This document discusses postmodernism and provides an overview of key postmodern thinkers and concepts. It then outlines an apologetic response to postmodernism from a Christian perspective. Some key points: - Postmodernism rejects objective truth and universal morality, seeing them as social constructs. It emphasizes individual perspectives and interpretations over universal claims. - Christian apologists need to establish clear parameters for truth and show that truth corresponds to objective reality, not individual preferences. They should ask probing questions to expose contradictions in postmodern thought. - While interpretation is important, the Christian message is found in God's revelation rather than human constructions. Apologists should guide postmodern thinkers back to the truth revealed in Scripture.

1. Apologetics and Postmodernism
Kevin Maxwell

2. Postmodernism Defined
Lesson 1

3. David Dockery
• Describes Postmodernism as:
• “A dislocation of the human condition…a disbelief in
objective truth and a deep sense that morality is
relative.”
David S. Dockery, “The Challenge of Postmodernism,” in David S.
Dockery,ed., The Challenge of Postmodernism (Grand Rapids :Baker Academic,

4. A Responsive Movement- Thomas Oden
• Postmodernism is a response to the
disenchanted modernist claims of technological
advancements, enlightened thinking, and
empiricism as the saviors of our world
Thomas C. Oden, “The Death of Modernity and Postmodern
Evangelical Spirituality,” in Dockery,ed.,24.

5. Continuous Interpretation
• Language is constantly being interpreted based
on the individual’s feelings and desires
• There exists a distrust of any objective or
universal truth claim
• Language only forms a relative ideal not an
absolute one
Dockery, 12.

6. Douglas Groothuis
• Postmodernism has “dispensed with Truth and
has replaced it with truths.”
• Notice the use of truths as opposed to the Truth
of God.
Douglas Groothius, Truth Decay: Defending Christianity
Against the Challenges of Postmodernism, 11.

7. The Result…
• Since there is no acceptable standard or absolute
truth, then there is no basis for truth except for
that set by the individual. What is right for me is
right for me. Any attempt by anyone to impose
any absolutes is seen as intolerant and a show of
power.

8. The Positive Side of Postmodernism
• Thomas Oden states that since we have been
disillusioned by modernity, young evangelicals
are returning to the spiritual disciplines which
used to define us. He calls it an “emergent
consciousness” and the beginnings of a
reawakening even within postmodernism.
Thomas Oden, “The Death of Modernity,”
in Dockery,ed., 22.

9. • Leaves open the door for sharing the gospel
message. The task of the church is to direct and
lead the postmodern thinker to the Truth found
in God’s word.

10. Postmodern Relativism and an
Apologetic Response
Lesson Two

11. Relativism in Action
• . “A premodern baseball umpire would have said
something like this: ‘There’s balls and there’s
strikes and I call em’ as they are. The modernist
would have said, ‘There’s balls and there’s
strikes and I call ‘em as I see ‘em.’ And the
postmodernist umpire would say, ‘They ain’t
nothing until I call ‘em.’
Ravi Zacharias, “An Ancient Message, Through Modern Means, to a
Postmodern Mind,” in D.A. Carson,ed., Telling the Truth, 20.

12. Relativism in Scripture
• Isaiah 59:14 it states, “Truth has stumbled in the
streets
• Jeremiah continues to say that “truth has
perished; it has vanished from their lips”
(Jer. 7:28)

13. Don’t Fall in the Trap
• Christians must be careful not to fall in the same
trap that the secular world has fallen into.
• Some church growth advocates advise churches
to tone down their emphasis on absolute truth
because they say that postmoderns are only
interested in their own felt needs. They have
short attention spans so don’t waste valuable
time by focusing on issues such as absolute truth
Groothuis, 21.

14. Perspectives, perspectives
• Groothuis says, “truth dissolves into endless
perspectives, which are accountable to nothing
outside of themselves.”
• Loss of accountability leads to chaos
Groothuis, 49.

15. Stanley Grenz
• defines truth claims as communal and defined
within a given cultural and linguistic system
• Truth is what the community decides it is
R. Albert Mohler. Jr., “The Integrity of the Evangelical Tradition and the
Challenge of the Postmodern Paradigm,” in Dockery,ed., 67.

