basic introduction to research chapter 1.pptx

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
to
the
 Research means finding
answers questions.
 It is a systematic search for truth.
 Through research, new and original
information, ideas about the world we live in,
are obtained.
 Research is search for knowledge.
a scientific
and
 Research is defined
as systematic
search for
information on
a
specific topic.

DEFINITION
• Research is manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art (Kothari, C.R.)
• According to Clifford woody, "research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions collecting, organizing and evaluating
data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis."

WHICH OF THESE CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS RESEARCH?
1 Samad prepared a paper on “computer usage in secondary
schools” after reviewing literature on the subject available in his
university library.
2 Manoj says that he has researched and completed a document
which gives information about the age of his students, their results,
their parents income and distance of their schools from the District
Office.
3 Kim participated in a workshop on curriculum development and
prepared what he calls, a report on the curriculum for Engineers.

NONE OF THE ABOVE
EXAMPLES CAN BE CLASSIFIED
UNDER THE NAME RESEARCH.

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING CASE
WHICH IS AN EXAMPLE OF
RESEARCH
•A general manager of a car producing company was concerned
with the complaints received from the car users that the car they
produce have some problems with sound at the dash board and
the rear passenger seat after few thousand kilometers of driving.
•He obtained information from the company workers to identify
the various factors influencing the problem.
•He then formulated the problem and generated guesses
(hypotheses).
•He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite information
from a representative sample of cars.
•He analyzed the collected data, interpreted the results in the light
of his hypotheses and reached conclusions.

UNIT 1:
INTRODUCTION TO
RESEARCH

⚫A Research simply means Search for a facts,
Answer to questions and solution to problems it
is a purposive Investigation.
⚫It is to find Explanation to Un Explained
phenomenon
⚫It is an Organized Inquiry; it is adding
Knowledge to the Existing Knowledge.
⚫Research is a systematic and logical study of an
Issue or Problem or Phenomenon.
⚫Research is a systematic investigative process
employed to increase knowledge by
discovering new facts.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
⚫Gather New Knowledge or Data
⚫Research is a Systematic & Critical Investigation
in to a Phenomenon.
⚫It adopts Scientific Methods
⚫Research requires patience, Accurate &
Courage.
⚫Research is a Logical & Objective
⚫Research is based on Observable Experience
or Empirical Evidence.

⚫It Emphasis the development of generalization
Principles or Theories.
⚫Research is directed towards finding answer to
pertinent questions & solutions to problems.
⚫Research is highly purposive, Reliable, Validity.
⚫Research is carefully Recorded & Reported.

SELECTED EXAMPLES OF REAL-LIFE
SITUATIONS IN WHICH BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS ARE USED

 A firm wants to produce and market a new product but first wants to
ascertain if there is a potential consumer demand for this product in
markets x,y and z
 A multinational firm wants to establish a production facility in another
country after determining its technical and economic feasibility
 A government agency wants to ascertain the satisfaction level of its
employees, the causes for any possible discontent, and propose a scheme
for enhancing this level
 A financial institution wants to invest in commodities and commissions a
study to determine the past trends and forecast future returns in a portfolio
of commodities
MNC wants to find out the trends in retail and wholesale sector

General Business Conditions and
Corporate Research
 Short- & Long-Range Forecasting,
 Business and Industry Trends
 Global Environments
 Inflation and Pricing
 Plant and Warehouse Location
 Acquisitions
Financial and Accounting Research
Forecasts of financial interest rate trends,
Stock,bond and commodity value predictions
Capital formation alternatives
Mergers and acquisitions
Risk-return trade-offs
Portfolio analysis
Impact of taxes
Research on financial institutions
Expected rate of return
Capital asset pricing models
Credit risk
Cost analysis
FIELDS WHERE RESEARCH IS OFTEN
USED – (1)
Management and Organizational
Behaviour Research
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Total Quality Management
Morale and Job Satisfaction
Leadership Style
Employee Productivity
Organizational Effectiveness
Structural ssues
Absenteeism and turnover
Organizational Climate

