. In addition to animal welfare impacts, pet overpopulation poses economic costs like the $1 billion spent annually on sheltering animals. Overall, sterilization benefits both individual companion animals and populations by increasing longevity and reducing shelter intakes and euthan
The document provides an overview of the key concepts that will be covered in the second half of an animal behavior course, including adaptations (behavioral), phylogenies, fitness, game theory, and methods for testing hypotheses about animal behavior. It discusses how phylogenies relate to adaptations and convergent/divergent evolution. It also defines key terms like fitness, adaptation, exaptation, and optimal foraging theory. Examples are given around testing hypotheses of adaptive behaviors, like gazelle stotting deterring predators, and game theory, like frequency dependent selection allowing multiple strategies to coexist.
This document describes a study that examines how paired associate word learning is affected by the presence of a therapy dog, priming, and word imagery. College students were assigned to conditions involving the presence or absence of a therapy dog during the task, and whether or not they received priming by studying vocabulary words first. They then studied and were tested on their recall of word pairs that were either high or low in imagery. It is hypothesized that recall scores will be higher when a dog is present due to reduced stress and anxiety. Priming is also expected to improve recall by activating relevant memory representations. Consistent with prior research, higher imagery word pairs were expected to lead to better recall than lower imagery pairs. Interactions between the variables were
Scientists have long debated where dogs originated. A new large DNA study suggests dogs first appeared in Europe around 19,000-32,000 years ago, rather than Asia or the Middle East as some previous studies indicated. The study aligns with findings from the earliest known dog-like fossils, which also come from Europe.
An Inventory Of Peer-Reviewed Articles On Killer Whales (Orcinus Orca) With A...Steven Wallach
This study analyzed over 3,000 peer-reviewed articles about killer whales and bottlenose dolphins to summarize the main topics and settings of scientific research on these species. The majority of killer whale research focused on health/physiology, foraging behaviors, and distribution in natural habitats. Bottlenose dolphin research also emphasized health/physiology and distribution but included more studies of sociality and cognition, as well as more research in captivity. Both species would benefit from additional research on behavioral patterns. The results suggest killer whale welfare has received limited scientific attention and more research is needed on topics directly related to assessing welfare.
The document discusses the long-standing relationship between humans and dogs, and argues that dogs may help save mankind by developing empathy in children. It notes that emerging research shows interacting with dogs can positively influence child development, and reduce bullying and aggression. Furthermore, Stephen Hawking stated that developing empathy may be key to humanity's survival. The document concludes that connecting children with dogs early on can help increase empathy, which could help address issues like bullying and the millions of dogs euthanized in shelters each year.
Dr. Oliver Love runs the Love Lab at the University of Windsor. The lab examines physiological mechanisms driving life history trade-offs in birds. It takes a multi-disciplinary approach using evolutionary physiology, behavioural ecology, and conservation biology. The lab studies various bird species including tree swallows, seabirds, and Arctic species like snow buntings. It measures stress hormones in bird blood samples to understand the effects of disturbed habitats. The lab also breeds zebra finches to study genetic mutations and conduct experiments that can't be done on wild birds. The overall goal is to better understand and conserve bird populations.
This document summarizes research that attempted to replicate and test the findings of a previous study which concluded that chimpanzees can reason about what other chimpanzees can see (the visual perspectives of others). The researchers conducted 8 experiments using 7 chimpanzees to examine the measures and methodology of the previous study. Their critical results from Experiments 3, 6, and 8, supported by additional controls, found that chimpanzees may use competitive strategies but do not appear to reason about what others can and cannot see.
This document discusses the field of animal behavior and its importance and applications. It notes that animal behavior is the study of how animals interact with each other and their environment, and serves as a bridge between physiology and the environment. It then outlines several ways in which the study of animal behavior contributes to and influences other fields, such as neuroscience, environmental management, human behavior studies, and conservation. Specific examples are given of insights gained into areas like communication, emotional expression, migration patterns, and pest control from animal behavior research. The document also discusses how animal behavior courses can increase scientific literacy and interest in biology.