16. What Truth is…
• Truth is true because it is true!
• Not a communal construct
• To define revelation as coming from within the
perspectives of the individual or community is to
replace God’s revelation with a more acceptable
personal or communally defined standard.

17. Foucault
• Foucault claimed that “every assertion of
knowledge is an act of power…to name
something is to exercise power and hence to do
violence to what is named.”
Michel Foucault, Truth and Power, quoted in Stanley J. Grenz, “Star Trek and the Next
Generation: Postmodernism and the Future of Evangelical Theology in Dockery,ed., 79.

18. The Media
• Foucault’s views can be seen in the media
response to Christianity and truth
• Media challenges to any moral absolutes
▫ Abortion issues, religious exclusiveness, bioethics,
homosexuality, etc.

19. Jacques Derrida
• Called for the destruction of “onto theology”
• All that is possible in ‘knowing’ is the perspective
of the one who is doing the interpreting
Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, quoted in Stanley Grenz,
“Star Trek and the Next Generation” in Dockery, 79.

20. Derrida Carried to Conclusion
• Reality cannot be known because of the
transcendent nature.
• This denies special revelation of the
transcendent such as Jesus Christ, Bible
• Message of the church is openly attacked as
impossible to confirm its truth

21. Richard Rorty
• “simply disband the search for truth and be
content with interpretation.”
• The search for truth is thrown out totally
• Continuing conversation is the goal not truth
Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Reality, quoted in Stanley
Grenz, “Star Trek and the Next Generation” in Dockery, 79.

22. Christian Response
• Ray Clendenen suggests that this involves
“continually examining and reexamining the
glimpses for coherence not only with themselves
but also with the author’s world as it is known
and with the reader’s own world, repeatedly
revising and rearranging the picture and, to a
lesser extent, both consciously and
unconsciously revising the reader’s worldview
E. Ray Clendenen, “Postholes, Postmodernism, and the
Prophets: Toward a Textlinguistic Paradigm,” in Dockery, ed., 91.

23. • Christians must advise postmoderns to
investigate truth claims for correspondence
• Compare interpretations with historical and
authorial integrity
• Historical context matters

24. • Groothuis reminds us that unless we have a clear
understanding of what it means for something to
be true, we will have a difficult time relating any
religious or moral truth claims.
• Start with establishing definitive parameters for
what is truth
Groothuis, 23.

25. • Truth defined is “faithfulness and conformity to
fact.”
• It is faithful because it does not attempt to
deceive or to push preference claims or
assertions. It conforms to facts because it meets
certain standards.
Groothuis, 61.

26. Law of Non-Contradiction
• This law states that nothing can be and not be at
the same time in the same respect. Something
cannot be both true and false at the same time
and in the same respect
• Example: Jesus cannot be defined as sinful and
sinless

27. Law of Excluded Middle
• States that any factual statement and its denial
cannot both be true.
• An example would be either Jesus is God or He
isn’t. There is no middle ground.

28. Belief not always Truth
• Belief is not equal to truth. Beliefs can be false
just as customs can be opposed to God’s Will.
• Simply believing something does not validate it
as being true
• Simply saying that your beliefs are just as valid
as anyone else’s may be intellectually dishonest
Groothuis, 61.

29. Current Danger
• Many in the postmodern world are fine with
living with contradictions
• Goal of the apologist is to get them to see the
contradictions and the fact that they cannot
continue to live that way.

30. God Has Spoken
• “Various beliefs may be the result of human
invention and group construction, but truth
comes from the disclosure of a personal and
moral God who makes himself known.”
Groothuis, 65.

31. Truth Belongs To God
• Truth is the sole possession of God. Any truth
that exists is a part of His revelation. Jesus
said, “I am the way, the truth, and the life.” One
can be sincere about their beliefs but they can be
sincerely wrong.

32. • Truth is not “ratified by any subjective response
or majority vote or cultural fashion…statements
are subject to verification and falsification.”
• Cant get by with simply saying, “I believe it is
this way.”
Groothuis, 109-110.

33. Community Defined Truths
• “Community should take precedence over
doctrinal propositions…some claim that doctrine
should be primarily narratival in nature...telling
the Christian story should replace stipulating
Christian doctrine.”
• Incredible danger of letting interpretation
overpower revelation
Groothuis, 111.