• Sales and Marketing Research
 Market Potentials
 Market Share
 Market segmentation
 Market characteristics
 Sales Analysis
 Establishment of sales quotas
 Distribution channels
 New product concepts
 Test markets
 Advertising research
 Buyer behaviour
 Customer satisfaction
 Website visitation rates
• Information Systems Research
•Knowledge and information needs assessment
•Computer information system use
and evaluation
•Technical suppot
satisfaction Database
analysis
•Data mining
•Enterprise resource planning systems
Customer relationship management systems
• Corporate Responsibility Research
•Ecological Impact
•Legal Constraints on advertising and
promotion
•Sex, age and racial discrimination /
worker equity
•Social values and ethics
FIELDS WHERE BUSINESS RESEARCH IS OFTEN
USED – (2)

⚫ Applied VS Fundamental
Research
⚫ Descriptive Research
⚫ Exploratory Research
⚫ Analytical Research
⚫ Qualitative Research
⚫ Quantitative Research
⚫ Historical Research
⚫ Case study Research
⚫ Conceptual VS Empirical
Research
⚫ Scientific Research
⚫ Survey Research
⚫ Experimental Research
⚫ Clinical or Diagnostic Research

⚫Fundamental / Pure Research: is mainly
concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. Pure Research is
undertaken for the sake of Knowledge
without any intention to apply in Practice. It
is undertaken out of intellectual curiosities.
Ex. Behaviors of Workers for changes of
working hours conditions, Behaviors’ of Public
for changes of Petrol Price, Government
Policies. Behaviors of Customer for change of
Bank Interest rates by the RBI. Einstein’s
Theory of Relativity, Newton’s contributions,
Galileo’s contributions etc.

⚫Applied Research: is carried on to
find solution for an immediate
problem facing of society or an
Industry or Business Organization
on it aims to help to take policy
decision. It solves the existing
burning problem. Ex. Sexual
Harassment, Farmers Suicides,
Swine flu, Bird flu, Depression
among young professionals,

⚫Descriptive Research: It is a fact finding
Investigation with adequate
interpretation. It is the simplest type of
research. It is more specific than an
exploratory study. It describes the state of
affairs as it is exists at present. It describes
a research problem by using
questionnaires and opinions. It aims at
Identifying the characteristics of a
community or Institution or any problem
under study.

⚫Exploratory Research is development of
Hypothesis rather than their Testing. It is also
called as Formulative Research here
Preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem
about which the researcher has little or No
Knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s Initial
Investigation of a patient suffering from a
Unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for
identifying it.

⚫Analytical Research: It is the study
of quantitative data by using
statistical tools and mathematical
model to make critical evaluation
of the material

⚫Qualitative Research: is
concerned with qualitative
Phenomenon. Ex Human
behavior, Studies on Crime,
Suicides, Divorce, Opinion,
Attitude, Mr. Cool type of Person,

⚫Historical Research: Historical Research
is a study based on historical data, past
records, and other evidence information
sources with a view to reconstructing the
origin and development of an institution
or a Movement or a system and
discovering the trends in the past. The
Main source are Monuments, Fossils, Arts
and Architecture, Numismatics, Literature
and the like.

⚫ Case study Research: It is a comprehensive
study of a social unit such as an Individual, a
Family, an Institution, a District or a
Community. It is an approach which views
any social unit a a whole.It also include
in depth comprehensive study of a person, a
social group, an episode, a process , a
situation, a Programme, A Community, An
Institution or any other social Unit, suicides of
farmers in Karnataka, Draught in north
Karnataka etc.

Conceptual Research: It is
used by Philosophers and
thinkers t develop New
Concepts or to interpret
existing ones.

⚫Empirical Research relies
on Experience or Observation
alone.

⚫ The scientific Research is a body of techniques for
investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous
knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of
inquiry must be based on empirical and
measurable evidence subject to specific principles
of reasoning. The Oxford English Dictionary
defines the scientific method as "a method or
procedure that has characterized natural science
since the 17th century, consisting in systematic
observation, measurement, and experiment, and
the formulation, testing, and modification of
hypotheses."