The NOVA program discusses how dogs evolved from wolves through two competing theories:
1) Wolves were adopted by Stone Age humans and selectively bred for tameness. 2) Wolves essentially domesticated themselves by foraging near human dumps, where tameness was advantageous. The program explores how traits like tails and ears differ from wolves, considers experiments showing how selection for tameness produced dog-like traits, and proposes theories on how diversity and adaptation abilities arose in dogs. It also reviews problems with genetic diseases in purebred dogs.
This document provides an overview and teaching guide for the NOVA program "Dogs and More Dogs". The program discusses:
- The evolution of dogs from wolves and the diversity of dog breeds today.
- Two competing theories for how dogs were domesticated from wolves.
- Experiments showing how selection for tameness in foxes produced dog-like traits.
- How humans used food rewards to breed dogs for specific behaviors over thousands of years.
- Genetic factors contributing to traits unique to dogs and disease issues from extensive inbreeding.
The teaching guide provides background information, discussion questions, and a classroom activity to simulate how selective pressures can influence evolution using a card game representing wolf temperament genes
We often define people as a dog or cat person. Several studies have sought to identify a correlation between a pet and their owner's personality traits.
A presentation as a webinar for the Winn Feline Foundation that focuses on recent findings related to the signatures of selection in the domestic cat genome
This research studied personality judgments of both dogs and their human owners using parallel procedures to directly compare the two species. Owners provided personality ratings of their dogs and themselves, and another familiar judge ("peer") also rated both. Results showed that personality judgments of dogs were as accurate as those of humans based on three criteria: internal consistency, consensus between raters, and predicting independent behavioral observations. This provides evidence that personality differences exist and can be measured in non-human animals like dogs, consistent with evolutionary continuity between species. The study demonstrated a new cross-species comparative approach for systematically evaluating personality judgments in animals.
This document outlines a proposed case study comparing attitudes towards treatment and cruelty of dogs and cats in the US and Vietnam. It hypothesizes that a country's socioeconomic status correlates with its attitudes. The study would use surveys to collect data on attitudes and tendencies towards cruelty in urban and rural areas of both countries. It would analyze the data and compare results to the hypotheses and explore correlations between attitudes and demographic variables. The goal is to better understand differences globally and inform animal welfare programs.
This study experimentally evaluated attachment behaviors in owned cats using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test. 28 cats of different ages, body types, sexes, and reproductive statuses underwent the test. The cats spent more time exploring when with their owner compared to alone or with a stranger. They exhibited alert behaviors more frequently with a stranger. The cats were less active when alone. The results were consistent with attachment behaviors found in children, suggesting cats can form attachments to their owners. Further research is needed to study separation anxiety in cats.
This chapter discusses the choice of animal subjects for behavioral analysis research. It focuses on the laboratory rat and its origins from wild Norway rats. The albino laboratory rat became a widely used research subject due to its docility compared to wild rats. Various strains of rats have been developed for research purposes, with different strains exhibiting distinct behavioral characteristics. Selection of the appropriate rat strain is important depending on the specifics of the research being conducted. The chapter also briefly discusses mice and non-human primates as other common research subjects.
Animals are widely used in biomedical research due to their biological similarities to humans. Mice, rats, fish and birds account for over 90% of animals in research and are used to study health conditions like cancer, diabetes and heart disease. They allow researchers to understand disease processes and test potential treatments over an animal's full lifespan and across generations. While animal models have limitations, research with animals has contributed to advances in treating diseases for over 2000 years. Commonly used animal models include mice, rats, rabbits, zebrafish, frogs and chickens. However, more than half of adults oppose animal testing due to concerns about translating results to humans and potential harms to animals. Alternative research methods are being explored.
