Atp30

The Australian Temperament Project
The first 30 years
Edited by Suzanne Vassallo
and Ann Sanson
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
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Suggested citation: Vassallo, S., & Sanson, A. (Eds.) (2013). The Australian
Temperament Project: The first 30 years. Melbourne: Australian Institute of
Family Studies.
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iThe Australian Temperament Project:The first 30 years
Contents
About the authors ii
Acknowledgements iv
Foreword v
Preface vi
1. The AustralianTemperament Project 1
Suzanne Vassallo and Ann Sanson
Tracking lives through time 1
ATP study members and data 1
The ATP researchers 3
2. Infancy and early childhood 4
Ann Sanson and Frank Oberklaid
What is temperament? 4
The role of temperament in social and emotional adjustment 4
Shyness 5
3. The primary school years 6
Margot Prior and Diana Smart
Learning in the primary school years 6
Later progress of children with early reading problems 6
Behaviour in the primary school years 6
4. Early adolescence 8
Primrose Letcher and Craig Olsson
Anxiety and depression 8
Genetic influences 9
5. Mid/late adolescence 10
Diana Smart, John W. Toumbourou, Ann Sanson and Keri Little
Antisocial behaviour 10
Alcohol use and alcohol-related problems 11
6. Early adulthood 13
Mary Hawkins, Meredith O’Connor, Suzanne Vassallo, Craig Olsson and Diana Smart
Positive development 13
Driving behaviour 14
How does parenting change as young people move into adulthood? 15
7. Future directions and opportunities:Adulthood and the third ATP generation 17
Ann Sanson, Suzanne Vassallo, Jacqui Macdonald, Ben Edwards and Craig Olsson
Some areas of focus for the future 17
The ATP Generation 3 Study 18
Contributing knowledge for science and public policy 18
Conclusion 19
8. AustralianTemperament Project publications 20

ii Australian Institute of Family Studies
About the authors
Dr Ben Edwards (BA, BA(Hons), PhD) is Executive Manager (Longitudinal Studies) at the Australian
Institute of Family Studies. He manages Growing Up in Australia: The Longitudinal Study of Australian
Children (LSAC) and, since 2010, has been involved in the Australian Temperament Project (ATP). Ben
has undertaken evaluations of large-scale government programs focused on child wellbeing, as well
as research on child and adolescent development, families caring for a person with a disability, and
the effects of drought on families. He has also undertaken consultancies for a range of government
and non-government agencies. Ben has used ATP data to examine the long-term effects of adolescent
bullying, and in an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) project on
the influence of temperament on social progress in adulthood.
Dr Mary Hawkins (BA(Hons), PhD) is a Research Fellow working for Deakin University, specialising
in the measurement and analysis of positive outcomes. Mary has an interest in wellbeing over the
lifespan and worked as part of the ATP team on positive development from 2007 to 2012, covering
the period from late adolescence to adulthood. She also co-authored papers on school bonding and
alcohol-related harms and worked as Project Manager for the ATP during 2012.
Dr Primrose Letcher (BA(Hons), MPsych(Clin), PhD) is a clinical psychologist with a long history
of project management and research with the ATP. Her PhD examined precursors of anxiety in
adolescence, using the ATP dataset. Her main research interests include individual, family and social
processes in child and adolescent development, developmental psychopathology of emotional
problems and positive development across the lifespan. Primrose is currently Project Manager for
the ATP Generation 3 Study, which is following the health and development of children born to ATP
study members. With two young children of her own, she is keen to contribute to our understanding
about intergenerational pathways and processes.
Keriann Little (BA(Hons)/BSc) has been a research assistant on the ATP since 2007 and is currently
undertaking a Masters in Psychology (Clinical Child)/PhD. Her work on the ATP has included making
telephone contact with many ATP study members, and undertaking research on the causes and
consequences of alcohol consumption in adolescence and early adulthood. Her other areas of interest
centre around the contributions of genetics and environmental factors to adolescent mental health.
Jacqui Macdonald (BA(Hons)) is a lecturer in the School of Psychology at Deakin University and a
researcher and former Project Manager with the ATP Generation 3 Study. Her research focuses on the
emotions and behaviours associated with caregiving. Using ATP data from three generations, she is
exploring the factors in a person’s life history that might predict the way in which they relate to their
children. Specifically, she is examining the quality of the relationships that ATP study members have
had with family and friends, from childhood through to early adulthood, and how that might affect
the relationships study members develop with their own children.
Professor Frank Oberklaid (AOM, MD, FRACP, DCH) is the Foundation Director of the Centre for
Community Child Health, Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne, and a Professor within the University
of Melbourne Department of Pædiatrics. Frank is a pædiatrician who maintains an active clinical
practice in developmental/behavioural pædiatrics, in addition to his interests in research, training and
advocacy for children. He has authored two books, numerous book chapters and over 150 scientific
papers on various aspects of pædiatrics. Frank was one of the instigators of the ATP and was a chief
investigator on the project in its early years.

iiiThe Australian Temperament Project:The first 30 years
Dr Meredith O’Connor (BA(Hons), DEdPsych, MAPS) is an educational and developmental
psychologist specialising in the interface between education and healthy development over the life
course, with an emphasis on practice- and policy-relevant research. Her doctoral research used ATP
data to explore pathways to positive development and the relationship between healthy functioning
and mental health problems during the transition to adulthood. She was part of the ATP team from
2008 to 2012, and continues to work with the team in research on healthy development. She is
currently the Positive Education Research Fellow at Geelong Grammar School and a Senior Research
Officer at Murdoch Childrens Research Institute.
Associate Professor Craig Olsson (PhD) is a developmental psychologist based at the Royal Children’s
Hospital Melbourne, with joint appointments at the Deakin Centre for Mental Health and Wellbeing
Research, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, and the Department of Pædiatrics at the University
of Melbourne. He has worked on the ATP since 2009 and now leads the ATP Generation 3 Study. His
work addresses the many factors, both within and across generations, that affect development from
childhood to adulthood. He is the National Convenor of the Australian Research Alliance for Children
and Youth (ARACY) Longitudinal Studies Network, which brings together over 20 longitudinal studies
of child health and development. In 2013, he was awarded an Australian Research Council Discovery
Outstanding Researcher Award (DORA) for his contribution to life course research.
Professor Margot Prior (AO, FASSA, FAPS) is Professor of Psychology at the University of Melbourne.
She has been a lecturer, clinician and researcher in the field of family and child development for
more than 35 years, at several universities. Her special research focus has been on autism spectrum
disorders, and children with learning and behavioural difficulties. Between 1994 and 2002, she was
Professor/Director of Psychology at the Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne. She was one of the
original leaders of the ATP and has published many papers and given many talks on this research.
She is currently involved in a longitudinal study of language and literacy development in Victorian
children across the age span of 8 months to 13 years.
Professor Ann Sanson (BA, PhD, FAPS) is a developmental psychologist and Honorary Professorial
Fellow in the Department of Pædiatrics at the University of Melbourne. Her research expertise is
in longitudinal studies of child and adolescent development and wellbeing. She has been involved
in the ATP since the start, and is the Principal Scientific Advisor to Growing Up in Australia: The
Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. Ann also advises national longitudinal studies in Norway,
New Zealand and Ireland, and is on the Steering Committee for the Longitudinal Study of Indigenous
Children. She has also worked with the Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth.
Diana Smart (BA(HHons), MA, DipEd) is a psychologist with extensive experience in research on child
and youth development and is currently a Senior Research Fellow at the Australian Institute of Family
Studies. She has a longstanding interest in the development of positive attributes, and strengths such
as social competence, social responsibility and civic engagement. She has led influential research on
developmental pathways to adolescent problem behaviours, the identification of sensitive transition
points, and risk and protective factors. She has been involved in the ATP since 1988 and sees this as
the highlight of her career.
Professor John W. Toumbourou (BA(Hons), MA, PhD, MAPS) is the Chair in Health Psychology
within the School of Psychology at Deakin University, and an Associate Director of the university’s
Strategic Centre for Mental Health and Wellbeing Research. John has been Principal Investigator
on the ATP since 1996, when the study members reached adolescence. John has been influential
internationally and nationally in the fields of prevention science and health psychology, where he
has received international awards for his contributions, and has helped reshape Australian health
policies to more effectively address adolescent alcohol misuse and related problems.
Suzanne Vassallo (BAppSci, GradDipPsych, MClinPsych) is a Research Fellow at the Australian
Institute of Family Studies. She has worked on the ATP since 2001, including four years as Project
Manager (from 2008 to 2012). Over her career, Suzanne has been involved in the development and
implementation of a number of large-scale cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, including the ATP
and the Longitudinal Study of Separated Families. Besides longitudinal studies, her research interests
include the development of risk-taking behaviour in adolescents and young adults, and relationships
between young people and their parents.