⚫ Survey is a Fact finding study. It is a method of
research involving collection of data directly from a
population or a sample there of at particular time.
It must not be confused with the mere clerical
routine of gathering and tabulating figures.
⚫ Survey Research Developed since the 1930's,
survey research seeks to identify what large
numbers of people (mass) think or feel about
certain things. It is used extensively in politics and
marketing (such as TV advertising).Examples of
survey research are Public opinion polls
⚫ Mail Surveys
⚫ Telephone Surveys
⚫ Consumer Surveys (in the Mall)

⚫ Experimental Research is designed to assess the
effects of particular variables on a phenomenon
by keeping the other variables constant or
controlled. It aims at determining whether and
what manner variables are related to each other.
The factor which is influenced by other factors is
called a dependent variable and other factor
which influence is called independent variables.
(Independent variable = Cause, Dependent
Variable = Effect) ex. Agricultural productivity is
dependent ie (Crop yield per hectare) Where as
Soil Fertility, Irrigation, Quality of Seed, Manuring
and Cultivation Practices are Independent.

⚫Clinical or Diagnostic Approach:
this is Similar to Descriptive study
but with a different focus. It is
directed towards discovering what is
happening, why is it happening and
what can be done about. It aims at
identifying the causes of a problem
and possible solution for it

SCOPE OF RESEARCH
• 1.To know the Business Competition – Environment
• a.To know the Customers:- Know about customers needs,
• b.To know the Product – Design, Price, Expectations
• 2.To know the Industry Competition:
• 3. Maturing of Management as a group of disciplines
• 4 Stakeholders demanding greater influence
• 5.To know the Global Competition
• 6. Government Intervention
• 7. Economical Data Collection

RESEARCH APPROACH
• RESEARCH APPROACHES:
• 1. Qualitative Approach
• 2. Quantitative Approach
•

• Qualitative research is the approach usually associated with
the social constructivist paradigm which emphasises the
socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording,
analysing and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning
and significance of human behaviour and experience,
including contradictory beliefs, behaviours and emotions.

•The approach adopted by qualitative researchers
tends to be inductive which means that they
develop a theory or look for a pattern of
meaning on the basis of the data that they have
collected.
•This involves a move from the specific to the
general and is sometimes called a bottom-up
approach

• Quantitative research Quantitative research is
generally associated with the
positivist/postpositivist paradigm. It usually
involves collecting and converting data into
numerical form so that statistical calculations can
be made and conclusions drawn.

•The main emphasis of quantitative research is on
deductive reasoning which tends to move from
the general to the specific. This is sometimes
referred to as a top down approach. The validity of
conclusions is shown to be dependent on one or
more premises (prior statements, findings or
conditions) being valid. Aristotle’s famous example
of deductive reasoning was: All men are mortal
aSocrates is a man a Socrates is mortal.

RESEARCH PROCESS
⚫ Formulating Research Problem
⚫ Extensive Literature Survey
⚫ Developing Objectives and Hypothesis
⚫ Preparing the Research Design
⚫ Determining the Sample Design
⚫ Collecting the Data
⚫ Analysis of Data
⚫ Hypothesis Testing
⚫ Generalization & Interpretation
⚫ Preparation of the Report/ Presentation of the
Results

⚫Formulating Research Problem: formulation
of research problem is the first step which
further involves understanding the problem
thoroughly and rephrasing the same in to
meaning full terms. Ex “A study of Consumer
behavior for the new multi-utility vehicle car
“INNOVA’ of Toyota Motors in Bangalore”
⚫ Extensive Literature Survey: Literature
Survey involves reading and verifying the
books, periodicals, journals, CD- Roms, microfilms
on the topic of research to identify the research
gap.

Developing Hypothesis: Hypothesis is the
tentative statement the validity of which
remains to be tested. It gives direction to
carry out any research programme. There are
other names for hypothesis such as
conjecture, proposition, assumption,
presumptions. Ex a Proper promotion mix
helps creation of more demand for a product.
⚫Preparing the Research Design: Research
Design is the blue print or frame work or
outline to carryout a research programme.

⚫ Determining the Sample Design: Sample Design
or Sampling is the technique to draw the sample
units from the universe or population. Probability
or non- probability technique may be used for
this purpose
⚫ Collecting the Data: Collection of data involves
gathering the primary and secondary data, for
quantitative and experimental research the
former is essential to examine the truth of the
hypothesis.
⚫ Analysis of Data: Analysis of Data involves
statistical treatment of the data collected on a
research topic. It involves coding, editing,
decoding and drawing inferences subsequently.