This study investigated whether cooperation during predator inspection forms a behavioral syndrome with traits like exploration, boldness, activity, and sociability in guppies. The researcher predicted these behaviors would form a syndrome and that more cooperative individuals would be more explorative, bold, active, and affiliative. The results partially supported this, suggesting bolder individuals are more likely to cooperate during predator inspection. Possible explanations in terms of life history strategies and behavioral mechanisms are discussed, with considerations for ecological and evolutionary effects.
Spaying and neutering companion animals is crucial for both individual health and population health. Studies have shown that sterilized dogs live 1.5 years longer on average than intact dogs due to lower risks of cancers, infectious diseases, and trauma. Spaying and neutering is also crucial to reduce pet overpopulation and the millions of animals euthanized in shelters annually. The high number of unwanted animals stems from accidental and intentional breeding by pet owners and commercial breeders. In addition to animal welfare impacts, pet overpopulation poses economic costs like the $1 billion spent annually on sheltering animals. Overall, sterilization benefits both individual companion animals and populations by increasing longevity and reducing shelter intakes and euthan
The document provides an overview of the key concepts that will be covered in the second half of an animal behavior course, including adaptations (behavioral), phylogenies, fitness, game theory, and methods for testing hypotheses about animal behavior. It discusses how phylogenies relate to adaptations and convergent/divergent evolution. It also defines key terms like fitness, adaptation, exaptation, and optimal foraging theory. Examples are given around testing hypotheses of adaptive behaviors, like gazelle stotting deterring predators, and game theory, like frequency dependent selection allowing multiple strategies to coexist.
This document describes a study that examines how paired associate word learning is affected by the presence of a therapy dog, priming, and word imagery. College students were assigned to conditions involving the presence or absence of a therapy dog during the task, and whether or not they received priming by studying vocabulary words first. They then studied and were tested on their recall of word pairs that were either high or low in imagery. It is hypothesized that recall scores will be higher when a dog is present due to reduced stress and anxiety. Priming is also expected to improve recall by activating relevant memory representations. Consistent with prior research, higher imagery word pairs were expected to lead to better recall than lower imagery pairs. Interactions between the variables were
Scientists have long debated where dogs originated. A new large DNA study suggests dogs first appeared in Europe around 19,000-32,000 years ago, rather than Asia or the Middle East as some previous studies indicated. The study aligns with findings from the earliest known dog-like fossils, which also come from Europe.
An Inventory Of Peer-Reviewed Articles On Killer Whales (Orcinus Orca) With A...Steven Wallach
This study analyzed over 3,000 peer-reviewed articles about killer whales and bottlenose dolphins to summarize the main topics and settings of scientific research on these species. The majority of killer whale research focused on health/physiology, foraging behaviors, and distribution in natural habitats. Bottlenose dolphin research also emphasized health/physiology and distribution but included more studies of sociality and cognition, as well as more research in captivity. Both species would benefit from additional research on behavioral patterns. The results suggest killer whale welfare has received limited scientific attention and more research is needed on topics directly related to assessing welfare.
The document discusses the long-standing relationship between humans and dogs, and argues that dogs may help save mankind by developing empathy in children. It notes that emerging research shows interacting with dogs can positively influence child development, and reduce bullying and aggression. Furthermore, Stephen Hawking stated that developing empathy may be key to humanity's survival. The document concludes that connecting children with dogs early on can help increase empathy, which could help address issues like bullying and the millions of dogs euthanized in shelters each year.
Dr. Oliver Love runs the Love Lab at the University of Windsor. The lab examines physiological mechanisms driving life history trade-offs in birds. It takes a multi-disciplinary approach using evolutionary physiology, behavioural ecology, and conservation biology. The lab studies various bird species including tree swallows, seabirds, and Arctic species like snow buntings. It measures stress hormones in bird blood samples to understand the effects of disturbed habitats. The lab also breeds zebra finches to study genetic mutations and conduct experiments that can't be done on wild birds. The overall goal is to better understand and conserve bird populations.