iv Australian Institute of Family Studies
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, the Australian Temperament Project (ATP) would not be celebrating the
important milestone of 30 years without the ongoing support of the study’s families. The authors
of the report would like to express their heartfelt thanks to the young people and their parents
and teachers who have participated in the ATP over all these years, for their wonderful loyalty
and interest in the study.
The enthusiasm and commitment of the many researchers and postgraduate students who
have worked on the ATP has been another key factor in its longevity and success. While we
cannot name them all individually here, many have contributed to writing this report, and we
cite some publications of others who have worked on the ATP within the report. We gratefully
acknowledge the contributions of these people and all others who have helped to collect and
analyse the massive ATP dataset.
We would also like to acknowledge the support of the many organisations that have provided
funding over the life of the ATP. These include: the Australian Institute of Family Studies,
the Australian Research Council, Deakin University, Financial Markets for Children, La Trobe
University, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, the National Health and Medical Research
Council, the R. E. Ross Trust, the Royal Automobile Club of Victoria, the Royal Children’s
Hospital Research Foundation, the Transport Accident Commission of Victoria, the University
of Melbourne, the Victorian Department of Education (now Department of Education and
Early Childhood Development), the Victorian Department of Justice, and the Victorian Health
Promotion Foundation.

vThe Australian Temperament Project:The first 30 years
Foreword
As each new life begins, processes of development commence that are evident in the emergence
of capacities to perceive, think, communicate, manage feelings, and form and maintain key social
relationships. Improving the life chances of Australian children requires a better understanding
of the factors that hinder or promote healthy development.
This report provides a brief and accessible account of some of the key learnings about human
development from the Australian Temperament Project (ATP), a groundbreaking longitudinal
study that, to date, has followed a large group of Victorians from their birth to age 30 years. This
publication follows the earlier report on the first 18 years of the study, Pathways From Infancy
to Adolescence: Australian Temperament Project 1983–2000, also published by the Australian
Institute of Family Studies.
The release of The Australian Temperament Project: The First 30 Years coincides with a major
milestone—the study’s 30th birthday celebrations. The editors, Suzanne Vassallo and Ann
Sanson, sought to provide a clear account of some of the highlights of the study for the study
members, whose loyalty over three decades has been both commendable and vital to the
ongoing success of this landmark longitudinal study. As well as being a “thank you” to the study
participants, the report also provides a concise overview of the ATP for researchers, policy-
makers, practitioners and others who are interested in reading more about the study.
The report includes chapters authored by many of the researchers who have worked on the
study over the years. Since its commencement, the ATP has been a multidisciplinary study,
involving researchers from La Trobe, Melbourne and Deakin universities, as well as the Royal
Children’s Hospital. The Australian Institute of Family Studies is proud to have played a leading
role in the project since 2000. I look forward with enthusiasm to researchers from the Institute
being involved in the next phases of this flagship study. The ATP has, in so many ways, emerged
as one of Australia’s major research resources in the field of human lifespan development.
I congratulate all those who have contributed to this superb publication and applaud those
who, 30 years ago, had the foresight to initiate such a groundbreaking study.
Professor Alan Hayes AM
Director
Australian Institute of Family Studies

vi Australian Institute of Family Studies
Preface
This publication tells the story of the first 30 years of the famous and influential Australian
Temperament Project (ATP), which has followed a large representative sample of Australians from
their first months of life into adulthood. It is unique in its design and its outputs.
At the time the ATP was established in the early 1980s, there were few longitudinal studies tracking
the psychosocial development of Australian children. The ATP filled a void by providing data on
multiple aspects of development—from colic and sleep problems (in infancy), to learning and
behavioural difficulties (during the school years), to mental health problems and substance use (in
adolescence and adulthood), to name a few. As well as examining the influence of family, school,
peers and community on children’s development, a distinctive feature of this study has been its focus
throughout on the contribution of an individual’s temperament to their development, something that
had been virtually ignored previously. I believe that apart from this classic Australian study, still too
little attention is paid to this important aspect of child development and wellbeing.
Back in 2000, I wrote the preface to Pathways From Infancy to Adolescence: Australian Temperament
Project 1983–2000, which told the story of the first 18 years of the ATP. I noted then that the ATP had
been recognised as a flagship study, nationally and internationally, for its outstanding contribution
to our knowledge about how children develop into adults from a psychosocial perspective.
The subsequent years have capitalised on these achievements, providing important insights into
development, from adolescence into early adulthood, focusing particularly on pathways to positive
development.
One reason the ATP has had such an impact has been the researchers’ focus on areas where research
evidence was desperately needed to guide policy-making and practical interventions. This has led
to fruitful collaborations with agencies such as Crime Prevention Victoria (investigating pathways
into and out of antisocial behaviour), and the Royal Automobile Club of Victoria and Transport
Accident Commission (on factors associated with risky driving). The ATP team’s ability to move
beyond focusing solely on the things that can and do go wrong in development, to also look at
what contributes to a person becoming a well-adjusted, healthy and resilient young adult, able to
contribute productively to their society, has been another admirable achievement. This work has
great relevance for our attempts to promote resilience in our families, communities, and as a nation.
I am delighted to learn that ATP researchers intend to follow this cohort further into adulthood,
so they will be able to identify how an individual’s childhood and adolescence influence their
adult adjustment and relationships, educational and work trajectories, and even physical health. The
commencement of the ATP’s Generation 3 Study is another exciting development. Very few studies
in the world can hope to match the depth of information that the ATP has collected on its study
members (Generation 2) and their parents (Generation 1), collected over 15 survey waves. Now
that the Generation 2 participants are in their peak years for having children, there is potential for
garnering valuable new learnings about how grandparents and parents influence the development
of these Generation 3 children. These influences may be both biological (through genetics and the
child’s prenatal and even pre-conception environments) and social (through the behaviour, attitudes
and relationships of the adults around the child).
I congratulate and thank the ATP team for their vision, tenacity and passion for providing data to
improve the ways in which our society can enable both the healthy development of children and to
intervene effectively with those at high risk of poor outcomes. The ATP is a shining beacon to guide
us as a nation to improve the outcomes for our children across the generations.
Professor Fiona J.Stanley AC
Patron, Telethon Institute for Child Health Research
Distinguished Research Professor, University of Western Australia
Vice-Chancellor’s Fellow, University of Melbourne

1The Australian Temperament Project:The first 30 years
1The Australian Temperament Project
Suzanne Vassallo and Ann Sanson
Tracking lives through time
Commencing 30 years ago, the Australian Temperament Project (ATP) is a unique study that
has followed the development of a large group of Victorian children from their first year of life
to their late twenties, and is now following their children. With detailed information collected
so far from 15 waves of data collection, the ATP is one of the longest running studies of its
kind in Australia, and one of only a few in the world with information on three generations of
family members (i.e., the young people, their parents, and now the young people’s children).
Findings from the study have provided important guidance to parents, policy-makers, teachers
and others with an interest in human development.
By following the same group of individuals over time, longitudinal studies such as the ATP
can identify patterns and pathways of development: how they differ between individuals, what
experiences and qualities lead to healthy development, how problems arise for some people
but are avoided or resolved by others, and the many influences that shape development for
good or for ill.
Over the last 30 years, the ATP has produced over 130 papers for scientific journals and reports
about study findings for government and other agencies. These are listed at the end of the
report (starting on page 20) and are also available on the ATP website <www.aifs.gov.au/
atp>). This report highlights a small selection of the areas that have been investigated across
the years. First, we provide a brief overview of the study design. Subsequent sections focus
on research that has been undertaken at different stages of the young people’s development—
during infancy and early childhood, the
primary school years, early and mid/late
adolescence, and early adulthood.
ATP study members and
data
The ATP commenced in 1983 with the
recruitment of 2,443 families with infants
aged 4–8 months from both rural and urban
areas of Victoria, Australia (for more details,
see our 2000 publication, Pathways from
Infancy to Adolescence,63 * which summarised
the first 18 years of the study). Over two-
thirds of these families are still taking part.
* Superscript numbers are used throughout the remainder of the report to indicate published papers or reports
that contain more detail about the summarised research. These numbers correspond with the numbers in the
publications list starting on page 20. For instance, in this example, the reader is directed towards reference
number 63 in the publication list.

2 Australian Institute of Family Studies
The ages of the study members at each of the 15 surveys to date are shown in Table 1.1, and
Table 1.2 shows the people who have taken part at each wave. As can be seen, parents have
been surveyed at every time point, and maternal and child health nurses and primary school
teachers have given their perspectives at relevant ages. From 11–12 years onwards, the young
people themselves have increasingly become the key informants on their own development,
experiences and wellbeing. Mail surveys have almost always been used, but an online option
was added for the latest survey wave (in 2010–11).
Table 1.2 also shows the major areas of development that have been assessed at each time
point. At the start of the study in 1983, the researchers’ main interest was in understanding
how children’s temperament—the individual personality style of each child—affected their later
development. This has remained a keen interest, but as the young people have progressed
through various life stages, our interests have broadened to cover such topics as educational
progress, mental health, relationships, risky behaviours and social competence.
Table 1.1: Age of study members at each survey wave 1983 to 2010–11, by stage of
development
Infancy and early
childhood
Primary school
years
Early adolescence
Mid/late
adolescence
Adulthood
Wave Age Wave Age Wave Age Wave Age Wave Age
1 4–8 months 5 5–6 years 9 12–13 years 11 15–16 years 13 19–20 years
2 1–2 years 6 7–8 years 10 13–14 years 12 17–18 years 14 23–24 years
3 2–3 years 7 9–10 years 15 27–28 years
4 3–4 years 8 11–12 years
Table 1.2: Major areas of development studied, by stage of development and informant
Major areas studied
Infancy
and early
childhood
Primary
school years
Early
adolescence
Mid/late
adolescence
Adulthood
Temperament/personality
style
P P P, C P, C P, C
Behavioural and
emotional problems
P P,T, C P, C P, C P, C
Family socio-demographic
characteristics
P P P P P, C
Physical health P, N P P, C
Social competence P,T, C P, C P, C P, C
Eating attitudes and
behaviours
P, C P, C
Peer relationships P,T, C P, C P, C P, C
Parent–child relationships
and family climate
N C P, C P P, C
Parenting style P P
School adjustment and
achievement
T P, C P, C
Substance use and
antisocial behaviour
C P, C P, C
Risky driving P, C
Civic mindedness and
positive development
P, C P, C
Workforce participation P, C P, C
Couple relationships,
marriage and parenthood
C P, C
Note: Informants are: P = parents; C = children;T = primary school teachers; and N = maternal and child health nurses.