34. Apologetic Response
• Truth is authoritative and meant to relate a
course of action that needs to be taken. It is a
compass which guides one to a better
understanding of the revealer of truth.
• Letting community define truth is the same as
saying that God’s revelation has been replaced
with man’s interpretation

35. Reorient Towards Truth
• Groothuis states that we need to “reorient the
discourse toward the nature of truth and the
truths of reality, and away from human
constructions, personal preferences and tribal
leanings.”
Groothuis, 164.

36. Best Method
• Asking probing questions is one of the best
apologetic tools for getting postmoderns to see
the consequences of their current belief system
or worldview
• Questions make the postmodern call into
question his own convictions and beliefs
• Makes the postmodern defend his beliefs as well

37. Cogent Explanation
• Apologist must present the “Christian vision as
the most cogent explanation for a whole range of
facts in accordance with the essential tenets of
logic and criteria for evidence…”
• Reason plus Faith is the key
Groothuis, 179.

38. Our Goal as Apologist
• “Clear the bushes so the listener can take a good
look at the cross.”
• Help remove barriers to the cross, emotional,
intellectual, and volitional
Ravi Zacharias, “The Touch of Truth,” in Carson,ed., 41.

39. Thomas Howe
• “…every interpreter comes to the text with
prejudices or presuppositions, these
preconditions of understanding are nevertheless
mutable and can be modified or altered by
honest interaction with the text or with the
world.”
Thomas Howe. Objectivity in Biblical Interpretation
(Charlotte: Advantage Books, 2004), 239.

40. • “As the interpreter interacts with the
text…certain prejudices are altered and even
replaced by those that are more suitable to the
emerging understanding of the text.”
Ibid., 211.

41. Objective Truth Possible
• Dr. Howe presents the truth that our
presuppositions are a reality. They can, however,
be changed or modified as we engage with the
text such as with the Bible and with the findings
of our world
• These changes take place as truth claims are
evaluated against the laws of logic and
correspondence

42. Holy Spirit’s Help in Modifying Our
Presuppositions
• “…God intervening in our lives, not a result of the
spiral of understanding. But this supernatural event
came from outside our presuppositional framework
and is not accounted for in the scenario of
understanding.
• Holy Spirit can assist us in modifying our
presuppositions which comprise our framework
from which we view all of reality”
Ibid., 222.

43. The Loss of the Meta-Narrative
in Postmodernism
Lesson Three

44. Definition of Meta-Narrative
• A meta-narrative is an interpretive structure
which gives meaning to reality and common
experience
• Synonymous with worldview
• The Big Picture
Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a Postmodern
World,” in Dockery,ed., 132.

45. Biblical Grand Narrative
• Consists of the revealed redemptive plan of God
and applies to all people in all times, places, and
cultures.
• All encompassing worldview

46. • Such a meta-narrative provides support for our
beliefs and offers us a message to relate to a
world hungry for spiritual fulfillment and hope
• This is the message that we bring but
postmodernism looks with suspicion upon the
meta-narrative

47. • According to postmodernism, “no single meta-
narrative is possible because none is large
enough to encompass the experiences of all
people…”
• Postmoderns reject any grand narrative because
in their view, many views equals many personal
narratives
Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a Postmodern
World,” in Dockery,ed., 133.

48. Jean-Francois Lyotard
• Proposes an “incredulity toward metanarratives
• Lyotard states that “ The knowledge transmitted
by these narrations is in no way limited to the
functions of enunciation; it determines in a
single stroke what one must say in order to be
heard, what one must listen to in order to speak,
and what role one must play…”
Jean –Francois Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on
Knowledge (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), xxiii.

49. • This game that we play is an assertion of power
brought about by the use of language games. The
use of a supposed narrative is simply people
playing the game by a commonly accepted set of
rules.
• Life is lived by playing by the rules established
by community.

50. Merely Mirrors
• History loses its effect and is subjugated to
interpretation just as truth claims are. In this
way, philosophers are “now reporters,
functioning as mere ‘mirrors’, reflecting what is
taking place in society
• No Big Picture just mirrors reflecting present
views
Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a
Postmodern World,” in Dockery,ed., 133.