This document summarizes research that attempted to replicate and test the findings of a previous study which concluded that chimpanzees can reason about what other chimpanzees can see (the visual perspectives of others). The researchers conducted 8 experiments using 7 chimpanzees to examine the measures and methodology of the previous study. Their critical results from Experiments 3, 6, and 8, supported by additional controls, found that chimpanzees may use competitive strategies but do not appear to reason about what others can and cannot see.
This document discusses the field of animal behavior and its importance and applications. It notes that animal behavior is the study of how animals interact with each other and their environment, and serves as a bridge between physiology and the environment. It then outlines several ways in which the study of animal behavior contributes to and influences other fields, such as neuroscience, environmental management, human behavior studies, and conservation. Specific examples are given of insights gained into areas like communication, emotional expression, migration patterns, and pest control from animal behavior research. The document also discusses how animal behavior courses can increase scientific literacy and interest in biology.
1. BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES 1
Behavioral differences among breeds of domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris):
Current status of the science
(Mehrkam, & Wynne, 2014)
Kasandra E. Keenan
Animal Behaviour
Durham College
2. BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES 2
Abstract
It is common knowledge that all breeds of dogs are very different. In most cases it is the
behaviour of each that stands out. The article stated “that breeds of dogs differ
behaviourally in substantial, consistent and predictable ways” (Mehrkam & Wynne,
2014). It has always been a questionable topic whether behaviour differences exist
between different breeds of dogs. The article I have chosen, Behavioural differences
among breeds of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and reviews the findings of
breed differences in behaviour through methodologies including temperament traits and
cognitive abilities. Scientific evidence has shown there is some behavioural difference in
dog breeds and breed groups, especially in the area of aggression, temperament, and
reactivity. There has been within-breed differences measured that show behavioural
aggression as well. Scientific literature has examined behaviour from an aggression point
of view comparing breed to breed, and breed within-breed. The experiments done have
been based on the traits of a breed and the methodology used to assess these traits. There
is enough evidence to indicate that different breeds have different traits, and behaviours.
There has not been enough consistency in the experimental findings and the recognized
breed standards. This brings us to another topic of discussion. How do we recognize a
breed standard? This article discusses both the strengths and weakness on the behavioural
research. It also points out that further research is necessary. If we are to understand
behaviour among dogs, then more experimentation and research must be completed and
there must be a common ground for the comparison.
Keywords: dog, behavioural, aggression, breeds, scientific, experiment
3. BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES 3
Behavioral differences among breeds of domestic dogs
Lindsay R. Mehrkam, & Clive D.L. Wynne (2014). Behavioral differences among breeds of
domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris): Current status of the science. Applied Animal Behaviour
Science
Introduction
This article studies many different areas in dog behaviour. “It is obvious that breed
differences in behaviour are both real and important in magnitude” (Mehrkam & Wynne, 2014).
National and International Kennel Clubs have helped establish the division of canines into proper
breed groups according to their behavioural traits and historical roles. Over the past century dog
breeds have grown, but they still have not done enough research on the behavioural
characteristics that make these breeds. Dog breeding has become an art! Humans have
selectively chosen dogs with different behaviours, and bred these dogs to give them a new breed.
Breeders feel they have come up with a unique canine that has characteristics that are favorable.
What really is happening is over the years the breeds that are crossbred are producing new
breeds. Domestic dogs and the breeds that make up the subspecies are now being researched in a
much broader sense. Subspecies is the production of an offspring, genetically, who is seen below
the original breed. Human selection has produced new breeds of dogs, but it has also produced
new problems in behavioural traits. Canis lupus familiaris basically means and comes from the
historical saying mans best friend. Different breeds have different and consistent behavioural
problems due to human’s selection.
The goal of this article is to research and find information that will discuss the differences
between breeds of dogs in temperament and cognitive abilities. Scientific research and the
4. BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES 4
findings need to be examined on the behavioural changes in the different breeds and whether or
not the breeds differ considerably or systematically. To prove behavioural differences exist based
on the different dog breeds, you have to consider the breed’s origin, the different methods used
for measuring the behaviour, the scientific literature, whether it has been validated and is
appropriate, the history of the breed tested, and how much the breed has been explored.