In addition, specific developmental issues have been examined in a number of in-depth studies
in which smaller groups of children and families have been visited in their homes. And, as many
of the young people in the ATP are now starting their own families, the ATP Generation 3 Study
is now beginning to track this new generation (see Section 7, on page 18).
The ATP researchers
The ATP began as a collaboration between psychologists at La Trobe University and
pædiatricians at the Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne. Over time, the collaboration has
expanded to include the University of Melbourne, the Australian Institute of Family Studies
and Deakin University. We have also partnered with various organisations—such as the Royal
Automobile Club of Victoria (RACV), the Transport Accident Commission of Victoria (TAC),
Crime Prevention Victoria, and other universities—to investigate specific issues. Numerous
Honours year and postgraduate students have also conducted research using the ATP data.
The continuity provided by the ongoing involvement of the original researchers is a major
strength of the study, while younger researchers have brought new energy and expertise to
the team. Short biographies of the researchers can be found in the About the Authors section
(see page ii).

2Infancy and early childhood
Ann Sanson and Frank Oberklaid
What is temperament?
Temperament refers to differences between individuals, visible from birth, in how they
typically behave and react to their social surroundings. When the ATP began in 1983, there was
virtually no Australian research on child temperament. The initial aim of the ATP was to study
temperament in a large representative sample of Victorian infants, and to understand how it
affected their social and emotional development through childhood.
In the early years of the study, we developed simplified questionnaires (now widely used in
child development research both in Australia and overseas) to assess temperament in infants,
toddlers and young children.4,12,13,42
We identified several important aspects of temperament,
including: sociability—the tendency of a child to be shy or outgoing in new situations and
when meeting new people; reactivity—how strongly a child reacts to experiences and to
frustration; and persistence—the extent to which a child can stay on task and control their
attention, despite distractions and difficulties (see Table 2.1 on page 5). These dimensions
also reflect the capacity of an individual to manage, or self-regulate, their own feelings, attention
and behaviour. Other aspects of temperament that were somewhat less important included
rhythmicity (e.g., regularity of eating and sleeping patterns) and activity level. We found that
children tended to remain fairly stable in their temperament from infancy to childhood, with
few changing radically (e.g., from being very sociable to very shy) but many changing a little.37
The role of temperament in social and emotional
adjustment
We have investigated links between early temperament and a number of aspects of later
development and adjustment. For example, we examined whether having a “difficult”
temperament (being irritable, shy, uncooperative) as an infant posed a risk for emotional
and behavioural problems as preschoolers.31
We also looked at other infant factors, such as
prematurity, colic and sleep problems, the mother’s ease of relating to her infant, and the
influence of family socio-economic status.14,15
No single infancy risk factor was strongly predictive
of problems at 3–4 years. But when two or more of these occurred together, rates of problems
increased. A “difficult” temperament, and/or the mother having difficulty relating to her child,
were always among the combinations of risk factors that predicted later problems. This work
showed that temperamental characteristics may not directly lead to adjustment problems, but
can create vulnerability when there are other risk factors in a child’s life.
In several studies of children in the ATP who were born prematurely (before 37 weeks’ gestation),
we found that prematurity per se was not associated with having a difficult temperament or
behaviour problems,3,5,15
which is reassuring for parents, as it had previously been held that
premature children were more difficult. In a series of studies we also found differences in the
temperament style of infants born to families from differing cultural backgrounds, including


Table 2.1: Dimensions, definitions and age-specific names of aspects of temperament studied
in the ATP, by stage of development
Temperament dimension Infancy and Primary school
Adolescence Adulthood
and definition early childhood years
Sociability: tendency to be shy Approach
Approach/ Approach/
or outgoing in new situations Sociability Approach
sociability sociability
and when meeting new people Shyness
Reactivity: strength of
emotional reactions to positive
and negative experiences
Irritability
Cooperation
Inflexibility
Reactivity
Emotionality
Negative reactivity
Negative reactivity
Positive
emotionality
Flexibility
Persistence: capacity to
maintain attention, despite
distractions
Persistence
Distractibility
Persistence
Task orientation
Persistence
Task orientation
Persistence
Distractibility
families of Greek, Italian and Chinese heritage.8,11,16
Other research during the toddler and
childhood period revealed gender differences, with boys generally being rated as being more
difficult and challenging for parents.38,39
Shyness
One aspect of temperament that we investigated in some detail from infancy to childhood was
shyness (or low sociability).48
We visited a small sample of 6–7 year old ATP children and their
families at home and found that observers’ ratings of children’s shyness matched well with
their parents’ ratings, showing that parents were accurate and valid reporters of their children’s
behaviour. We found that some parenting practices were linked to whether children who were
shy as infants remained shy or became more outgoing, and whether non-shy infants developed
shyness later. If parents were less child-focused, used physical punishment or used parenting
methods that made their child feel guilty or anxious, children were more likely to remain shy
or develop shyness. Those who had been shy as infants were more likely to overcome their
shyness if parents were warm and nurturing, did not make them feel guilty or anxious, and did
not push them to be independent too soon. These findings reinforce the importance of adapting
parenting to a child’s particular temperament style, and also show that parenting can help to
modify temperament traits.
Summary
■ The ATP has demonstrated how individuals differ in temperament from birth, and how these
differences matter for later development and adjustment.
■ From being virtually ignored in the early 1980s, temperament is now routinely included in studies of
children’s development.ATP questionnaires are now widely used in research on child development
in Australia and internationally.
■ Important aspects of temperament include sociability (tendency to approach or avoid new situations
and people), reactivity (self-regulation of emotional reactions) and persistence (self-regulation of
attention).
■ Temperament is relatively stable over time, with many children showing small changes but very few
children changing radically in their temperament.
■ More “difficult” infant temperamental characteristics can lead to behavioural and emotional
adjustment problems in early childhood and beyond, particularly if there are other risks in a child’s
life.Temperament is important for multiple outcomes throughout childhood and adolescence and
even into early adulthood.
■ Temperament can be modified through experiences such as the style of parenting a child receives.
Shy infants were more likely to overcome their shyness if parents were warm, positive and
understanding of their child’s temperament.

3The primary school years
Margot Prior and Diana Smart
The primary school years are a very important stage in young people’s lives, during which
they develop social and academic skills that will influence all aspects of their future lives. One
of the major areas of interest for the ATP has been children’s progress through their years at
school. We focused particularly on learning and behaviour at Grade 2 (age 7–8 years), and then
followed this with further studies at secondary school age (13–14 years) and in early adulthood
(19–20 years).
Learning in the primary school years
Although most children progressed well at school, some had problems with literacy and
numeracy, and some also had problems with behaviour and social adjustment. Around 16%
of children had reading difficulties at 7–8 years, according to a reading test administered by
teachers on the study’s behalf.45
We found that a number of factors were related to early literacy
problems. These included aspects of early temperament (e.g., poorer capacity to focus and stay
on tasks), as well as behavioural problems which, especially for boys, tended to persist across
time and seemed to hinder recovery from a poor start with reading.29,71
Later progress of children with early reading problems
When the children were 13–14 years old, we visited 133 of those young people who had
experienced early reading problems. Of these, almost half still had reading difficulties and two-
thirds also had spelling and/or maths problems.40
In total, nearly 80% of this group had one or
more of these problems (see Figure 3.1 on page 7). We also looked back at the children’s
earlier histories to try to understand why some children recovered while others continued to
struggle. We did not find any factors that explained why some girls recovered and others did
not, but among boys, those who had more problems—such as poorer reasoning or thinking
skills or early behaviour problems—or whose families were less well off, were more likely to
have ongoing problems.
By young adulthood, some young people with early reading problems had dropped out of the
study, although over two-thirds (68%) were still taking part and providing valuable information
on their progress. Encouragingly, 71% of these young people had completed Year 12, achieving
an average Tertiary Entrance Score of 59 (out of a possible 100). At 19–20 years of age, about
half were working, a quarter were studying, and one-fifth were combining work and study.
Only 5% were not working or studying, a rate that was similar to that found for young people
who did not have early reading problems, showing that perseverance despite early problems
can pay off.
Behaviour in the primary school years
Most children showed good adjustment over the primary school years, but some experienced
behaviour problems. These problems could be classified into two main types: those that