51. Baudrillard
• Baudrillard states, “It has deconstructed its
entire universe. So that all that are left are
pieces. All that remains to be done is to play with
the pieces. Playing with the pieces- that is
postmodern.”
Jean Baudrillard, “Interview: Game with Vestiges,” quoted
in Groothuis, 169.

52. Deconstructed Pieces
• When the grand narrative or framework is
rejected, we are left with trying to piece together
our worldview from a collection of deconstructed
pieces.
• No conformity to truth exists in such chaos

53. • Ravi Zacharias states, “If I were to identify a
handful of fearsome realities, this would be near
the top. The pursuit of knowledge without
knowing who we are or why we exist…”
• Real fear is when there is no foundation to life
Ravi Zacharias, “An Ancient Message, Through Modern Means, to
a Postmodern Mind,” in Carson,ed., 23.

54. • Zacharias continues his appeal that “Life needs a
story to understand the details. Life needs to
hold together at the center if we are to reach to
distant horizons. But our culture neither owns a
story nor holds at the center.”
• Without a grand narrative, life falls through!
Ravi Zacharias, “An Ancient Message, Through Modern Means, to a
Postmodern Mind,” in Carson,ed., 23.

55. The Greatest Apologetic Tool
• The greatest apologetic tool is a changed life!
• Robert Coleman stated that the power of the
disciples’ faith is that they were “willing to walk
in the truth they did understand.”
Robert E. Coleman, “The Lifestyle of the Great Commission,” in
Carson,ed., 261.

56. Hard to Argue With a Changed Life
• Testimonies of how God’s redemptive plan- His
Grand Narrative has changed the lives of
millions is hard to deny
• Tell your story!

57. William Larkin
• William Larkin teaches that “successful
interpretation will articulate a message that is
intelligible and relevant to postmodern culture
and, at the same time, faithful to Scripture’s
content.”
• Relate the redemptive plan but be sure to relate
it in Truth
Michael J. Glodo, “The Bible in Stereo: New Opportunities for Biblical
Interpretation in an A-Rational Age,” in Dockery,ed., 106.

58. Trusting the Biblical Narrative
Embarrassing Details
Demanding Statements from Jesus
Distinguished Jesus’ Words
Historical Verifiable
Modified Worship and Cultural Beliefs
Norman Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don’t Have Enough Faith to be an Atheist (Wheaton: Crossway Books,2004), 275-
290.

59. Hostile Witnesses Convert
• James, the brother of Jesus and Saul who were
hostile to Christianity. These men experienced
the changing power of the Christian message as
it was verified by the risen Jesus.
• The gospel message survived in a hostile
environment within Jerusalem and resulted in
thousands coming to Christ.

60. Accuracy of Scriptures
• 5700 Greek manuscripts of the New Testament.
This beats the next closest work which is the
Illiad which has 643 manuscripts and the New
Testament has an accuracy rate of 99.5 percent.
The .5 percent does not affect any doctrines.
Geisler and Turek, 225-229.

61. Church Fathers Writings
• Early church fathers in the second and third
centuries quoted the New Testament so much
that all but eleven verses of the New Testament
can be reconstructed just from their writings
• Points to their trust in the Scriptures as
authoritative
Geisler and Turek, 225-229.

62. Most Powerful Validation
• The willingness of the disciples to die for what
they ‘knew’ to be true
• No-one would willingly die for what they knew
to be a lie
• Disciples were eye-witnesses of what had
happened

63. The Hope in Christ
• In postmodernism, there is a “pervasive sense of
despair. People are crying out for help and are
hoping that there is more to life than what they
are presently experiencing.”
• The apologist can help instill trust in the Word
of God which can assist in them coming to hope
in Christ
Jimmy Long, “Generating Hope,” in
Carson,ed., 327.

64. Our Task as Apologists
• As Christian apologists, we must assist others in
admitting outwardly what inwardly they cannot
deny.

65. Postmodernism and the Issue of
Tolerance
Lesson Four

66. The Charge…
• Christians have been charged by postmoderns
with the offense of intolerance. “Claims of truth,
proclamation of that truth, and sharing one’s
faith are viewed as improper behavior or bad
manners.”
David S. Dockery, “The Challenge of Postmodernism,” in
Dockery,ed., 12.