The hypothesis is when comparing the behavior of dogs within the same breed group and
comparing different breed groups. There is a significant, notable difference in the behaviour with
in the same breed. Secondly, there is a scientific conclusion for the trait that is being measured.
The trait must be by the breed standard. The final area of the hypothesis states areas of research
that need more investigation based on breed differences in behaviour. All creditable findings are
important as behaviour has never been totally understood. Possibly now a lot of our questions
will be answer based on scientific data that has been completed, a comparison of the data, and
most importantly they must use a common ground and appropriate method. Stereotyping of
breeds will hopefully someday be replaced by scientific data generated by behavioural
comparisons of all the studies.
Methodology
This article is based on empirical studies, Veterinary Databases, owner C-BARQ surveys,
Behaviourist, Obedience Judges, American Kennel Club (AKC), Fédération Cynologique
Internationale (FCL), literature novels (scientific), dog bite statistics and websites. All of the
articles experiments were collected, compared, and in some cases charted. Data collected was
compiled to form the article I am now discussing. From all the surveys and data that was
collected and compared, the researchers were looking for consistencies, and areas of strength. If
5. BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES 5
some of the data on behaviour, based on a breed, was scientifically proven, this would allow
further investigation to continue and thus, answer meaningful questions regarding aggression and
how to work with it or the dominant trait. The technique used was science and the evaluation of
most breeds.
Conclusions were drawn from the comparison of breeds, aggression, cognitive ability,
emotional reactivity, and trainability. The AKC has divided behavioural research dogs into seven
groups based on the canine’s historical role and behavioural traits. The FCI also divided canine
according to their designated traits that make the breed popular, into ten group titles. This helped
categorize these dogs. The empirical studies showing breed differences in behaviour have been
based on the categories put forth from the AKC and FCI. This has allowed researchers to find
accurate analysis based on their traits, under proper group titles. The conclusion based on all the
data proved that more scientific, investigated research is needed to aid the professionals
attending to the breeds. Many are in agreement that dog breeds differ in their behaviour and it is
measureable and at times predictable.
Results
Canine aggression is definitely a major problem, and has scientifically been proven to be
one of the largest areas of concern in canine behavior. They found aggression to be worse when
it was compared in specific breeds. A lot of the testing and test results that were compared are
irrelevant due to the fact that the professionals used different methologies on different behaviour
traits. There must be more research done, but all research done must follow the same protocol
(same technique).
6. BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES 6
One of the largest studies in temperament and personality involved data from 48
veterinarians and 48 obedience judges, “they ranked seven breeds chosen randomly from 56
breeds of dogs on 13 behavioral traits. A subsequent cluster analysis revealed that of 13 these
traits, aggression, emotional reactivity and trainability were found to account for the most
variance between breeds” (Draper, 1995; Hart and Hart, 1985). Not only did researchers look for
positive links among the breeds explaining aggression, but genetically they had hoped to find
some answers that explained serious temperaments. It seems that the behaviour of aggression is
more noticeable when comparing dogs within the same breed. This could be from over stimuli
and overbreeding, or environmental factors. The history of the canine is also a factor in results.
Categorizing breeds based on aggression, temperament factors, has not been scientifically proven
and at this point it cannot be considered. Conclusions will continue to evolve as long as we
continue to investigate and in time perhaps eliminate further stereotype conclusions.
Stereotyping behaviour is based solely on fictional results, rather than the true knowledge of
science.
Discussion
The article was done to investigate an ongoing and serious problem facing us today,
aggression! There are many types of aggression including Owner-directed aggression, Stranger-
directed aggression and Dog-directed aggression. When studying the aggression among different
breeds, and using all data comparing dog bite statistics, surveys from dog owners, surveys from
veterinarians and animal behaviourists, researchers have to consider where the aggression comes
from. Is the aggression worse when we compared breed to breed or within the same breed? All
the scientific information shows that within the same breed the aggression is much worse.