0
20
40
60
80
100
0 1 2 3
Percentageofchildren
Number of learning problems
Figure 3.1: Percentage of study members with early reading difficulties who had learning
problems in 0, 1, 2 or 3 areas (reading, spelling or maths) at 13–14 years
involved emotional problems such as fears, worries, and sadness; and those involving poor self-
management of behaviour that affects other people as well as the child, such as hyperactivity or
oppositional, aggressive and disruptive behaviour. We found strong links between these types
of problems and the child’s temperament style (especially intensity and volatility, poor attention
skills, and shyness).40
We took a close look at behavioural and emotional problems at the end of primary school
in a study of 11–12 year old children whose scores on questionnaires completed by parents
and teachers indicated that they could be at risk for mental health problems.57
Using clinical
interviews, we found that almost half of these children did in fact have a mental health problem,
most commonly anxiety or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Mental health
problems were more common among boys than girls, and nearly half of the children showing
problems had more than one type. A substantial proportion of these had a long history of
behaviour problems and “difficult” temperament characteristics, showing that the path to mental
health problems started early in life for these children.
In later studies, we have shown that childhood behavioural and emotional problems are risk
factors for a range of adolescent and adult problems, such as antisocial behaviour (e.g., stealing,
violence), drug use, depression, and risk-taking when driving.
Summary
■ While most children do well at school, some struggle in certain areas, whether it be in managing
their behaviour and social interactions, or successfully mastering necessary academic skills such as
reading, spelling and maths.
■ A major contribution from these studies of ATP children at school was to confirm the extreme
importance of identifying those children who are having difficulties in the early years as soon as
possible, and to provide the help they need to master both literacy and social adjustment skills early
on, to prevent these difficulties persisting across development.
■ The seeds for many school-aged problems could be seen in toddlerhood and the preschool years.
Children with difficult temperament traits or early emerging behaviour problems were particularly
vulnerable to later difficulties.
■ These studies show that it is possible for children to recover from early learning problems. Boys
were more likely to recover if they did not have co-existing behaviour problems, had good thinking
skills and had families that were reasonably well off.

4Early adolescence
Primrose Letcher and Craig Olsson
During the early adolescent period (12–14 years), we continued to track many aspects of young
people’s development. Two particular areas we looked at were anxiety and depression, which
are serious problems that can emerge during early adolescence and continue into adulthood.
We also collected DNA from a sample of study members, to look at genetic links to anxiety,
depression and other aspects of behaviour.
Anxiety and depression
Anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state characterised by fearfulness, distress and/or worry.
Depression refers to feelings of sadness or unhappiness. Anxiety and depressive symptoms
often occur together, and they may be mild and short-lived, or more persistent and severe.
The ATP has collected detailed information on anxiety and depression. Across childhood
(from 3–4 years), parents reported on their child’s emotional health, and across adolescence
(from 11–12 years), study members reported on their own emotional health. This provides a
rich picture of the development and effects of anxiety and depression across childhood and
adolescence.
Using these data, we have been able to track levels of anxiety and depression from ages 3 to
16.130
We found that we could classify children into one of five main groups, based on their
levels of depression and anxiety over childhood and adolescence:
■■ those with very low levels of these problems over the age span;
■■ those who were just a little anxious/depressed over this period;
■■ those whose symptoms were low at first but became higher over time;
■■ those whose symptoms were high at first but decreased over time; and
■■ those who had high levels most of the time.
We found that teenagers with higher levels of anxiety and depression were more likely to have
been shy and irritable as babies and toddlers, and to have had more difficult relationships with
parents and friends as children and teenagers. Anxiety and depression were also more likely to
increase over time among girls than boys.
Then we looked at what helped those who started out with high anxiety and depression in
childhood to become less anxious and depressed as teenagers.115
We found that having good
social skills, better parent and peer relationships, and more positive school experiences were
all important in attaining better outcomes. Findings further suggest that encouraging better
relationships and building more supportive school climates may help young people to deal
successfully with anxiety and depression.
In other work, we tracked anxiety levels from ages 11 to 18 years, as reported by young
people.132
We found that most young people tended to have low levels of anxiety, some had
moderate anxiety, while a worrying 15% of girls and 9% of boys had high and increasing levels
of anxiety.


These findings suggest that anxiety problems should be addressed early on, because it may not
be “just a stage” that will pass in time. Early determinants of high anxiety differed for boys and
girls. Highly anxious girls had more relationship difficulties with their parents over adolescence.
Parents of boys with high anxiety symptoms over adolescence had tended to report such
problems from early childhood, but this was not the case for girls. It is possible that parents are
more likely to notice shyness and anxiety in young boys because these traits are less common
among boys, or because they are considered more “normal” and less worrisome in girls. In any
case, our findings highlight the importance both of parent reports in signalling the need for
early support, and of parents’ relationships with their children for their future wellbeing.
In subsequent work, we have shown that high anxiety between the ages of 11 and 18 years
increased the risk of having anxiety, stress and depression six years later (at 23–24 years of
age).* Overall, findings confirm that anxiety and depression are related and tend to persist. Early
treatment of these problems during childhood or early adolescence could substantially improve
the mental health and wellbeing of young people and their families.
Genetic influences
There has been considerable debate about the causes of anxiety and depression. While some
have argued that they are mostly a reaction to adverse life circumstances, others believe that
biological differences make some people more susceptible than others to developing emotional
difficulties if they experience such adverse life events. To explore these questions, we collaborated
with researchers at the Australian National University in Canberra to collect DNA samples via
cheek swabs from around 680 ATP study members at 16 years of age. We also used these data
to investigate genetic influences on other problems, such as substance misuse and self-harming
behaviours. To date, the findings from this research suggest that genetic differences between
people may work in two ways: first, by increasing their susceptibility to challenging life events;
and second, by affecting their ability to recover or bounce back after experiencing difficult
circumstances.61,73,103
Scientific understanding of genetic factors is increasing rapidly, and we
plan to collect DNA from children born to ATP study members to look at the ways in which
parents’ life histories and events during pregnancy (e.g., social bonds, mental health, substance
use) may “program” their children’s genes in ways that may either enhance or hinder healthy
child development. These unique findings will further our understanding of biological links
between generations and suggest new directions for enhancing child health and wellbeing.
Summary
■ Anxiety and depression are common problems in adolescence, and parents may notice symptoms
from early childhood.
■ Shyness and irritability and troubles with peers or parents may increase the risk of young people
experiencing ongoing problems with anxiety or depression. Females are more likely than males to
experience anxiety and depression over adolescence and early adulthood.
■ Early identification and treatment of children with anxiety or depression may reduce the likelihood
of such problems becoming entrenched. Children with high anxiety or depression may be more
likely to overcome their symptoms if they develop good social skills, have better parent and peer
relationships and have more positive school experiences.
■ Genetic factors appear to increase the risk of anxiety and depression for some people, along with
a range of other influences.This may happen by increasing their susceptibility to challenging life
events or by affecting their ability to recover after experiencing difficult circumstances.
*
Letcher, P., Smart, D., Olsson, C., O’Connor, M., Hawkins, M., Sanson, A., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2011). Young
adult outcomes of differing patterns of adolescent anxiety: Findings from an Australian longitudinal birth
cohort. Paper presented at the 17th Biennial Conference of the Australasian Human Development Association,
Dunedin, New Zealand.

5Mid/late adolescence
Diana Smart, John W.Toumbourou,Ann Sanson and
Keri Little
In the period of mid/late adolescence (15–18 years), some young people start experimenting
with certain behaviours that may have harmful consequences. Although only a minority of
adolescents engage in these behaviours, this can have a serious effect on their current and future
lives, as well as on their families and communities. Two such behaviours are engagement in
antisocial behaviour (delinquency, violence and crime), and the use (and misuse) of substances
(including alcohol, tobacco, marijuana and other drugs). The ATP was well placed to study
these behaviours, how they developed and changed over time, and their links to other aspects
of adolescents’ lives.
Antisocial behaviour
Work completed in partnership with Crime Prevention Victoria led to the publication of three
reports79,85,101
that examined the development and effects of antisocial behaviour. This research
found that most study members had engaged in some antisocial activity during their teenage
years, but few did so often, or engaged in multiple types (i.e., few were “highly” antisocial).
Because involvement in some antisocial behaviour was so common, we focused on “high”
antisocial behaviour in our work.
Rates of high antisocial behaviour increased from early adolescence, peaked in mid/late
adolescence, and then reduced in early adulthood (see Figure 5.1). Risk factors included
personal characteristics (e.g., a volatile temperament style, acting-out behaviour problems in
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
13–14
years
15–16
years
17–18
years
19–20
years
23–24
years
Percentage
Figure 5.1: Engagement in high levels of antisocial behaviour by study members aged
13–14 to 23–24 years