⚫Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis testing is done
through statistical tests such as Chi-square, t-
test and F- test. It will result in either accepting
hypothesis or otherwise.
⚫Generalization & Interpretation:
Generalization refers to building a theory after
testing hypothesis if any. If the researcher had
no hypothesis then he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some history. It is
known as Interpretation.

⚫Preparation of the Report/ Presentation of
the Results: A Research Report is the formal
statement of the research process and its
results. It narrates the problem studied.
Methods used for studying and the findings
and conclusions.

What is a research problem?
The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be
examined.
Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a
researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical
or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.

1. FORMULATING RESEARCH
PROBLEM

 It should be precise. (Words)
 It should be clear. (Conceptual)
 It should be specific. (Scope)
 It should be catchy. (Attractive)

Incorrect Title:
A Study of Implementation of Data Mining Techniques for Effective Crime and
Criminal Investigation
Correct Title:
An Implementation of Data Mining Techniques for Effective Investigation of
Crimes: A Study of Satara and Pune Districts.
Simple Way:
Financial and Operational Performance Analysis of Mergers and Acquisitions in
Indian Banking Sector: A Study
Attractive Way:
Analysis of Mergers and Acquisitions in Indian Banking Sector in Post
Liberalization Era: An Exploratory Study
Or
Impact of Mergers and Acquisitions on Performance of Indian Banks in Post
Liberalization Era

 Proposed research topic should have a genuine need for investigation.
 Do the following need an investigation ?
o High turn over of employees of a reputed five star hotel affecting its
revenue.
o An increasing trend of farmers’ suicides in a particular region.
o Decelerating sales trend of a well known and popular automobile
company affecting its sales revenue.
Yes

HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 Customer complaints
 Conversation with company employees
 Observation of inappropriate behaviour
or conditions in the firm
 Deviation from the business plan
 Success of the firm’s competitor’s
 Relevant reading of published material (trends,
regulations)
 Company records and reports.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMS







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Following are certain important sources which are helpful to a researcher to select a
researchable problem.
1) Professional experiences:- Researcher‘s professional experience is obviously a great
source of problem. Most of the research problems come from day to day interaction of the
individual with different situations like labor problems, customer‘s attitude towards a new
product, change in market, etc. The person concerned needs solution to these problems,
which provide scope for a research topic.
2) Readings:-When we critically study books and articles relating to the subject of our
interest, pertinent questions may arise in our mind. Similarly area of research may strike to
our mind when we read research reports.
3) Academic Experience:-Classroom lectures, class discussions, seminar discussions, out of
class exchanges of ideas with fellow students and professors will suggest many stimulating
problems to be studied.
4) Daily experience:- Life is dynamic. We learn new things and undergo new experiences
every day. If we are alert, inquisitive and sensitive to life situations, we may bit upon
questions worth of investigation, ―It is a mark of scientific genius to be sensitive to
difficulties where less gifted people pass untroubled by doubts.
5) Exposure to field situations:- Field visits, internship training and extension work provide
exposure to practical problems which call for study.
.

• 6) Consultations:-Discussions with experts, researchers, administrators and business
executives will help researches to identify meaningful problems for research.
• 7) Brain Storming:-Intensified discussion within a group of interested person may often be
a means of identifying pertinent questions and of developing new ideas about a problem.
• 8) Research:-Research on one problem may suggest problem for further research.
• 9) Intuition:- Sometimes new ideas may strike to one‘s mind like a flash. Reflective mind
is a spring of knowledge.
• 10) Technological and Social Advancement:-Everyday new scientific and technological
innovations are taking place. These innovations are to be implemented in the field of trade
and business

CRITERIA OF
SELECTION
Factors
 Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest,
Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own
Resource: finance and time.
 External Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the
problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the
Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social
Relevance, Research Personnel.

II. EXTENSIVE
LITERATURE
REVIEW

REVIEW OF
LITERATURE
 It is an extensive survey of all available past studies
relevant to the field of investigation.
 It gives us knowledge about what others have found
out in the related field of study and how they have
done so.

PURPOSE/
SIGNIFICANCE OF
REVIEW
 To gain a background knowledge of the research
topic.
 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential
relationships between them and to formulate
researchable hypothesis.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research design,
methods of measuring concepts and techniques of
analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports.