67. John Hick
• John Hick argues that “once one accepts the idea of
divine incarnation, one inexorably ends with
soteriological exclusivism.”
• Hick suggests that exclusivism is the result of
absolute truth claims in religion
• This thinking denies a level playing field for other
religious claims
Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a
Postmodern World, “ in Dockery, ed.,135.

68. A Paradigm Shift
• Hick would suggest a “paradigm shift from a
Christianity-centered or Jesus-centered model
to a God-centered model of the universe of
faiths. One then sees the great world religions as
different human responses to the one divine
Reality…”
John Hick, God Has Many Names, quoted in Ibid., 136.

69. Different Human Responses to the
divine Reality
• Low respect for truth and revelation
• To continue with this line of thinking, one would
have to disband with the possibility that God has
revealed Himself to man.
• Fails the tests for truth

70. The Charge…
• The charge of postmoderns is that “exclusive
claims, presented as absolute truths, only result
in alienation.”
• Question: Is unity at the sake of sacrificing truth
the right course of action?

71. Laws Governing Truth Claims
• The world religions openly contradict one
another and therefore cannot all be equally true.
• The task then is to investigate the available
evidence. It is a fact that the truth is exclusive.
Exclusivity is an attribute of truth.

72. Geisler on Dialogue
• Geisler notes that “in a search for a common
ground for dialogue, Christianity and other
religions will not accept each other’s
hermeneutic as authoritative…but for religions
which do hold to truth as absolute, there is
epistemological common ground.”
Norman Geisler, “Some Philosophical Perspectives on Missionary Dialogue”,
quoted in Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a Postmodern World, “ in Dockery,
ed.,135.

73. Issue of Truth is Essential
• The starting point for any apologetic discourse is
establishing the framework for truth.
• If a standard for establishing truth is decided on
then discourse can continue; otherwise,
conversations would be futile.

74. • If one is to disregard the texts in lieu of personal
interpretation then the “goal of exegesis is
transformed from questions about what the text
meant into how the text can be used to serve the
new social agenda of the postmodernist.”
Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a Postmodern
World, “ in Dockery, ed.,137.

75. • Ariarajah further states that “Christology and
the doctrine of the Trinity are not deeply
ingressed components of what it means to be a
Christian!”
Ariarajah, Other Faiths, quoted in Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism
in a Postmodern World, “ in Dockery, ed.,138.

76. Centrality of Christ
• If the teachings on Christ and the Trinitarian
relationship are negated then the Christian faith
itself is lost.
• Christianity is not like other religions in which
the teachings are not directly dependent on the
religion’s founder. In the other religions, the
teachings can remain without the founder. A
Christ-less Christianity is not Christianity
anymore

77. • G. K Chesterton once observed that “humility
was becoming misplaced; humility was no longer
on self-opinion, where it ought to be, but was on
truth, where it ought not to be.”
• No need not to stand up for truth.
Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a Postmodern
World, “ in Dockery, ed.,138.

78. • “Humans were created as theonomous, derived
beings, whose point of reference for accurately
interpreting reality was the word of their
Creator…Through divine revelation, God’s
signifying word…assumes that reality may be
understood, though in part…and that reality is
larger than that which can be ascertained by
empirical methodology.”
Gary Phillips, “Religious Pluralism in a Postmodern World, “
in Dockery, ed.,140.

79. • To tolerate every truth claim as valid is to deny
the very nature of truth itself. What one will be
left with is a continuing longing of the soul and a
hunger that goes unfulfilled.
• “The heart will not long rejoice in what the mind
knows is not true.”
James Sire, “Why Should Anyone Believe Anything at All?”
in Carson,ed., 95.

80. Moral Relativism and
Postmodernism
Lesson Five

81. Mark Dever
• Mark Dever relates the story of one of his church
attendees who had returned from his therapist
with the following advice. His therapist told him
that he had enough shame and guilt. This church
attendee was afraid of getting too involved with
the church because he didn’t want to go down
that guilt road again
Mark Dever, “Communicating Sin in a Postmodern
World,” in Carson, ed., 139.

82. Aldous Huxley
• Aldous Huxley declares, ”I had motives for not
wanting the world to have a meaning;
consequently assumed that it had none, and was
able without any difficulty to find satisfying
reasons for this assumption…The
philosopher…is also concerned to prove that
there is no valid reason why he personally
should not do as he wants to do.”
Aldous Huxley, Ends and Means, quoted in Ibid., 141.