childhood, and lower social skills), and family, peer and school issues (e.g., lower parental
supervision and warmth, friendships with antisocial peers, and lower valuing of school
experiences).
We looked at factors that might have protected vulnerable children with a history of acting-out
behaviours during their primary school years from progressing to involvement in antisocial
behaviours in adolescence.94
We found that many of these young people had matured as they
moved through their teenage years, becoming easier in temperament style and showing fewer
behaviour problems. Importantly, they tended to avoid friendships with peers who engaged in
antisocial behaviour and they were more tuned in to school.
We also looked at the reverse question: Which factors may have altered the pathways of
children who were progressing well in primary school but who unexpectedly became highly
antisocial in adolescence? 85
We saw that the profiles of these young people began to change
in early adolescence, with friendships with antisocial peers, aggressive behaviour, lower social
skills and poorer school attachment and achievement being especially evident. In mid/late
adolescence, their parents tended to supervise them less, they were more attracted to risk-
taking, and they tended to cope with stress less effectively.
Finally, we looked at the effects of teenage antisocial behaviour on wellbeing in early
adulthood.101
We found that those who had been only transiently involved in teenage antisocial
behaviour (i.e., were highly antisocial at only one point during early to mid-adolescence) were
progressing similarly at 19–20 years to those who had never been highly antisocial. However,
young people who were persistently highly antisocial in adolescence were doing more poorly
in many areas of life, including secondary school completion, substance use and misuse, social
skills, relationships with parents and friends, and attitudes towards police and courts. We also
identified a new group who only became highly antisocial once they reached early adulthood.
This group tended to be faring worse than individuals who had never, or only transiently, been
involved in antisocial behaviour as teenagers, especially in their interpersonal relationships,
mental health, social skills and temperament style.
Overall, these findings provide important directions for crime prevention in Australia.
Firstly, we were able to identify several important periods—the start of primary school, the
start of secondary school and the period immediately after secondary school—when pathways
seemed to change. These may be developmental crossroads, suggesting that efforts to help young
people would be particularly beneficial at these ages. Secondly, we were able to identify a set
of personal factors and home, peer and school environments
that may increase the risk of developing antisocial behaviour,
providing valuable pointers to the areas in which intervention
efforts may be most useful.
Alcohol use and alcohol-related
problems
From the age of 13–14 years, we asked young people and
their parents about their attitudes and behaviour regarding
alcohol (as well as other drugs). In early adolescence, a quarter
of study members had drunk alcohol within the last month,
and this had increased to 85% at 17–18 years (see Figure 5.2
on page 12). A substantial number (38% at 15–16 years and
67% at 17–18 years) reported being intoxicated at least once in
the last month, and 30% and 56% respectively reported binge
drinking (drinking a large number of drinks in one session).
Heavier use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs in adolescence
was predicted by the characteristics of the individuals in early
adolescence (involvement in antisocial behaviour, being more
outgoing and thrill-seeking, and being male), their families
(mothers’ smoking and drinking) and their relationships (lower
attachment to family, poorer quality friendships).63


0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Drank alcohol Was intoxicated Binge drank
Percentage
Alcohol use in last month
13–14 years
15–16 years
17–18 years
19–20 years
23–24 years
Figure 5.2: Engagement in alcohol use in previous month, study members aged 13–14 to
23–24 years
One major focus of the ATP research on alcohol use was on the role of parents.87
By the time
the children were aged 17–18 years, almost all parents allowed them to drink at home, and 60%
allowed them to drink outside the home. Many parents underestimated their children’s level
of alcohol use. However, adolescents who abstained from alcohol at 17–18 years were more
likely to have parents who did not permit them to drink at home. The ATP was among the first
research studies in Australia to suggest that parental attitudes towards alcohol affect adolescent
alcohol use.
Another stream of ATP research, supported by the Ross Trust, examined pathways to young
adult alcohol use and the problems that can subsequently arise.133,136
This showed that at 19–20
years, about three-quarters of young people (74%) had experienced during the previous 12
months at least one serious negative consequence as a result of drinking, such as being sick or
passing out (53%), suffering memory loss (45%), becoming violent and getting into a fight (8%),
or feeling irritable or depressed when alcohol wasn’t available (7%). As might be expected,
we found that those who engaged in more frequent binge drinking were also more likely to
experience these alcohol-related harms. Further, one of the strongest predictors of alcohol-
related harms in young adulthood was being frequently drunk in adolescence, suggesting that
an early start to risky drinking may lead to later problematic alcohol use. In addition, individuals
who were more impulsive, had a history of antisocial behaviour, lived away from their parents,
or had friends who drank heavily were also more likely to experience negative consequences
after drinking alcohol.
Summary
■ The ATP has provided a major data source for understanding the frequency and predictors of risky
behaviour in adolescence.
■ ATP findings show that there is a diversity of patterns of antisocial behaviour and alcohol use across
adolescence. Most adolescents do not engage in high levels of antisocial behaviour, and for those
who do, it is often only for a short time. Heavy alcohol use is quite common. For many, but not all,
heavy use results in a range of short-term harms.The extent of longer term harms will be revealed
as the ATP follows study members into later life.
■ The ATP findings have yielded major insights into factors that can be targeted to prevent antisocial
behaviour and problematic substance use, including individual characteristics (e.g., social and
emotional resiliency), and family, peer and school factors.

6 Early adulthood
Mary Hawkins, Meredith O’Connor, Suzanne Vassallo,
Craig Olsson and Diana Smart
In the early adult period (19–28 years), three particular areas of interest in the ATP have been
positive development, the development of driving behaviours, and changes in parent–child
relationships.
Positive development
What is positive development?
Many studies collect data about what goes wrong in young people’s lives. This information is
very important, but is only part of the picture. The ATP has always had a keen interest in what
is going right in young people’s lives. From late adolescence onwards, this has become an
increasing focus, with much of our research devoted to looking at young people’s successes
and skills, and evidence that they are thriving. We called this “positive development”.
Positive development is not simply the absence of problems, but involves achieving optimal
development and wellbeing. In measuring positive development, we are looking for attributes
and behaviours in young people that enable them to:
■■ take an active role in the community, and connect and interact with other community
members;
■■ be trusting and tolerant of people in society, especially those from different backgrounds;
■■ have confidence that important organisations in society would generally behave ethically,
consistently and fairly;
■■ be responsible and empathetic in their relationships with others; and
■■ feel satisfied with their life and where it was heading.
Young people high in these qualities are considered to be developing positively and functioning
well. Most young people in the ATP had high levels of these strengths, but some were struggling
to gain or maintain them.114,124
Childhood and adolescent experiences that promote
positive development
We wanted to know which experiences earlier in life helped people to develop these strengths
and thrive as young adults. To answer this, we looked back to the data the young people and
their families had provided when they were children and adolescents.127
We found that young
people who thrived later on in life tended in childhood and adolescence to have experienced:
■■ strong family relationships;
■■ strong relationships with their peers;
■■ better adjustment to life at school;
■■ better control over their emotions;

Early adulthood
■ a less emotionally reactive temperament style; and
■ an interest in working for and being involved in the community.
All of these experiences are likely to be assets in helping young people to flourish as they
become adults.
Positive development and mental illness
Some young people experience a mental illness in early adulthood, and we wanted to know
how this affects their opportunities for success and wellbeing later in life. To explore this, we
identified six groups of young people within the ATP based on their experiences of positive
development and of mental health problems when they were 19–20 years old:134
■ One group of around a third of the young people (34%) were very high in all aspects of
positive development and lower than average in symptoms of mental illness.
■ The largest group, with almost half (48%) of the young people, were average in their levels
of positive development and symptoms of mental illness.
■ A small group (5%) were relatively untroubled by mental health problems, but very low in
all aspects of positive development.
■ Another small group (6%) had average levels of positive development, but were struggling
with symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress.
■ A fifth group (7%) had low levels of positive development and had some problems with
alcohol use, marijuana use, and antisocial behaviours such as breaking the law.
■ A very small number (1%) had very few positive strengths and had very severe difficulties
with alcohol and marijuana, and antisocial behaviour.
This shows the great diversity in young people’s levels of positive development and symptoms
of mental illness. As these groups illustrate, being free of mental illness doesn’t ensure that a
young person is reaching optimal development, and on the flip side, experiencing symptoms of
mental illness doesn’t mean that a young person has no positive strengths or assets.
Outcomes of late-adolescent positive development
We looked at the effect of having positive strengths at 19–20 years on important aspects of
young people’s lives when they were in their mid-20s (23–24 years).131
We found that positive
development among 19–20 year olds was an asset in helping them to do better as young adults,
including achieving better emotional health, physical wellbeing, positive development, and
stronger relationships with their parents and friends, and avoiding problem behaviours such as
breaking the law.
Driving behaviour
Learning to drive a car is a common milestone of late adolescence but also, potentially, a time
of great risk. Both in Australia and abroad, the first years of driving are a peak period for the
occurrence of crashes and detection for speeding. Together with two Victorian agencies, the
Transport Accident Commission and Royal Automobile Club of Victoria, the ATP has sought to
understand why this may be so, as well as the extent to which young people’s driving styles
change over time. The ATP is one of only a few studies in the world that has been able to show
how attributes and experiences early in life may affect later driving behaviour.
In the last three survey waves (at 19–20, 23–24, and 27–28 years), the ATP collected information
on young people’s driving behaviours and experiences. Our findings, published in a number of
influential reports,99,123,137
included:
■ Occasional risky driving was common among study members in their late teens and mid-
20s, but only a few (6–7%) frequently drove in a risky manner.
■ Factors linked to a risky driving style could be seen from childhood, and included
temperament characteristics (lower persistence, greater volatility), acting-out or hyperactive
behaviour problems, lower social skills, engagement in antisocial behaviour, drug use,