SOURCES OF
LITERATURE
 Books and Journals
 Electronic Databases
Bibliographic Databases
Abstract Databases
Full-Text Databases
 Govt. and Industry Reports
 Internet
 Research Dissertations / Thesis

III.DEVELOPING
OBJECTIVES
AND
HYPOTHESIS

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
• Research Objectives are statements of what the researcher intends
to do.The objectives flow directly from the problem.They
communicate what the researcher plans to do. Structurally, the
objectives are seen as small particles which constitute the problem.
• Research Objectives are usually stated in declarative form and
starts with infinitives like: 1. to find out
• to determine
• to describe
• to compare
• to test

HYPOTHESIS
 Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that
relates an independent variable to a dependant
variable.
Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent
variable and one dependant variable.

• Types of hypotheses (main categories)
• A null hypothesis is a negative statement which indicate s no relationship
nor correlation between two variables. Example Given Objective:
“determine whether there is a significant relationship between the extent
of mass media exposure and attitude towards land reform among lowland
farmers
• ” The Null Hypothesis:“ There is no significant relationship between the
extent of mass media exposure and attitude towards land reform among
lowland farmers.”
• An alternative hypothesis is also called the research hypothesis . It is the
positive form of the null hypothesis. Example The Null Hypothesis:“ There
is a significant relationship between mass media exposure and attitude
towards land reform among lowland farmers.”

• Example
• Given Objective: “determine whether there is a significant relationship
between the extent of mass media exposure and attitude towards land
reform among lowland farmers”
• The Null Hypothesis: “ There is no significant relationship between the extent
of mass media exposure and attitude towards land reform among lowland
farmers.”
• An alternative hypothesis is also called the research hypothesis . It is the
positive form of the null hypothesis.
• Example
• The Null Hypothesis: “ There is a significant relationship between mass media
exposure and attitude
• towards land reform among lowland farmers.”

IV. RESEARCH DESIGN
Meaning:
The research design refers to the overall strategy
that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical
way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address
the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data.

DEFINITION
⚫Burns and Grove define a research design as
“a blueprint for performing a study with
maximum control over factors which could
interfere with the validity of the findings”.
⚫Parahoo explains a research design as “a plan
which explains how, when and where data are
to be collected and analyzed”.
⚫Polit et al define a research design as “the
researcher’s overall for answering the
research question or testing the research
hypothesis”.

THE KEY FEATURES OF A RESEARCH DESIGN
ARE:
• (i) It is a plan which describes the sources and kinds of information
strongly related to the research problem.
• (ii) It is a strategy indicating which method will be employed for
collecting and examining the data.
• (iii) It also consists of the time and cost budgets because most
studies are done under these two limitations.

A detailed blueprint specifying how the research will be carried out
• research design must, at least, contain
• (a) a clear statement of the research problem;
• (b) processes and methods to be utilized for
collecting data;
• (c) the population to be researched; and
• (d) techniques to be employed in processing and
examining data.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH METHODS AND
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY?
• 1. The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the
researcher to undertake research. On the other hand, research methodology is
a system of methods, used scientifically for solving the research problem.
• 2. The research method is nothing but the behaviour or tool, employed in
selecting and building research technique. Conversely, research methodology
implies the science of analysing, the manner in which research is conducted
appropriately.
• 3. The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test,
surveys, interviews, etc. As against this, research methodology is concerned
with learning various techniques which can be employed in the performance of
experiment, test or survey.

• 4. Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research
methodology, which consists of complete approach aligned towards the
attainment of purpose.
• 5. Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand.
In contrast, research methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures,
with a view to ascertaining solutions.

RESEARCH DESIGN
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN.
1) Exploratory Research
Exploratory research (or ER) is an examination into
a subject in an attempt to gain further insight.With
ER, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses
research as a tool to identify issues that could be
the focus of future research. Look at how ER is used
in business.
For instance, let's say you own a bakery called The
Cupcake King. If you wanted to improve your sales,
but weren't sure where to start, you might employ
ER to find out the areas of your business that need
improvement.

•You may wonder how you can explore a topic if
there is little information about it. There are
•several methods that are used in exploratory
research. Researchers may use primary or
secondary research, or a combination of both
types of research.