83. Volitional Nature
• Man simply wants to be free to do as they please
without being accountable to anyone
• Even if the world is shown to have a moral
Lawgiver, many would rather ignore that fact
because they would not be able to continue to
live as they do

84. • Postmodernism says that there is “only my
narrative...overall meaning recedes from
view…the self becomes fragmented and tends to
take its definition from the community around
it. The self in postmodernism is unable finally to
be judged by any other…”
Mark Dever, “Communicating Sin in a
Postmodern World,” in Carson, ed., 142.

85. Media Teaches Moral View
• Bruno Bettelheim noted, “Television captures
the imagination but does not liberate it.”
• The media imposes its moral views on the
audience.
• Causes a cessation of having big thoughts
Bruno Bettelheim, “Parents vs. Television” quoted in William E. Brown, “Theology in a Postmodern
Culture: Implications of a Video-Dependent Society,” in Dockery,ed., 163.

86. Emotive not Rational
• “True, false, good, bad are the stuff of language
and ideas, not visual images. In a video-
dependent society, moral decisions are emotive
not rational…”
• Media causes us to accept moral judgments
based on emotion
Bruno Bettelheim, “Parents vs. Television” quoted in William E. Brown, “Theology in a Postmodern
Culture: Implications of a Video-Dependent Society,” in Dockery,ed., 162.

87. Media is Our Teacher
• The television, internet, music and other forms
of media have become our teacher.
• Media transmits its message across age and
cultural barriers

88. Christian Response
• Relate the Christian worldview in the context of
the world of worldviews so that similarities and
differences can be distinguished.
• God has created our minds and spirits to
respond to order and unity.
William E. Brown, “Theology in a Postmodern Culture: Implications of a
Video-Dependent Society,” in Dockery,ed., 164.

89. Can’t Live That Way
• When postmoderns claim that there is no moral
absolute, they are basing their findings on a
value system of their own. When they are honest
with themselves, it becomes obvious that they
live by a value system of rights and wrongs. It is
inescapable

90. • The human rights that are spoken of and
heralded by many postmoderns are based on a
moral law. It is impossible to demand human
rights if an absolute moral law is denied.
Without moral law, there would be no sense of
justice or a system by which the court system
could protect human rights and punish human
wrongs.
Geisler and Turek, 175.

91. Moral Lawgiver
• Geisler continues to say that “this Moral Law
must have a source higher than ourselves
because it is a prescription that is on the hearts
of all people. Since prescriptions always have
prescribers- they don’t arise from nothing- the
Moral Law Prescriber must exist.”
Geisler and Turek, 192.

92. Demands of the Lawgiver
• In Romans 2:5 Paul states, “Because of your
stubbornness and your unrepentant heart, you
are storing up wrath against yourself for the day
of God’s wrath, when his righteous judgment
will be revealed.” (Rom. 2:5 NIV)
• Romans 6:23 says, “For the wages of sin is
death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ
Jesus our Lord.” (Rom. 6:23 NIV)

93. If It Works Mentality…
• The ‘if it works’ mentality does not suffice if
there is a moral law to which we are all
accountable.
• Moral Lawgiver+Moral Law Written on Hearts=
Accountability

94. Apologetic Tasks
Communicate Sin
Revelation of God and
Demands
Have them Experience
their Consciences
Deal Truthfully with
Inner Conflict
Mark Dever, “Communicating Sin in a
Postmodern World,” in Carson,ed., 144.

95. • BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Carson, D.A., ed. Telling the Truth: Evangelizing Postmoderns.
Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000.
• Dockery , David S., ed. The Challenge of Postmodernism: An
Evangelical Engagement. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001.
• Geisler, Norman L and Frank Turek. I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be
an Atheist. Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2004.
• Groothuis, Douglas. Truth Decay: Defending Christianity Against the
Challenges of Postmodernism. Downer’s Grove: InterVarsity
Press, 2000.
• Howe, Thomas A. Objectivity in Biblical Interpretation. Charlotte:
Advantage Books, 2004.
• Lyotard, Jean-Francois. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on
Knowledge. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999.