Early adulthood
school problems, more difficult relationships with parents in adolescence, and friendships
with peers who were engaging in antisocial behaviour.
■ Rates of risky driving were fairly stable between 19–20 and 23–24 years, but decreased in
the late twenties (see Figure 6.1).
■ Young people who took risks on the road were more likely to engage in other types of risk-
taking, such as drug use or antisocial behaviour.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Up to
10 km/h
over
11–25
km/h
over
> 25
km/h
over
No
seatbelt
(part)
No
seatbelt
(all)
Fatigue Alcohol
Percentage
Risky driving behaviours
19–20 years 23–24 years 27–28 years
Notes: Up to 10 km/h over = driven up to 10 km/h over the limit; 11–25 km/h over = driven 11–25 km/h over the limit; > 25
km/h over = driven more than 25 km/h over the limit; no seatbelt (part) = not worn a seat belt (or helmet if riding a
motorcycle) for part of a trip; no seatbelt (all) = not worn a seatbelt (or helmet if riding a motorcycle) for entire trip; fatigue
= driven when very tired; alcohol = driven when affected by alcohol.
Figure 6.1: Engagement in different risky driving behaviours during past ten trips, study
members aged 19–20 to 27–28 years
This research highlighted the important influence of young people’s personal attributes and
styles on their behaviour behind the wheel. It also indicated that for some young people, risky
driving may be part of a risk-taking lifestyle.
How does parenting change as young people move
into adulthood?
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is generally accompanied by major changes in
relationships between parents and their children. Surprisingly little is known about this process,
in particular from parents’ perspectives. When the young people in the ATP were in their mid-
20s, we asked their parents how they saw their parenting role at this stage of life, and the level
of financial and emotional support they were giving young people.119
We found that:
■ Most parents thought that passing on their values and/or life philosophy was still part of
their role, as was caring for their sons or daughters when they were sick, and providing
advice (see Figure 6.2 on page 16).
■ The majority did not believe that it was their role to provide food or clothing or other
everyday needs, or help with household tasks.
■ Almost two-thirds of parents had provided some form of financial assistance to their sons or
daughters during the past year.
■ While many parents felt their 23–24 year old valued their emotional support to some extent,
parents tended to underestimate how important this actually was to their sons and daughters
(as revealed by young people’s reports on the same question).
These findings suggest that most parents still had a close involvement in the lives of their
adult children. However, there appeared to be a shift underway, with many moving away
from providing practical, day-to-day support to being less hands-on and more of an advisor or
emotional back-up.

Early adulthood
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Pass on values
Physical care
Financial advice
Personal advice
Other employment advice
Childrearing advice
Career advice
Be one of their closest friends
Care for grandchildren
Financial support
Help with household tasks
Provide food, clothing etc.
Percentage
Perceivedparentalroles
Disagree
Unsure
Agree
Figure 6.2: Level of study parents’ agreement about aspects of parenting provided to their
23–24 year olds
Summary
Positive development
■ Young people show evidence of positive development when they are well adjusted to society, are
responsible and empathetic in their social relationships, and feel satisfied with the direction that
their life is taking.
■ Many experiences in childhood and adolescence, such as strong relationships, help young people to
achieve these successful outcomes when they become adults.
■ Most young people experience high positive development and few symptoms of mental health
problems.
■ Experiencing symptoms of mental illness does not mean that a young person has no positive
strengths or assets.
■ Positive development helps young people to achieve better emotional, behavioural and physical
health as they move through adulthood.
Driving
■ Many young adults engage in risky driving on an occasional basis, but only a small number
frequently take risks when driving.This group can be distinguished from other drivers, from
mid-childhood on, by their display of more difficult temperament characteristics, higher rates of
behaviour problems, and lower social skills.
■ Findings suggest that what a person is like off the road (their personal attributes and experiences)
influences their behaviour behind the wheel.
■ Risky drivers are more likely to engage in other risky behaviours, such as antisocial behaviour and
drug use.
Changes in parent–child relationships
■ Most parents share close relationships with their sons or daughters over the transition from late
adolescence to early adulthood.
■ However, parents’ perceptions of their roles seem to change over this period, with many moving
away from providing practical support to taking on a more advisory role.

7Future directions and opportunities:
Adulthood and the third ATP generation
Ann Sanson, Suzanne Vassallo, Jacqui Macdonald,
Ben Edwards and Craig Olsson
This report has provided a snapshot of some of the key findings from the ATP over its first 30
years. As the project enters its fourth decade, there are many opportunities for it to continue
to contribute to our understanding of child and adult development over the life course. For a
start, there are many questions about childhood and adolescence that we have not yet fully
explored with existing ATP data, which we plan to examine further. Secondly, there are many
aspects of adult development that have roots in earlier life, where ATP data will be invaluable.
Tracking changes through study members’ adult years—in relation to personality, relationships,
occupations, aspirations and mental health—will also continue to be a major focus. Thirdly,
we have the excitement of following the third generation of study members, which will keep
us very busy over the coming years. And finally, as the ATP study becomes more and more
known, more and more opportunities to use ATP data to help shape public policy and practical
interventions are opening, and we will continue to welcome these opportunities to “make a
difference”. In this section, we provide a few examples of our planned future work.
Some areas of focus for the future
In contrast to previous generations, when long-term relationships, careers and lifestyles were
often established by the age of 30, there is now more fluidity in the lives of people in early and
mid-adulthood. The ATP will attempt to understand the factors underlying stability and change,
both for better and worse, in all these aspects of life.
Relationships—with parents, friends, romantic partners and children—will continue to be a
major focus of the ATP. The changing nature of relationships between the original ATP study
parents and their adult children, as both generations grow older, is one area of continuing
interest. The factors that contribute to the formation of successful intimate relationships will
also be examined, along with those that are associated with relationship breakdowns. With
many study members now having children, the ATP has an excellent opportunity to examine
grandparenthood as experienced by the original ATP parents, and the roles they play in the
lives of their grandchildren.
There is growing recognition that a person’s temperament and their skills in relating to others
are as important as their IQ in influencing their capacity to obtain employment, earn a good
income and complete education. Given the ATP’s rich data on these topics over the life course,
study members’ workforce participation will be a key focus of future ATP research.
Finally, the way in which any problems of childhood and adolescence play out in adulthood
will be a continuing focus. We know that many people overcome early difficulties, while others
continue to suffer longer term effects. The ATP is well placed to examine factors associated with
these different life trajectories. We will also be following on with our recent focus on positive
development: How does “thriving” in adolescence and early adulthood affect later personality
and success in life?

Future directions and opportunities:Adulthood and the third ATP generation
The ATP Generation 3 Study
The year 2012 marked the beginning of a
new phase of the ATP, with the launch of the
ATP Generation 3 Study. Having followed the
development and wellbeing of study members
since birth, the project now has the opportunity
to investigate how the experiences of one
generation affect the next, from grandparent to
parent to child. There are few studies like the ATP
anywhere in the world that have the capacity to
do this.
The ATP team was recently awarded a large grant
and prestigious research award from the Australian
Research Council to support this project, which
will include three main areas of work:
1. Identification of ATP pregnancies—The average age at which women in Victoria have their
first baby is now about 32 years, and we expect about 100–150 pregnancies per year from
among ATP study members and their partners. Our first and most important task is to
continue to identify ATP study members and their partners who are expecting a baby. This
will involve contacting study members twice yearly to enquire about new pregnancies (as
well as plans for becoming pregnant).
2. Telephone interviews during and after pregnancy—We will then conduct short telephone
interviews with expecting study members (or their pregnant spouses/partners) during the
last trimester of pregnancy (around 32 weeks), and then with the ATP parent when the child
is 1 year old. Questions asked about these infants at age 1 will be similar to those we asked
the parents of study members when they were about the same age in 1983.
3. Visits to the Royal Children’s Hospital—In the third phase, study members (and/or partners)
and children will be invited to the Royal Children’s Hospital for a one-hour session, when
we will observe the ways in which parents and their 1-year-old children relate and play with
one another. We will also collect a small sample of saliva from both parents and children in
order to study hormonal and genetic influences on early behaviour.
We will continue to collect information from new parents for about 5 years, as new births occur,
aiming for 1,000 “third generation” study members. The ATP Generation 3 Study will then
be the largest of its kind internationally, and so will have great potential to contribute to our
understanding of intergenerational health.
Contributing knowledge for science and public policy
Asthisreporthasshown,informationfromtheATPnotonlycontributestoscientificunderstanding,
but is increasingly being used to guide public policy in Australia and internationally. These will
continue to be key goals of the ATP.
The questionnaires developed by the ATP and the knowledge we have gained have been used
in numerous other studies in Australia and overseas. For example, Growing Up in Australia:
The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, which is tracking 10,000 children over time, and
Footprints in Time: The Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children, which is following about
1,800 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children, have benefitted from our experience on
how to run longitudinal studies and are using many of the ATP questions in their interviews.
The ATP is also working with other studies in Australia and internationally to strengthen our
understanding of many aspects of human development, and is a key member of various research
partnerships, including the Longitudinal Studies Network.*
*
For further information about the Longitudinal Studies Network, please visit the ARACY website: <www.aracy.
org.au/networks/longitudinal-studies-network>.

Future directions and opportunities:Adulthood and the third ATP generation
The ATP’s influence on policy and practice in various fields (such as education, health, justice,
road safety and parent education) will continue into the future. For instance, we have been
invited to participate in an international study being run by the OECD that is examining the role
of cognitive skills and temperament in fostering wellbeing and social progress, and how such
skills can be better developed in formal and informal learning settings (e.g., family, schools,
the broader community). We will also continue to welcome opportunities to work with other
organisations to address specific issues of concern for policy and practice in Australia.
Conclusion
Thanks to the loyalty of the study families over the past 30 years, the ATP has collected rich data
covering many aspects of life from infancy to adulthood, and is now poised to become a major
three-generation study. This unique study is highly regarded both in Australia and overseas,
and has made significant contributions to scientific knowledge, as well as influencing policy
and practice in a number of fields. With the continuing support of its study members, we look
forward to further enriching our understanding of human development over future decades.