Owner based surveys using the C-BARQ in the USA, Japan and Taiwan have shown there is a
7. BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES 7
huge difference in breeds that show owner-directed aggression. The highest level of owner-
directed aggression and dog bites was seen in small to medium dogs. This included snapping at
children. The information is not reliable, as the children could have been taunting the dog in
some way. Breeds that ranked high for stranger-directed aggression, were consistent using the C-
BARQ by owner surveys, but were not consistent through experimental results. Dog related
aggression has been documented clearly and most experiments found that breeds were likely to
develop linear dominance hierarchy. This represents the strong, will minded dog that is called
the Alpha. Surveys done on aggression that were completed by dog owners were not consistent
with the stereotype percentage on the traits from a particular breed.
Research also looked at the trainability of our canine friends. Trainability is how well the
dog listens and learns activities we want them to succeed at. Aggression and emotional reactivity
has had more attention in the research area, but experimental studies and surveys have shown
that the research that was done has not been completely accurate or consistent. Trainability is
very important because we use these canines daily as working dogs. An example being dogs
assist the physically impaired or are police dogs. It is very cost effective when you can predict
behavioural traits. Training is also important because it gives working dogs a great amount of
responsibility and respectable roles in the working field. Extraversion and training focus were the
only differences detected between the seven breed groups that are recognized by Australian
National Kennel Council. The easiest breeds to train and work with are the herding breeds.
Cognition is the way an animal understands, and their abilities. Cognition is studied
through experiments. This area has also had less research attention, compared to temperament.
Canines cognitive abilities have been studied in domestic dogs in two areas “the tasks that
involve non-human stimuli and tasks that involve human interaction or response to human cues”
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(Mehrkam & Wynne, 2014). Among the dogs that were studied, Cocker Spaniels performed the
worst on a constant basis. Wire-Haired Fox Terriers, Beagles, and Shetland sheepdog performed
at a higher rank. To prove cognitive ability when comparing breed to breed, the subject must be
as similar as possible. There should be a standardized test that all breeds should take.
Through surveys and indirect assessment methods, breed differences will more than
likely be reported and discussed, than investigative experimental studies. This applies to
temperament traits being easier to assess versus cognitive abilities. Survey and indirect
assessment studies normally are done when trying to measure temperament, aggression and
trainability, while direct assessments using startle tests are done to measure the temperament at
dog shows. The studies done on aggression, trainability and emotional reactivity are not ideal
for showing the differences between dog breeds.
A lot of these studies have been helpful in some ways. Some of these studies show huge
differences or similarities in behavior within dog breeds. This could be caused by environmental
differences and experiences throughout the dog’s life. Different geographic areas and the
environment play a major roll on how the dog’s temperament traits will be. An example of this is
“a personality questionnaire for dog owners and trainers in Hungary, that looked at stranger-
directed sociability, activity, aggressiveness and trainability. Hungarian Vizsla and the German
Shepherd Dog had no differences between them” (Mirko et al, 2012). Also, a dog`s
temperament will differ among dogs that have been bred for field work, or show. To date,
published data on breed differences in temperament traits has had large numbers to observe, but
they used indirect methods. More research needs to be conducted in this area to look at the
inconsistencies reported among the popular owner-based surveys.
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The hypothesis stated that the behaviour between dogs of the same breed showed more
aggression and also the difference measuring certain breed traits was scientific, accurate and
within the breed standard for a given breed. I feel and the author has stated that contrary to the
hypothesis, breed standards are largely unconfirmed. The majority of breeds haven`t been
explored and very little is actually known about certain breeds. You cannot judge a breed if you
know very little about the breed. Known literature about breed differences and behaviour shows
that gene grouping breeds are not validated by behavioural research. The data that has been
illustrated and compared will indeed led to further investigation. The fact that I am addressing
this article proves that individuals are interested in our number one concern, aggression. We as a
group can make a difference and offer a resolution to this ongoing problem among all canine.