• 2) descriptive research design
• They are used when the researcher wants to describe specific behavior as it
occurs in the environment
• Traditionally, descriptive research involves three main categories: observation, case studies, and
surveys. Let's take a closer look at each of these individually.
• A descriptive study is one in which information is collected without changing the environment (i.e.,
nothing is manipulated). It is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the
phenomena to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The
methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study which
investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to determine
changes over time.

•3) Experimentation research design
• 1. Laboratory experiments -
• Research designs are either experimental or non-experimental. Experimental research is
conducted mostly in laboratories in the context of basic research.The principle advantage of
experimental designs is that it provides the opportunity to identify cause-and-effect
relationships. Non-experimental research, e.g., case studies, surveys, correlation studies, is non-
manipulative observational research usually conducted in natural settings
• In experimental research, the investigator manipulates conditions for the
purpose of
• determining their effect on behavior. Subjects should be unaware of their
membership in an experimental group so that they don’t act differently
(Hawthorne Effect). In the simplest experimental design, investigators
administer a placebo to the control group and a treatment to the experimental
group. Experimental designs vary in terms of subjects’ assignments to
different groups, whether subjects were pre-tested, whether different
treatments were administered to different
• groups, and the number of variables being investigated.

STEPS IN DEVELOPING A RESEARCH
DESIGN
• 1. Classify the intended outcome i.e. what needs to be understood.
• 2. Develop the research question.
• 3. Understand what needs to be measured.
• 4. Select the population as per the study taken up.
• 5. Identify the ideal data collection method.
• 6. Construct interconnected characteristics.
• 7. Use correct analysis tools.
• 8. Decide how the findings of the study shall be published

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH DESIGN
• VARIABLES IN RESEARCH DESIGN
a) Dependent and independent variables: -A concept which can take on different
quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height,
income are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are
also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attributes.
• Dependent variable: - If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable is termed as a dependent variable.
• Independent variable: -The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is
termed as Independent variable. Example: - If we say that height depends upon age, then
height is dependent variable and age is independent variable.

• Continuous variable: -Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal
points are called continuous variable. Example: - Age
• Non Continuous variable/Discrete variable: -All variables are not continuous. If they can only be
expressed in integer values, they are non continuous variables or in statistical language discrete
variables. Example: - Number of children
• b) Extraneous variable: -Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may
affect dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
• c) Control: - One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect
of extraneous variables. The technical term ‗control‘ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.

• d) Confounded relationships: -When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variables, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variables
• e) Research hypothesis: The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at
least one independent and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be
objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are not termed
research hypotheses.
• f) Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing research: -When the purpose of
research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis testing research. It can be
of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.

What do we mean by ‘ethics’
• The moral principles guiding research
(ESRC, 2004)
• Sets of moral principles or norms that are
used to guide moral choices of behaviour
and relationships with others (Blumberg, et
al, 2005)

Ethics in Research
• Voluntary consent of the human subject is
essential
• Experiment should yield fruitful results for
the good of society, unprocurable by other
methods or means of study, and not
random and unnecessary in nature
• Experiment should be so designed on a
knowledge of the problem under study that
the anticipated results will justify the
performance of the experiment.
• Experiment should be so conducted as to
avoid all unnecessary physical and mental
suffering and injury

Ethics in Research
• The degree of risk should never exceed the humanitarian
importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment
• Adequate facilities should be provided to protect the
experimental subject against even remote possibilities of
injury, disability, or death
• The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically
qualified persons
• The human subject should be at liberty to bring the
experiment to an end if he has reached the physical or mental
state where continuation seems to him to be impossible
• The researcher must be prepared to terminate the experiment
at any stage, if he has probable cause to believe, that a
continuation is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to
the experimental subject

Typical research involving ethical risk
• Vulnerable groups – such as children and
young people, those with learning
disabilities or special needs
• Sensitive topics – for example, sexual or
illegal activities, or people’s experience of
abuse or violence
• Subjects can only be accessed via a
gatekeeper – for example, some ethnic or
cultural groups
• Element of deception such as covert
observation used without a participant’s
full or informed consent

Ethical principles
Ethical principles, then, fall into four main
areas, namely, the need to:
• Avoid harm to participants (and producing
benefits)
• Ensure informed consent of participants
• Respect the privacy of participants
• Avoid the use of deception