Australian Temperament
Project publications
1983
1. Oberklaid, F., Prior, M., & Clements, A. (1983). Validation of an infant temperament questionnaire
for an Australian population. Australian Pediatric Journal, 19, 193.
1984
2. Oberklaid, F., Prior, M., Golvan, D., Clements, A., & Williamson, A. (1984). Temperament in
Australian infants. Australian Pediatric Journal, 20, 181–184.
1985
3. Oberklaid, F., Prior, M. R., Nolan, T., Smith, P., & Flavell, H. (1985). Temperament in infants
born prematurely. Journal of Developmental & Behavioural Pediatrics, 6, 57–61. (Reprinted in
S. Chess & A. Thomas (Eds.) (1986). Annual progress in child psychiatry & child development
1986. New York: Brunner Mazel).
4. Sanson, A., Prior, M., & Oberklaid, F. (1985). Normative data on temperament in Australian
infants. Australian Journal of Psychology, 37, 185–195.
1986
5. Oberklaid, F., Prior, M., & Sanson, A. (1986). Temperament of pre-term versus full-term infants.
Journal of Developmental & Behavioural Pediatrics, 7, 159–162.
6. Oberklaid, F., Sanson, A., & Prior, M. (1986). The development of Australian normative data for
infant temperament. Australian Pediatric Journal, 22, 185–188.
7. Prior, M., Crook, G., Stripp, A., Power, M., & Joseph, M. (1986). The relationship between
temperament and personality: An exploratory study. Personality and Individual Differences,
7, 875–881.
8. Prior, M., Kyrios, M., & Oberklaid, F. (1986). Temperament in Australian, American, Chinese
and Greek infants: Some issues and directions for future research. Journal of Cross Cultural
Psychology, 17, 455–474.
9. Sewell, J., & Oberklaid, F. (1986). Temperament in infants and young children. Australian
Pediatric Journal, 22, 91–94.
1987
10. Northam, E., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (1987). Toddler temperament as perceived
by mothers versus day-care-givers. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 213–229.
11. Prior, M., Sanson, A., Garino, E., & Oberklaid, F. (1987). Ethnic influences on “difficult”
temperament and behaviour problems in infants. Australian Journal of Psychology, 39, 163–171.
12. Prior, M., Sanson, A., Oberklaid, F., & Northam, E. (1987). Measurement of temperament in 1 to
3 year old children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 10, 121–132.
13. Sanson, A., Prior, M., Oberklaid, F., Garino, E., & Sewell, J. (1987). The structure of infant
temperament: Factor analysis of the Revised Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Infant
Behavior & Development, 10, 97–104.
1988
14. Oberklaid, F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., Sewell, J., & Kyrios, M. (1988). Variation in toddler
temperament ratings according to sex, socio-economic status and cultural context. American
Journal of Diseases of Children, 142, 381.
15. Oberklaid, F., Sewell, J., Kyrios, M., & Prior, M. (1988). Temperament and behaviour of toddlers
and preschoolers born prematurely. Australian Pediatric Journal, 24, 391–392.
16. Oberklaid, F., Sewell, J., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Kyrios, M. (1988). The effect of cultural
background on temperament and behaviour in young children. Australian Pediatric Journal,
24, 396.


17. Prior, M., Glazner, J., Sanson, A., & Debelle, G. (1988). Temperament and behavioural adjustment
in hearing impaired children. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 29, 209–216.
18. Sewell, J., Oberklaid, F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Kyrios, M. (1988). Temperament in Australian
toddlers. Australian Pediatric Journal, 24, 343–345.
1989
19. Kyrios, M., Prior, M., Oberklaid, F., & Demetriou, A. (1989). Cross cultural studies of temperament:
Temperament in Greek infants. International Journal of Psychology, 24, 585–603.
20. Lancaster, S., Prior, M., & Adler, R. (1989). Child behaviour ratings: The influence of maternal
characteristics and child temperament. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 30, 137–149.
21. Prior, M., Sanson, A., Carroll, R., & Oberklaid, F. (1989). Social class differences in temperament
ratings of pre-school children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 35, 239–248.
22. Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (1989). The Australian Temperament Project. In
D. Kohnstamm, J. Bates, & M. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 537–554).
Chichester, UK: Wiley.
1990
23. Kyrios, M., & Prior, M. (1990). Temperament, stress and family factors in behavioural adjustment
of 3–5 year old children. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 13, 67–93.
24. Oberklaid, F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., Sewell, J., & Kyrios, M. (1990). The assessment of
temperament in the toddler age group. Pediatrics, 85, 559–566.
25. Sanson, A., Prior, M., & Kyrios, M. (1990a) Contamination of measures in temperament research.
Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 36, 179–192.
26. Sanson, A., Prior, M., & Kyrios, M. (1990b). Further exploration of the link between temperament
and behaviour problems: A reply to Bates. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 36, 573–576.
27. Sewell, J., Oberklaid, F., Glazner, J., Pedlow, R., Carse, E., & Yu, V. (1990). The relationship
between the health of infants born prematurely and their mothers’ mental status. Journal of
Pædiatrics & Child Health, 26, 300.
1991
28. Oberklaid, F. (1991). The clinical assessment of temperament in infants. Maternal & Child
Health, 16, 14–25.
29. Oberklaid, F., Kyrios, M., Sewell, J., Sanson, A., & Prior, M. (1991). Temperament and behaviour
of pre-term infants: A six-year follow-up. Pediatrics, 87, 854–861.
30. Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A., Pedlow, R., & Oberklaid F. (1991). Transient versus stable
behaviour problems in a normative sample: Infancy to school age. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology, 17, 423–443.
31. Sanson, A., Oberklaid, F., Pedlow, R., & Prior, M. (1991). Risk indicators: Assessment of infancy
predictors of preschool behavioural maladjustment. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry,
32, 609–626.
1992
32. Axia, G., Prior, M., & Carelli, G. (1992). Cultural influences on temperament: A comparison of
Italian, Australian and Anglo-Australian toddlers. Australian Psychologist, 27, 52–56.
33. Prior, M. (1992a). Development of temperament. In P. Heaven (Ed.), Life span development.
Sydney: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich.
34. Prior, M. (1992b). Temperament: A review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33,
249–279.
1993
35. Oberklaid, F., Amos, D., Liu, C. Y., & Jarman, F. C. (1993) Growing pains: Clinical and behavioral
correlates in a community based sample of 8 year olds. American Journal of Diseases of
Children, 147, 446.
36. Oberklaid, F., Sanson, A., Pedlow, R., & Prior, M. (1993). Predicting preschool behaviour
problems from temperament and other variables in infancy. Pediatrics, 91, 113–120.
37. Pedlow, R., Sanson, A., Prior, M., & Oberklaid, F. (1993). The stability of maternally reported
temperament from infancy to eight years. Developmental Psychology, 29, 998–1007.
38. Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (1993). Sex differences in psychological
adjustment from infancy to eight years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 291–304.
39. Sanson, A., Prior, M., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (1993). Gender differences in aggression in
childhood: Implications for a peaceful world. Australian Psychologist, 28, 86–92.
40. Sanson, A., Smart, D., Prior, M., & Oberklaid, F. (1993). Precursors of hyperactivity and aggression.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 1207–1216.


1994
41. Prior, M. (1994). Reading disability in Australian children. Australian Journal of Remedial
Education, 26, 3–7.
42. Sanson, A., Smart, D., Prior, M., Oberklaid, F., & Pedlow, R. (1994). The structure of temperament
from three to seven years: Age, sex and sociodemographic influences. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly,
40, 233–252.
1995
43. Allen, K., & Prior, M. (1995). Assessment of the validity of easy and difficult temperament
through observed mother-child behaviours. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
18, 609–630.
44. Kingston, L., & Prior, M. (1995). The development of patterns of stable, transient and school-
age onset aggressive behaviour in young children. Journal of the American Academy of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 348–358.
45. Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (1995). Reading disability in an Australian
community sample. Australian Journal of Psychology, 47, 32–37.
46. Sanson, A., & Rothbart, M. K. (1995). Child temperament and parenting. In M. Bornstein (Ed.),
Parenting (Vol. 4, pp. 299–321). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
47. Smith, J., & Prior, M. (1995). Temperament and stress resilience in school-age children: A
within families study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
34, 168–179.
1996
48. Sanson, A., Pedlow, R., Cann, W., Prior, M., & Oberklaid, F. (1996). Shyness ratings: Stability and
correlates in early childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19, 705–724.
49. Sanson, A., Prior, M., & Smart, D. (1996). Reading disabilities with and without behaviour
problems at 7–8 years: Prediction from longitudinal data from infancy to 6 years. Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 529–541.
50. Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Prior, M. (1996). Connections between reading disability and behaviour
problems: Testing temporal and causal hypotheses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24,
363–383.
51. Waring , S., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Smart, D. (1996). Predictors of “recovery” from reading
disability. Australian Journal of Psychology, 48, 160–166.
1997
52. Oberklaid, F., Amos, D., Liu, C., Jarman, F. C., Sanson, A., & Prior, M. (1997). “Growing pains”:
Clinical and behavioural correlates in a community sample. Developmental and Behavioral
Pediatrics, 18, 102–106.
1998
53. Prior, M. (1998). Behavioural problems and learning difficulties in school aged children: Studies
from the Australian Temperament Project. Clinical Psychologist, Winter, 8–10.
54. Sanson, A., & Prior, M. (1998). Temperamental and behavioural precursors to oppositional
defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In H. C. Quay, & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of
disruptive behaviour disorders (pp. 397–418). New York: Plenum Press.
55. Sanson, A., Prior, M., Oberklaid, F., & Smart, D. (1998). Temperamental influences on
psychosocial adjustment: From infancy to adolescence. Australian Educational and
Developmental Psychologist, 15, 7–38.
1999
56. Prior, M. (1999). Resilience and coping: The role of individual temperament. In Frydenberg,
E. (Ed.), Learning to cope: Developing as a person in complex societies (pp. 22–33). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
57. Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (1999). Psychological disorders and their
correlates in an Australian community sample of pre-adolescent children. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 563–580.
58. Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (1999). Relationships between learning
difficulties and psychological problems in pre-adolescent children from a longitudinal sample.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 429–436.
59. Sanson, A. (1999). Childhood behaviour disorders: Findings from two Australian longitudinal
studies. In Sawyer, M. (Ed.), Rotary and science in Australia: Evidence, action & partnership in
mental health (pp. 73–79). Parramatta, NSW: Australian Rotary Health Research Fund.