From this article I have observed different behaviour based on many issues. Aggression
is a definite problem in today`s society. We see it daily walking our own dogs. Within breed
aggression seems to be quite obvious, but further scientific research is needed. Survey- based
studies seem to be much easier to acquire information to compare and account for. But, if we
use this form of data to make assumptions, there must be a baseline to measure new statistics
from. There also must be uniformity in all studies so that statistics are comparable and done
relatively the same so that the information being shared is accurate. Moreover, in order for any
scientific research or study to make a statement on its own, be comparable and accurate,
common means must be used. Also, I noticed of all the breeds used, we know very little about
every breed. Thus, aggression, temperament, cognitive ability and trainability cannot be accurate
or assessed without using all of the breeds. Breed distinction is important and there should be a
uniform category for each breed. Scientific research using a proper number of dogs, proper
grouping, proper stimuli, and close observation is necessary to ensure our data is complete.
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Using owners can be bias and all like to think their dog is the best. All canines are unique, the
best. Possibly forming a research board made up of professionals, thinking, acting along the
same lines, could benefit us when comparing data. More time and energy is needed to truly get
to the true meaning of aggression. I would encourage scientists to do more experiments using
proper professionals. Neurological issues can be a true point as to aggressiveness. It also needs
further investigation. I do feel that if most of the studies were in a controlled atmosphere and
monitored more closely, with relatively ideal circumstances, the data compiled could stand firm
and be more accurate. Perhaps a behaviourist could directly make a proper chart for assessments
regarding aggression among the same breed and when comparing different breeds. This
definitely would be worth addressing.
Critique
A noted consistent problem was that very little data was measured and most tests were of
different durations and had little similarities. They repeatedly stated that further investigation
was necessary. As stated in my prior paragraph, perhaps there should be a governing body of
specialists brought forth on behalf of the professionals to address the aggression based on breed
diversity, and breed standards. The results would indeed be very conclusive and measured. All
tests, scientific research, scientific experiments must have proper guide lines and rules.
Scientific research at Universities and Colleges would be an asset if part of their
curriculum. This could have great advantages for all dogs. The fact that it was a learning centre
and compiled documentation reviewed by professionals, this would be better and scientifically
might stand on its own. Financially this would be beneficial to. Using proper technique will
allow us to determine major factors that set aggression as one of our biggest concerns.
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Conclusion
Reviewing literature, scientific data, veterinary and public safety records indicate that
there is indeed a behaviour difference among different breeds. Through scientific proof there are
behavioural issues such as aggression, among the dogs within the same breed. The breed
differences regulating behaviour are indeed genetic and environmental. It is obvious that breed
groups are different in many ways, but there is not enough scientific data to say this for certain.
Genetics, history, terrain, geographical locations are a few reasons why aggression is hard to
measure and report on. Although experiments done here are important, it is important for other
countries to work and share their information with us. All professionals who work with canine
need to agree on matters that concern the public with regards to safety from behavioural
disturbances. Having an International Study compiled is a wonderful idea and a way of studying
all worldly breeds. Also certain breeds are only available in certain countries. Animal lovers
must work together to have a positive reaction and understanding. Professionals must educate
owners, who in return will be able to work closely with their canine to properly correct
aggression dominance and problems properly, and safely. A happy, healthy canine is a happy
owner.
It is the responsibility of professionals to examine and make true statements. The
professionals must work in a unison manner for any scientific results to stand and make a
difference. Behaviourists, dog owners, veterinarians, obedience trainers, animal handlers, animal
legislatures are to name a few who need to step up and be the voice so more data is available and
that the data is accurate and reliable.
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References
Lindsay R. Mehrkam, & Clive D.L. Wynne (2014). Behavioral differences among breeds
of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris): Current status of the science. Applied Animal
Behaviour Science