PoliticsNJ, The Pulblis Group, Hoboken, NJ.
http://www.politicsnj.com/plagerism090903.htm.
Plagiarism defined:
The word
“plagiarism”
comes from the
Latin plagiarus
meaning
“kidnapper”

What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism means “the appropriation of
another person’s ideas, processes, results,
or words without giving appropriate credit”
Source: MSU’s Procedures Concerning Allegations
of Misconduct in Research and Creative Activities
http://rio.msu.edu/June_2009_Procedures.pdf

Why is plagiarism important? Who really
cares?
Plagiarism is theft of intellectual property.
Plagiarism is cheating.
Plagiarism may result in receiving a failing grade or
zero for the assignment. Plagiarism could result in a
disciplinary referral. Students caught plagiarizing may
be denied admittance to or removal from the National
Honor Society.

Common Types of Plagiarism
• Paraphrasing without giving credits to
the original source
• Quoting less than what has been copied
• Creating a paper by cutting and pasting
phrases, sentences, or paragraphs from
other publications
• Working on an individual assignment
with a partner and turning in identical
answers
Based on Robert A. Harris’ Plagiarism Handbook: Strategies for Preventing, Detecting, and Dealing
with Plagiarism. Los Angeles, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2001..

Desperate Types of Plagiarism
• Copy an entire article from the Web
or a subscription online database
• Download a free research paper from the Web
• Buy a paper from a commercial paper mill
• Fake a citation to get by so as to meet the
deadline
• Use a paper with permission from a friend who
took the same course or chose the same
research topic
Based on Robert A. Harris’ Plagiarism Handbook: Strategies for Preventing, Detecting,
and Dealing with Plagiarism. Los Angeles, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2001..

What Can We Do to
Prevent or Ward off
Plagiarism?

Popular Commercial Tool
(http://www.plagiarism.org)

Use these three strategies,
 Quoting
 Paraphrasing
 Summarizing
To blend source materials in with your own,
making sure your own voice is heard.

Quoting
Quotations are the exact words of an author, copied directly
from a source, word for word. Quotations must be cited!
Use quotations when:
 You want to add the power of an author’s words to support your
argument
 You want to disagree with an author’s argument
 You want to highlight particularly eloquent or powerful phrases
or passages
 You are comparing and contrasting specific points of view
 You want to note the important research that precedes your
own
Carol Rohrbach and Joyce Valenza

Quotations must be attributed to the original
author and the source that you used.
For example:
If you use the phrase, “Fourscore and twenty
years ago, our forefathers . . .” you must give
credit to Abraham Lincoln and the book in which
he is quoted.
Lincoln, Abraham. Gettysburg Address. In
Lincoln at Gettysburg: the Words that Remade
America, Garry Wills. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1992.

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means rephrasing the words of an author,
putting his/her thoughts in your own words. When you
paraphrase, you rework the source’s ideas, words,
phrases, and sentence structures with your own. Like
quotations, paraphrased material must be followed with in-
text documentation and cited on your Works-Cited page.
Paraphrase when:
 You plan to use information on your note cards and wish to
avoid plagiarizing
 You want to avoid overusing quotations
 You want to use your own voice to present information

Examples:
Source: Unless steps are taken to provide a predictable and
stable energy supply in the face of growing demand, the
nation may be in danger of sudden power losses or even
extended blackouts, thus damaging our industrial and
information-based economies. – John Doe, 1999, p.231.
Inadequate paraphrase: Doe (1999) recommends that the
government take action to provide a predictable and stable
energy supply because of constantly growing demand.
Otherwise, we may be in danger of losing power or even
experiencing extended blackouts. These circumstances
could damage our industrial and information-based
economy. (p.231).

Summarizing
 Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) of
one or several writers into your own words,
including only the main point(s). Summaries are
significantly shorter than the original and take a
broad overview of the source material. Again, it is
necessary to attribute summarized ideas to their
original sources.
Summarize when:
 You want to establish background or offer an overview of a
topic
 You want to describe knowledge (from several sources)
about a topic
 You want to determine the main ideas of a single source

Possible Consequences
  scholarly reputation
  self-concept
  grades
 Dissertation not accepted
 Expulsion from university/no degree
 Expulsion from professional organizations
 Loss of job (GA/faculty)

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