2000
60. Clarke, C., Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. (2000). Do executive function deficits differentiate between
adolescents with ADHD and oppositional defiant/conduct disorder? A neuropsychological
study using the Six Elements Test and Hayling Sentence Completion test. Journal of Abnormal
Child Psychology, 28, 403–414.
61. Jorm, A. F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., Zhang, Y., & Easteal, S. (2000). Association of a
functional polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene with anxiety-related temperament
and behavior problems in children: A longitudinal study from infancy to the mid-teens.
Molecular Psychiatry, 5, 542–547.
62. Martin, G. C., Wertheim, E. H., Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (2000). A
longitudinal study of the role of childhood temperament in the later development of eating
concerns. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 150–162.
63. Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (2000). Pathways from infancy to adolescence:
Australian Temperament Project 1983–2000 (Research Report No. 4). Melbourne: Australian
Institute of Family Studies.
64. Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, S., & Oberklaid, F. (2000). Does shy-inhibited temperament in
childhood lead to anxiety disorder in adolescence? Journal of the American Academy of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 461–468.
65. Smart, D., Sanson, A., Da Silva, L., & Toumbourou, J. (2000). The development of civic
mindedness in Australian adolescents. Family Matters, 57, 4–9.
66. Williams, B., Sanson, A., Toumbourou, J., & Smart, D. (2000). Patterns and predictors of
teenagers’ use of licit and illicit substances in the Australian Temperament Project cohort.
Report commissioned by the Ross Trust.
2001
67. Jorm, A. F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., Zhang, Y., & Easteal, S. (2001). Association of a
polymorphism of the dopamine transporter gene with externalizing behavior problems and
associated temperament traits: A longitudinal study from infancy to the mid-teens. American
Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 105, 346–350.
68. Pedlow, R., Sanson, A., & Wales, R. J. W. (2001). Children’s production and comprehension of
politeness in requests: Relationships to behavioral adjustment in middle-childhood. Journal of
Language and Social Psychology, 20, 23–60.
69. Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (2001). Longitudinal predictors of behavioural
adjustment in pre-adolescent children. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35,
297–307.
70. Smart, D., & Sanson, A. (2001). Children’s social competence: The role of temperament and
behaviour and their “fit” with parents’ expectations. Family Matters, 59, 10–15.
71. Smart, D., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (2001). Children with reading difficulties: A six
year follow-up from early elementary school to adolescence. Australian Journal of Psychology,
53, 45–53.
2002
72. Clarke, C., Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. (2002). The relationship between executive function abilities,
adaptive behaviour, and academic achievement in children with externalising behaviour
problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 785–796.
73. Jorm, A. F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., Zhang, Y., Tan, S., & Easteal, S. (2002). Lack of
association of a single-nucleotide polymorphism of the u-opioid receptor gene with anxiety-
related traits: Results from a cross-sectional study of adults and a longitudinal study of children.
American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 114, 659–664.
74. McGee, R., Prior, M., Williams, S., Smart, D., & Sanson A. (2002). The long-term significance
of teacher rated hyperactivity in childhood: Findings from two longitudinal studies. Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 1004–1017.
75. Nicholson, J., Sanson, A., Rempel, L., Smart, D., & Patton, G. (2002). Longitudinal studies of
children and youth: Implications for future studies. In A. Sanson (Ed.), Children’s health and
development: New research directions for Australia (pp. 38–59). Melbourne: Australian Institute
of Family Studies.
76. Prichard, Z., Jorm, A. F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., Zhang,Y., & Easteal, S. (2002). Association
of polymorphisms of the estrogen receptor gene with anxiety-related traits in children and
adolescents: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric
Genetics), 114, 1769–1776.
77. Sanson, A., Hemphill, S., & Smart, D. (2002). Temperament and social development. In P. K.
Smith, & C. H. Hart (Eds.), Handbook of childhood social development (pp. 97–116). London:
Blackwell.
78. Smart, D. (2002). Relationships, marriage and parenthood: Views of young people and their
parents. Family Matters, 63, 28–35.


79. Vassallo, S., Smart, D., Sanson, A., Dussuyer, I., McKendry, B., & the Australian Temperament
Project Team. (2002). Patterns and precursors of adolescent antisocial behaviour: The first
report. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies and Crime Prevention Victoria.
80. Wertheim, E. H., Martin, G., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Smart, D. (2002). Parent influences in the
transmission of eating and weight related values and behaviors. Eating Disorders: The Journal
of Treatment and Prevention, 10, 321–334.
2003
81. Dussuyer, I., Vassallo, S., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & McKendry, B. (2003). Patterns and precursors
of adolescent antisocial behaviour. Crime Prevention Works, 1(1), 6–7.
82. Jorm, A. F., Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., Zhang, Y., & Easteal, S. (2003). Apolipoprotein E
genotype and temperament: A longitudinal study from infancy to the late teens. Psychosomatic
Medicine, 65(4), 662–4.
83. McClowry, S. G., Halverson, C. F., & Sanson, A. (2003). A re-examination of the validity and
reliability of the School-Age Temperament Inventory. Nursing Research, 52(3), 176–182.
84. Smart, D., & Sanson, A. (2003). Social competence in young adulthood, its nature and
antecedents. Family Matters, 64, 4–9.
85. Smart, D., Vassallo, S., Sanson, A., Richardson, N., Dussuyer, I., McKendry, W., & the Australian
Temperament Project Team. (2003). Patterns and precursors of adolescent antisocial behaviour:
Types, resiliency and environmental influences. The second report. Melbourne: Australian
Institute of Family Studies and Crime Prevention Victoria.
2004
86. Da Silva, L., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Toumbourou, J. (2004). Civic responsibility among
Australian adolescents: Testing two causal models. Journal of Community Psychology, 32,
229–255.
87. Hayes, L., Smart, D., Toumbourou, J. W., & Sanson, A. (2004). Parenting influences on adolescent
alcohol use (Research Report No. 10). Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
88. Letcher, P., Toumbourou, J., Sanson, A., Prior, M., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (2004). Parenting
style as a moderator of the effect of temperament on adolescent externalising and internalising
behaviour problems. Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 20, 5–34.
89. Sanson, A., Hemphill, S., & Smart, D. (2004). Connections between temperament and social
development: A review. Social Development, 13, 142–170.
90. Sanson, A., & Smart, D. (2004). Pathways to social and emotional wellbeing: Lessons from
a 20-year longitudinal study. In Research Conference 2004: Supporting student wellbeing.
Conference proceedings (pp. 72–79). Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.
91. Smart, D. (2004). Where to now for the ATP Study? Family Matters, 68, 21.
92. Smart, D., Vassallo, S., Sanson A., & Dussuyer, I. (2004). Patterns of antisocial behavior from
early to late adolescence (Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice No. 290). Canberrra:
Australian Institute of Criminology.
93. Stockwell, T. R., Toumbourou, J., Letcher, P., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Bond, L. (2004). Risk
and protection factors for different intensities of adolescent substance use: When does the
Prevention Paradox apply? Drug and Alcohol Review, 23, 67–77.
94. Vassallo, S., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Dussuyer, I. (2004). At risk but not antisocial: Changes
from childhood to adolescence. Family Matters, 68, 13–20.
2005
95. Ruschena, E., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Smart, D. (2005). A longitudinal study of adolescent
adjustment following family transitions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(4),
353–363.
96. Sanson, A., & Smart, D. (2005). Risk and resilience: Lessons from a 20-year longitudinal study.
The Victorian Education Magazine, Term 2, 3–4.
97. Smart, D., & Sanson, A. (2005a). A comparison of children’s temperament and adjustment
across 20 years. Family Matters, 72, 50–57.
98. Smart, D., & Sanson, A. (2005b). What is life like for young Australians today, and how well are
they faring? Family Matters no. 70, 46–53.
99. Smart, D., & Vassallo, S. with Sanson, A., Cockfield, S., Harris, A., Harrison, W., & McIntyre, A.
(2005). In the driver’s seat: Understanding young adults’ driving behaviour (Research Report
No. 12). Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
100. Smart, D., Prior, M., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (2005). Children with reading difficulties: A six
year follow-up from early elementary school to adolescence. Australian Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 10(3–4), 63–76.
101. Smart, D., Richardson, N., Sanson, A., Dussuyer, I., Marshall, B., & the Australian Temperament
Project Team. (2005). Patterns and precursors of adolescent antisocial behaviour: Outcomes

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